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GREEK GRAMMAR 



FOR THE USE OF 



HIGH SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES, 



BY PHI Li P BUTTMANN. 



REVISED AND ENLARGED BY HIS SON. 



ALEXANDER BUTTMANN. 



TRANSLATED FROM THE EIGHTEENTH GERMAN EDITION, 



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BY. EDWARD IIOBI jN SON. 






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NEW YORK: 

HARPER & BROTHS R S, PUBLISHER S. 

187 2. 






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Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred 

and fifty-one, by 

Edward Robinson, 

In the. Office of the Clerk of the District Court for the Southern District of 

New York. 



Copyright, 1,8 *7 9, by Edward Robinson, and Mary A. Robinson. 



PREFACE, 



The following biographical hints respecting the author of this 
work, will not perhaps be unacceptable to those who may make 
use of it ; while they may help to form a juster estimate of the 
nature and relative character of the present Grammar, as com- 
pared with the other writings of the same author, and with the 
works of contemporary Grammarians. The life of a scholar, and 
especially of a German scholar, is usually barren of incidents ; 
and it is chiefly the character and progress of his intellectual 
development, as exhibited in the various productions of his pen, 
that furnish the subjects and mark the epochs of his biography. 

Philip Charles Buttmann was born at Frankfort on the Maine, 
Oct. 5, 1764. After the usual preparation, he pursued his stud- 
ies at the University of Gottingen ; not without distinction, it 
would seem, for we soon afterwards find him as an instructor 
and governor in the family of the Prince of Anhalt Dessau. But 
he appears early to have preferred a life of private study ; avoid 
ing in this w T ay the responsibilities and absorbing duties 01 a 
public teacher ; and devoting himself, without the abstractions 
of public obligation, to philological pursuits and investigations. 
With this view he fixed his residence at Berlin, where he lived 
for many years as a private citizen ; and where, in the free use 
of the treasures of the Royal Library, and in social intercourse 
and interchange of views with Heindorf and Spalding, at that 
time distinguished professors in the G-ymnasia of Berlin, he ar- 
rived at those results and adopted those principles, which he has 
spread before the world in his various grammatical and philolog- 
ical treatises. The first edition of his Grammar appeared at 
Berlin in 1792. In 1800 he was appointed a Secretary of the 
Royal Library, and became at a later period one of the Librarians 
in chief. At the same time he accepted the appointment of 
Professor in one of the principal Gymnasia of Berlin, that of 
Joachimsthal. He became also an active member of the philo- 
logical class in the Royal Academy of Sciences ; and to this source 



IV PREFACE. 

we owe many of his smaller essays and treatises. On the estab 
lishment of the University of Berlin in 1809, he seems by choice 
not to have taken part in it as a regular professor ; but the ex- 
citement inspired by the establishment of so noble an institution, 
and daily intercourse with the corps of distinguished scholars thus 
collected, — as "Wolf, Niebuhr, Savigny, Schleiermacher, and at a 
later period Bekker, Bockh, and others, — imparted new vigour 
to his exertions ; and led him, if not to a wider range of study, 
yet to the exhibition of greater productive power, and to a more 
extensive communication of the results of his researches. As a 
member of the Academy of Sciences, he enjoyed the privilege of 
delivering lectures or of otherwise imparting instruction in the 
University ; and of this he availed himself so far as to have pri- 
vate philological classes. With Wolf he engaged in the publica 
tion of the Museum Aniiquitatis ; and several of the most solid 
articles of that work are from his pen. In 1816 he completed 
the edition of Q,uinctilian commenced by his friend Spalding, and 
left imperfect at his decease. In 1821 he gave to the public a 
new and enlarged edition of the Scholia on the Odyssey, discov- 
ered by Angelo Maio. Several of his smaller treatises were after- 
wards collected and revised by himself, and published in two 
volumes, entitled ' Mythologus,' Berlin, 1827-29. 

But the great labour of his life lies before the world in his 
grammatical works ; which, from a narrow beginning, grew up 
in a course of years into a wide and comprehensive system. His 
first work appeared, as mentioned above, in 1792, and was little 
more than an outline of the Greek accidence. In the subsequent 
editions he continued to interweave the results of his investi^a- 
tions, until the fourth edition assumed the character of a more 
complete and scientific treatise of Grreek grammar. In this form 
it remained without any essential change of plan, but not with- 
out important additions and improvements, until the publication 
of the twelfth edition in 1826. 

In the mean time he had published at an early period an ab- 
stract of this work, made from the sixth edition, for the use of 
lower schools and younger pupils, under the title of Schul-Gram- 
matik. This smaller Grammar reached its eighth edition in 
1826, during the author's life-time ; and the ninth edition of it 
was issued in 1831, after his decease. 

The larger Grammar, in the course of its successive editions 



PREFACE. V 

and enlargements, had become, to use the language of the author 
himself, ' an intermediate thing between a school-book and a 
work of a higher scientific character.' In support of the views 
and principles propounded in it, the author had often felt it ne- 
cessary to introduce critical discussions, which were foreign to the 
nature of such a work ; and which contributed to swell its size, 
without adding to its value for those for whom it was more par- 
ticularly designed. Hence, so early as the year 1816, he had 
entered upon the compilation of a more extensive and scientific 
grammatical work, a complete grammatical index or Thesaurus 
of the Greek language, which should embody the results of the 
labours of his life in a form adapted to the use of more advanced 
scholars. This is the Ausfdhrliche Sprachlehre, or ' Copious 
Grreek Grrammar,' so often referred to in the following pages. 
The first volume appeared in 1819 ; the second, in two parts, in 
1825 and 1827. The second volume contained also a supplement 
of large additions and corrections to the first. A new edition of 
the first volume, including these corrections, was commenced 
during the author's life, and finished in 1830, after his decease. 
The second volume also appeared anew in 1839, with additions 
from the scholarly pen of Lobeck. This work, extensive as it is, 
embraces only the part of grammar relating to the Forms of 
Words ; the Syntax Buttmann did not live to complete. 

This Thesaurus every where exhibits, of course, critical dis- 
cussions and investigations, which could not have place in the 
earlier work. Other similar discussions, which did not properly 
fall within the plan even of the Thesaurus, particularly those 
relating to the signification of words, the author collected and 
published in a separate treatise, entitled : ' Lexilogus, or Illus- 
trations of Greek words, chiefly in Homer and Hesiod.' The 
first volume was published in 1818 ; and again, together with a 
second, in 1825. This is often referred to in the following pages. 

The publication of these works afforded an appropriate occa- 
sion for some change in the plan of the earliest, now become the 
intermediate Grrammar. Accordingly, in the twelfth edition, 
1826, most of the merely critical discussions were omitted, while 
many additional results were introduced. In this way, too, roon i 
was gained for an extension of the Syntax. In the thirteenth 
edition, 1829, the last which the author lived to prepare, these 
objects were further pursued and completed ; and the work thus 



VI PREFACE. 

became in form, what it was intended to be in fact, viz. a body 
of results respecting the grammar of the Grreek language, ar- 
ranged with strict attention to philosophical system, as well as 
to accuracy, neatness, and perspicuity. Whoever consults this 
work, cannot fail to perceive, that its statements rest on the pro- 
found investigations of a penetrating, practical, and philosophic 
mind ; while the reasonings and documents by which these state- 
ments are supported, must in general be sought in the more copi- 
ous works referred to above. In the Syntax, however, this last 
remark applied at that time with less force. This part of gram- 
mar had not elsewhere been treated of by Buttmann ; and, as he 
himself remarks, would require a separate volume to do it justice. 
The Syntax, as revised for the last time by its author, was a 
collection of general principles, perspicuously and philosophically 
arranged, and accompanied in some parts with a sufficient copi- 
ousness of details ; while in other portions much was left to the 
judgment and discretion of the learner. 

Buttmann was not a mere recluse,- — a scholar acquainted only 
with books, and deriving his views and principles merely by way 
of inference from untried theories. Himself a teacher, and liv- 
ing in the midst of a great capita], in daily and social intercourse 
with eminent scholars and practical instructors, every thing he 
has written bears the impress of practical application and prac- 
tical utility. His works everywhere exhibit comprehensive learn- 
ing, united with perspicuity and terseness, and with that prac- 
tical sagacity and tact which are essential to the success of every 
teacher. In this respect he differed widely from Matthias ; whose 
Grammar is a vast mass of excellent materials, which the author 
knew not how to reduce to order and philosophic method. 

The latter years of Buttmann's life were embittered by severe 
physical suffering. His body was racked by rheumatic affections, 
which deprived him in a great measure of the use of his limbs, 
and finally terminated his days, Jan. 21, 1829. For several pre- 
ceding winters he had been confined to his house. The writer 
of these lines had the pleasure of an interview with him about a 
year before his death. He was seated before a table in a large 
arm-chair, bolstered up with cushions, and with his feet on pil- 
lows ; before him was a book, the leaves of which his swollen 
and torpid hands were just able to turn over; while a member 
of his family acted as amanuensis. That book was his earliest 



PREFACE. Vll 

work, the intermediate Grammar. He was in this way preparing 
the thirteenth edition, which he lived just long enough to complete. 

It was this work, with these his last corrections, which eight- 
een years ago the Translator presented to the American public. 
It was favourably received ; and a second edition, published in 
1839, has been for several years out of print. 

Meanwhile the study of the Greek language and literature has 
made rapid and extensive progress, especially in Germany ; and 
the Grammar of Buttmann has not remained stationary. No 
less than five large editions have been published since his de- 
cease ; the last of which, the eighteenth, was issued near the 
close of 1849. The recent editions have been prepared for the 
press by the author's son, Alexander Buttmann, who has occu- 
pied for several years the post of Headmaster (Oberlehrer) in the 
Royal Gymnasium at Potsdam ; a station similar to that which 
his father held in Berlin. The changes and improvements in the 
Grammar have been gradually introduced, as occasion arose and 
experience dictated. The seventeenth edition (1845) exhibited 
an almost entire reconstruction of the Syntax ; and the like char- 
acter of revision and improvement marks the subsequent and last 
edition, from which the present translation has been made. 

It is no slight praise of the son, to say that he has ably and 
successfully carried forward the plan of his distinguished parent, 
with a like spirit, and with like results. We find every where 
the same careful revision and elaboration ; the same judicious 
expansion and adaptation of the work to the progress of knowl- 
edge ; the same uncommon clearness and practical tact, which 
mark the successful teacher; and, not least, the same general 
impress of practical application and utility. The son, like the 
father, has avoided extremes and all mere innovations ; and has 
rested satisfied, in respect to things already known, with calling 
them by their familiar names, without striving to attract notice 
by a new nomenclature or unusual phraseology. 

The Syntax, in particular, has been expanded and rewritten, 
with the aid of all the various theories and extensive investiga- 
tions of the last twenty years. In its present form, it is perhaps 
surpassed in symmetry and fullness by no other one of a like 
character ; while few, if any, can compare with it in clearness, 
precision, and practical utility. The Indexes also have been 
greatly enlarged, and rendered more complete. 



VH1 PREFACE. 

• 

Hence it is, that the same qualities of progress and improve- 
ment, which secured to the Grammar of Buttmann an almost 
exclusive currency in his own country during his life-time, have 
enabled it to maintain unimpaired its high standing in the Ger- 
man schools and universities since the author's decease. The 
frequent and large editions which have been published, testify 
conclusively, that it is still, as it has now been for more than 
half a century, the Classical and National Greek Grammar 
of Germany. 

In formerly making this work accessible to his countrymen 
generally, the Translator hoped and believed that he was doing 
service to the cause of Greek literature among us. If he may 
accept the testimony of many of our most distinguished Greek 
scholars, his expectation has not been disappointed. In the like 
confidence, he has again not shunned the labour of this revised 
translation of the original work as improved ; and he cannot but 
hope, that it will be received with increased favour by American 
scholars. Whoever will take pains to compare, will speedily 
perceive, that in the most important portions, and especially in 
the Syntax, this is the translation of almost a new work. 

The Translator can lay claim to no higher merit than that of 
having endeavoured to give a faithful transcript of the original 
A few additions have been silently made from the author's other 
works ; and occasionally a note or explanation, which seemed 
necessary, has been subjoined, to which the signature of the 
Translator is affixed. It must not, however, be imagined, that 
the translation of such a work from the German is without its 
peculiar difficulties. A Greek phrase or particle may often be 
happily illustrated by a German idiom, to which there is no cor- 
responding one in English ; while not unfrequently that may be 
exemplified by a single word or phrase in English, which requires 
a circumlocution in German. In all such cases, the Translator 
has endeavoured to exercise his best judgment ; and it is hoped, 
that the learner will not have occasion for complaint in this re- 
spect. It has also been his constant effort to retain in the trans- 
lation, so far as possible, the definiteness and perspicuity of the 
original. EDWARD ROBINSON. 



Union Theological Seminary, 
New York, Feb. 1851. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Beet 

1. General View of the Greek Language and its Dialects 



Page 
. 1 



PART I. 
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 



Page 
Letters and Pronunciation. 

2. Alphabet 5 

3. Pronunciation 6 

4. Division of the Letters. — Vow- 

els, Consonants 8 

5. Diphthongs ....... 9 

6. Breathings. Spiritus asper et 

lenis 11 

7. Prosody 12 

8. Accents 18 

9. The Acute and Circumflex . . 19 

10. Words named according to the 

Accents 20 

11. General Rules of the Accents . 20 

12. Changes of the Accents ... 22 

13. The Grave Accent. Atona . . 22 

14. Enclitics 23 



Sect. 

15. Marks of Interpunction, etc. . 2b 

16. Mutations of the Consonants 26 

17. The Aspirates 27 

18. Laws of the Aspirates ... 28 

19. Accumulation of Consonants . 29 

20. Assimilation of Mutes .... 30 

21. Doubling of Consonants ... 30 

22. The Double Letters ty and | . .31 

23. Consonants changed before /z . 31 

24. Changes of the Linguals ... 32 

25. Changes of the Consonant v . 32 

26. Movable Final Letters ... 33 

27. Changes of the Vowels ... 34 

28. Contraction 36 

29. Hiatus. Crasis 39 

30. Apostrophe 41 



PART II. 

GRAMMATICAL FORMS AND FLEXION OF WORDS. 



31. Parts of Speech 



43 



NOUNS. 

32. Gender 43 

33. Declension 44 

34. First Declension 46 

35. Second Declension .... 49 

36. Contracted Form of Dec. II. . 50 

37. Attic Dec. II 50 

38. Third Declension. — Gender . 51 

39. Stem. Case-endings .... 52 

40. Formation of the Nom. ... 53 

41. Nom. with Consonant before the 

Case-ending 53 

42. Nom. with Vowel before the 

Case-ending 55 

43. Flexion 56 

44. Accusative Singular .... 58 

45. Vocative 58 

46. Dative Plural 60 

47. Syncope of Words in t\p ... 60 

48. Contracted Third Declension. 

Words with Gen. in -os pure . 61 



49. Contraction of Words in tjs, es, 

os, a), as 61 

50. Partial Contraction of Words in 

us, is 63 

51. Words in is, vs, i, v. Attic Gen- 

itive 64 

52. Contraction of Words in eus . 65 

53. Varying and Double Contraction 65 

54. Contraction of Neuters in os . 66 

55. Contracted Form of Compara- 

tives in wy, ov 67 

56. Anomalous Declension ... 67 

57. Nouns, Defective and Indeclin- 

able 71 

58. Catalogue of AnomalousNouns 72 



ADJECTIVES. 

Endings 77 

Adjectives in os, of three and 

two Endings 77 

Adjectives in as 80 

Other Adjectives of three End- 
ings 80 



X 



CONTENTS. 



Sect. Page 

63. Adjectives of two Endings 

and of one Ending ... 81 

64. Anomalous and Defective Ad- 

jectives 83 

65. Degrees of Comparison. Adj. 

in os 84 

66. Comparison of other Adj. . . 85 

67. Other forms of Comparison . 86 

68. Anomalous Comparison . . 87 

69. Defective Comparison ... 88 

70. Numerals. — Cardinal Num- 

bers 89 

71. Ordinals and other Numerals 92 

PRONOUNS. 
71a. Division of the Pronouns . 93 

72. Substantive and Possessive 93 

73. The Pronoun 5e?va .... 96 

74. Adjective Pronouns . . .96 

75. The Articles 97 

76. Demonstrative Pronouns . . 99 

77. Interrogative and Indef. Pro- 

nouns ........ 100 

78. Correlative Pronouns and Ad- 

jectives 101 

79. Special Correlatives . . .102 

80. Paragogic Endings .... 103 

VERBS. 

81. Moods and Tenses. — Divi- 

sion of the Tenses . . . 104 

82. Augment.— Syllabic . . .105 

83. Syllabic Augment, continued . 107 

84. Temporal Augment .... 108 

85. Attic Reduplication . . . .111 

86. Augment of Compound Verbs 112 

87. Conjugation by Endings. In- 

flection by Number and Per- 
son. Union Vowel . . .113 

88. Conjugation by Moods and 

Participles 115 

89. Conjugation by Active, Pass- 

ive, and Middle . . . .117 

90. Conjugation by Tenses . . 118 

91. Characteristic 119 

92. Double Themes 120 

93. Formation of the Tenses . 123 

94. Tenses derived from other 

Tenses 124 

95. Future Active 125 

96. First and Second Aorist Active 130 

97. First and Second Perfect Act- 

ive 133 

98. Perfect and Pluperfect Passive 136 

99. Third Future 138 

100. First and Second Aorist Pass- 

ive 139 

i:j0a. Changes in the Characteris- 
tic 140 

101. Verbs in \pvp 142 

102. Verbals in Tens and t6s . . 145 



Sect. Page 

103. Paradigms of Barytone 

Verbs 146 

Paradigm of tW« .... 147 

Synoptical Table 147 

Active 148 

Passive 150 

Middle 152 

Paradigms of other Barytone 

Verbs 154 

Paradigm of Verbs X[xvp . .158 
Notes on all the Paradigms . 160 

104. Usual and Unusual Tenses . 165 
105 Contracted Conjugation . 166 

Paradigm 168 

Notes 174 

106. Irregular Conjugation. — 

Verbs in pi 177 

107. Paradigms of Verbs in /j.l . . 181 
Notes 182 

108. Anomalous Verbs in pi . . 190 

I. 'trim cast 190 

II. efcra set, r\pai sit .... 192 

III. evvvpi clothe 192 

IV. elpi lam 193 

V. dpi I go . . . . . . 194 

109. Other Irregular Verbs . . .197 

I. <pr]pi I say 197 

II. Ktifxai I recline . . . .198 

III. 6lSa I know 198 

Anomaly of the Verb. 

110. Syncope and Metathesis . . 200 

111. New Themes from the Tenses 206 

112. Changes of the Theme . . 208 

113. Anomaly of Signification. 

Causative and Immediate 215 
Deponent Verbs .... 217 

114. Catalogue of Irregular 

Verbs 221 

Preliminary Notes . . . 221 
Catalogue 222 

PARTICLES. 

115. Prepositions and Adverbs . 265 

116. Correlative Particles . . . 268 

117. Mutations of some other Par- 

ticles 272 

Anastrophe 274 

FORMATION OF WORDS. 

118. Derivation 275 

119. Derivation by Endings . . 275 

1. Verbs 276 

II. Substantives .... 278 

III. Adjectives 284 

IV. Adverbs 28b 

Formation by Composition. 

120. First Part of Compound Words 287 

121. Second Part of Compound 

Words 290 

Two kinds of Composition 290 
Accent 292 



CONTENTS. 



XJ 



PART III. 



SYNTAX. 



Sect. 

122. Definition 



Page 
295 



THE NOUN. 

123. Substantives and Adjectives . 295 

124. The Prepositive Article . 298 

125. Further Usage of the Article 300 

126. The Articles as Demonstra- 

tives 304 

127. Pronouns 306 

128. Neuter Adjectives . . . .312 

HE NOUN IN CONSTRUCTION. 

129. Subject and Predicate . . 314 

130. Object. — Oblique Cases . . 321 

131. Accusative Case 324 

132. Genitive Case 330 

133. Dative Case 343 



VERBS. 



134.| The Passive .... 
Verbals in r4os and t6s 



349 
351 



135. The Middle 352 

136. Distinction between the Pass- 

ive and Middle Form . . 355 

137. The Tenses 356 

138. Third Future 362 

139. The Moods. — Optative and 

Subjunctive -363 

A. Conditional Clauses . . 369 

B. Relative Clauses . . .371 

C. Clauses with Particles of 
Time 373 

D. Causal Clauses . . . .375 

E. Telic or Final Clauses . 375 

F. Ecbatic or Consequential 
Clauses 377 



Sect. Page 

G. Transitive Clauses with 

#Tt, ws 379 

H. Interrogative Clauses . . 380 
General Remarks . . . .381 
140. The Infinitive. — General 

Construction 383 

Infinitive with its Subject . 387 
Infinitive with Adjuncts. At- 
traction 389 

Construction of Relative 

Clauses 391 

Attraction 395 

Construction with the Par- 
ticiple 398 

Cases Absolute .... 406 



141. 
142. 

143. 



144. 



145. 

THE PARTICLES. 

146. Adverbs 410 

147. Prepositions 412 

148. Particles of Negation, ou, 

H--I1 

149. Various Particles 

Expletives ....... 436 

150. Particular Words and 

Phrases 438 

151. Idiomatic Forms of Con- 

struction . . . . . . 446 

I. Attraction 446 

II. Anacoluthon .... 448 

III. Inversion . ... 449 

IV. Ellipsis 450 

V. Aposiopesis .... 452 

VI. Pleonasm 452 

VII. Epexegesis .... 453 

VIII. Zeugma 453 

XI. Asyndeton . 



422 

428 



453 



APPENDIX A. Versification 455 

B. History of the Greek Alphabet 463 

C. Characters and Abbreviations in Writing 466 

D. Technical Grammatical Expressions 468 

I. Greek 468 

II. English 468 

E. Tables of Words for Declension and Conjugation . . 470 

F. Catalogue of Regular Verbs 474 

I. Barytone Verbs 474 

II. Contracted Verbs 478 

III. Deponent Verbs 481 

ENGLISH INDEX % 483 

GREEK INDEX \ ...... 495 



FOR THE STUDENT. 

En all references to sections and their subdivisions, no. marks 
the main subdivisions ; n. stands for Note ; and m. refers to the 
figures in the margin of some of the sections. 



INTRODUCTION. 



$ 1. General View of the Greek Language and its Dialects 

3. The Greek language (<j>covr) 'EWrjvc/cij), like all other lan- 
guages, had its various dialects (SiaXeicTOL) ; all of which, how- 
ever, may be referred back to two principal ones, viz. the Doric 
(r) Acopc/cT], Atopic) and the Ionic (r) 'Icovlktj, 'Ids), which belonged 
to the two great Grecian tribes of the like names. 

2. The Doric dialect prevailed in almost the whole interior of 
Gieece, in Italy, and in Sicily. It was harsher, and made upon 
the ear, in consequence of the predominant long a (§ 27. n. 5), an 
impression which the Greeks call ifkarecaa/ios, broad pronuncia- 
tion. It was on the whole a less cultivated dialect. A branch 
of it was the JEolic (r) AloXlkt}, AZo\k). 

3. The Ionic tribe in the earlier ages chiefly inhabited Attica, 
and sent out thence colonies to the coasts of Asia Minor. These 
colonies took the lead both of the mother tribe and of all the other 
Greeks in general improvement ; and hence the names Ionians 
and Ionic came to be applied chiefly, and at last exclusively, to 
them and their dialect. The Ionic dialect is the softest of all, in 
consequence of its many vowels. But the Attic (r) 'Attucy], 'At- 
#49), that is, the language of the primitive Ionians in Attica (the 
Attics, Athenians), soon overshadowed all the other dialects ; 
avoiding with Attic elegance and address both the harshness of 
the Doric and the softness of the Ionic. 

Note 1. Other minor branches of these dialects, such as the Bceotic, La- 
conic, Thessalian, etc. are known only from single words and forms, and 
through scattered notices, inscriptions, etc. 

4. As the mother of all the dialects, we must assume an orig- 
inal ancient Greek language, out of which each dialect naturally 
retained more or less. Hence it is to be explained how the Gram- 
marians can talk of Doricisms, iEolicisms, and even Atticisms, in 
the old Ionic Greek of Homer. Generally, however, it was cus- 
tomary to call that which was usual or frequent in any one dia- 
lect, by the name of that dialect ; even when it happened to occur 
singly in the others. In this way must be explained, e. g. the Do- 
ricisms so called in Attic writers, and Attic forms in writers who 
otherwise did not employ the Attic dialect at all. # 

5. To the same ancient language belong also, for the most part, 
the poetic forms and licenses so called. It is indeed true, that 

* E. g. The Doric future in crovfxai, £ov^cu; the Attic form of declension in cos ■ 
the ' Attic' £,vv for cvv, and the like. See note 6 5 below. 

A 



2 INTRODUCTION. § 1. 

the poet contributes to the formation of a language ; yet the poet 
does not derive the innovations, which he finds necessary, simply 
from himself ; for this would be the surest way to displease. The 
earliest Greek bards merely selected, according to their wants, 
from the variety of actual forms which they found already exist- 
ing ; or, at least, they constructed new ones, according to exist- 
ing analogies. Many of these forms became obsolete in common 
usage : but the later poet, who had these old bards before his 
eyes, was not disposed to yield his right to these treasures. In 
this way, that which was originally a real idiom of the language, 
came to be poetic license. 

6. In all cultivated nations, some one of their dialects usually 
becomes the foundation of the common written language, and of 
the language of good society. Among the Greeks this was not at 
first the case. Until about the time of Alexander, each writer 
employed the dialect in which he had been educated, or that 
which he preferred ; and thus were formed Ionic, iEolic, Doric, 
and Attic poets and prose writers, of whose productions more or 
less are still extant. Comp. text 10, 11, below. 

Note 2. To the Ionic dialect belong the earliest poets, Homer, Hesiod, 
Theognis, etc. whose language nevertheless has more of that apparently 
mixed character, which approaches nearest to the ancient language, and 
which afterwards continued to mark the language of poetry in most of its 
species. The proper though later Ionic is found in the prose writers, of 
whom Herodotus and Hippocrates are the principal ; though "both were of 
Doric origin. The Ionic dialect had already in their time acquired, in 
consequence of its peculiar softness and early culture, a certain degree of 
universality, especially in Asia Minor, even beyond the limits of poetry. 

Note 3. Among the poets of that period, the lyric writers were at home 
in all the dialects. The earliest and most celebrated were the iEolic lyric 
poets ; and of these the chief were Sappho and Alcceus ; from whom, how- 
ever, only a few fragments have come down to us. Anacreon sung in 
Ionic ; the other lyric writers were mostly Doric. Of these last, Pindar 
is the only one from whom any thing entire has come down to us. 

Note 4. Of Doric prose there is very little still extant, and that chiefly 
relating to mathematics and philosophy. 

7. In the mean time, Athens had raised herself to such a pitch 
of political importance, that for a while she exercised a sort of 
sovereignty (rj^efiovla) in Greece ; and at the same time became 
the centre of all literary and scientific culture. The democratic 
constitution, which was no where else so pure, secured to the 
popular eloquence of Athens, and to the Attic stage, entire free- 
dom ; and this it was, in connection with other advantages, which 
raised to the highest point of perfection not only these two branch- 
es of literature, but also the sister ones of history and philosophy ; 
and at the same time gave to the Attic language a completeness 
and a comprehensiveness, to which no other dialect attained. 

Note 5. The principal prost writers of this golden period of Attic litera- 
ture are Thucydides. Xenophon, Plato, Lysias, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and 
the other Orators. 



§ 1, THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. % 

8. Greeks from all the tribes repaired now to Athens to obtain 
an education ; and even in those parts of literature which were 
most widely extended, the Athenian masterpieces were consid- 
ered as models. The consequence was, that the Attic dialect be- 
came by degrees the language of all educated persons, and the 
general language of books ; and was henceforth almost exclu- 
sively employed by the prose writers of all the Grecian tribes 
and countries. This language was now also taught in the schools ; 
and the Grammarians decided, according to those Attic models, 
what was pure Attic, and what was not. The central point of 
this later Greek literature, however, formed itself under the Ptol- 
emies at Alexandria in Egypt. 

9. Along with this universality of the Attic dialect, began also 
the period of its gradual decay. On the one hand, writers min- 
gled with the Attic much that was derived from the dialect of 
their own country ; on the other, they introduced various changes. 
This the Grammarians (this class of whom are called Atticists*) 
sought to hinder ; and proposed in their books, over against those 
expressions which they censured or accounted less elegant, others 
selected from the older Attic writers. And thus arose the usage, 
that the term Attic was understood to include only that which 
was sanctioned by the authority of those early classic writers; 
while, on the other hand, the ordinary language of cultivated so- 
ciety, derived as it was from the Attic, was now called kolvtj, com- 
mon, or 'EWrjvL/cr), Greek, i. e. common Greek ; and even the 
writers of this later period were now called ol kolvol or ol "EWtj- 
ves, in opposition to the genuine Attics. 

Note 6. It is easy to conceive, that under these circumstances the ap- 
pellation koivos, koivqv, became a term of censure; and, in the mouth of the 
Grammarians, designated that which was not pure Attic. On the other 
hand, however, that which Avas called Attic, was not all for that reason ex- 
clusively of the pure Attic form, not even among the genuine Attics them- 
selves. Many an Attic idiom was not entirely usual even in Athens, but 
alternated with other forms in general use, e. g. <fii\oir) with (jfriAot, %vv with 
crvv. Many Ionic forms were also not unusual among the Attics )' e. g. un- 
contracted forms instead of contracted ones. This approach to the Ionic 
furnishes the chief criterion of the earlier Attic in the strictest sense ; in 
which e. g. Thucydides wrote ; while Demosthenes belongs to the later Attic, 
which forms the transition to the still later koivtj. 

Note 7. To draw an exact and convenient line of division, we must. make 
the later period, or the koivol, begin with the earliest of those authors who 
wrote Attic without being themselves Athenians. Here belong Aristotle, 
Theophrastus, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and the other later writers ; 
among whom nevertheless were many who strove with success to make the 
earlier Attic language their own : as was the case particularly with Lucian 
and Arrian. 

Note 8. Among the dialects of the provinces, which mingled themselves 
to a considerable degree with the later Greek, the Macedonian is particularly 
conspicuous. It was also called the Alexandrine dialect; because Alexan- 

* E. g. Phrynichus, Moeris, Thomas Magister. 



4 ' INTRODUCTION. $ L 

dria was the chief seat of this later Greek- Macedonian culture, — Moreover 
the other inhahitants of such conquered countries, who were not Greeks 
by birth, began now also to speak Greek ('EWtjvl&lv) ) and hence an Asi- 
atic, a Syrian, etc. who thus spoke Greek, was called 'EXkrjvLcm'js. From 
this circumstance has arisen the modern usage, according to which the lan- 
guage of such writers, mixed as it is with many forms that are not Greek 
and with many Oriental idioms, is called the Hellenistic language. Here 
belongs especially the language of the version of the Old Testament by the 
Seventy, and that of the NeiO Testament; whence it passed more or less into 
the works of the Fathers. — New barbarisms of every kind were introduced 
in the middle ages, when Constantinople, the ancient Byzantium, became 
the capital of the Greek empire and the centre of the contemporary litera- 
ture ; and hence arose the language of the Byzantine writers, and finally 
the present modem Greek. 

10. In this general prevalence of the Attic dialect, however, 
poetry formed an important exception. Here the Attics were 
models only in one department, viz. the dramatic ; and hence the 
Attic dialect was afterwards retained by all the other Greek thea- 
tres. The dramatic poets, moreover, in those parts of the drama 
which consisted of dialogue, and especially in those composed of 
trimeters or senarii, allowed themselves, with the exception of a 
freer use of apostrophe and contraction, only a very few of the 
poetic licenses so called ; see 5, above. 

Note 9. The comic poets did this least of all, as one would readily sup 
pose. On the other hand, the tragic senarius readily adopted many Homeric 
forms. — In the department of the drama, however, only the works of genu- 
ine and early Attic writers have come down to us ; viz. the tragedians 
JEschylus. Sophocles, Euripides ; and the comic writer Aristophanes. 

11. For the remaining species of poetry, especially those which 
were composed in hexameters, as the epic, didactic, and elegiac, 
Homer and the other old Ionic poets, who were read in the schools, 
continued to be the models ; and along with them, the old Ionic 
or Homeric language remained also in vogue, with most of its pe- 
culiarities and antique forms. All that belongs under this head 
may be best included under the name of epic language ; since it 
took its rise wholly from epic poetry. 

Note 10. The most noted poets of this class are, in the Alexandrine period, 
Apollonius, Callimachus, Aratus ; and later, Nicander, Oppian, Quintus, etc. 

12. The Doric dialect also was not entirely excluded from poet- 
ry, even in the later periods. On the contrary, it maintained itself 
in some of the minor species, especially in rural and sportive poems. 

Note 11. Hence the works of "the idyllic writers, Theocritus, Bion, and 
Moschus, are Doric ; but their later Doric differs much from that of Pindar. 
The ancient epigrams were partly Ionic, partly Doric ; but the Doric was 
here far more simple and dignified, and confined itself to a small number 
of characteristic Doric forms, which were familiar to the educated poets 
of every tribe. 

Note 12. It remains to observe, that the language employed in the lyric 
parts of the drama, as the choruses and passages of deep emotion, is also 
generally called Doric ; but this Doric consists of little more than the preva- 
lence of the long a, especially for ?j, which belonged generally to the old lan- 
guage. 



PART I. 



ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 



Letters and Pronunciation. 
§ 2. Alphabet. 



The Greeks received their alphabet mostly from the Phteni 
ms, as is evident from the oriental names of the letters ; see 
Appendix B. The following is the Greek alphabet : 



cians 



A 


a 


Pronounced. 

a in far 


Name, 

"AXcpa 


alpha 


Numeral Value. 
1 


B 


ft 6 


b 


Brjra 


beta 


2 




r 


%f 


g hard 


rd/Afia 


gamma 


3 




A 


B 


d 


AeXra 


delta 


4 




E 


e 


e in met 


*E tyCXov 


epsilon* 


5 


r 6 


z 


i 


ds 


Zryra 


zeta 


7 




H 


V 


-e in they\ 


*Htcl 


eta 


8 







%e 


th sharp 


©rjra 


theta 


9 




I 


i 


i in machine 


i 'I&ra 


iota 


10 




K 


K 


k 


Kdirira 


kappa 


20 




A 


X 


I 


Aci\Jb$ha 


lambda 


30 




M 


P 


m 


Mv 


mu 


40 




N 


V 


n 


Nv 


nu 


50 




H 


i 


X 


m 


xi 


60 










o short 


U fJLLKpOV 


omicron, short o 70 




n 


7T, W 


P 


m 


pi 


80 


h 90 


p 


Q,p 


r rolling 


Pco 


rho 


100 




2 


(T, ? 


s sharp 


%lyfia 


sigma 


200 




T 


T,7 


t 


Tav 


tau 


300 




T 


V 


u French 


*Tfi\6v 


ypsllon^ 


400 




$ 


<t> 


Phf 


$1 


phi 


500 




X 


X 


ch guttural 


XI 


chi 


600 




W 


ylr 


ps 


wz f 


psi 


700 




a 


CO 


o long 


9 /2 fieya 


omega, long o 


800 


<3fc 900 



* *E -tyi\6v and T T ^/i\6v have the epithet \pi\6v, i. e. Icnc, not aspirated, because 
in the earlier forms of the Greek alphabet, the figure of the e was at the same time 
one of the marks to denote the rough breathing (h) ; and the v was at the same time 
one of the modes of writing the digamma (or Lat. v, see § 6. n. 3). In order to dis- 
tinguish them as vowels from these two aspirates, this epithet was always subjoined. 
Comp. Appendix B. 

t The sound of tj is strbtly that of the long continental e, like the English 
hate. — Tr. 



V 



6 ALPHABET. PRONUNCIATION. H 2, 3 

Note 1. The twofold forms of some of the letters given above, are used 
without distinction, excepting cr and s of the small alphabet : cr is used only 
at the beginning and in the middle of words, and s only at the end of words. 
The latter is not to be confounded with r ; see the next note. In modern 
editions this s is often used in the middle of words ; but only in compounds, 
like ovsnvas, 7rpos<pepco, elsfyeyice, when the first part is an indeclinable 
word and current by itself. On the other hand, it is better to write dvaOa- 
vAs, cpepeorfitos, craicecrTraXos. In words not compounded cr is always writ- 
ten ; e. g. Koap-os, never Kosp.os. 

Note 2. From these letters have been formed a multitude of abbrevia- 
tions and combinations ; some of which occupy more space than the original 
letters themselves. In modern times, the use of these has been much di- 
minished ; and in recent editions few are used beyond the following, viz. 

& for et e for ov ©•* for os r for or* 

cS- for o-S- JU for <tx y$ for yap 7§ for kcu. 

In several the letters are scarcely altered ; e. g. OU/ for «^> 7K f° r AA ; etc - 
For a full exhibition of other abbreviations, see Appendix C . 

Note 3. The Greeks employed the letters of their alphabet also as nu- 
meral figures ; see the right hand column of the alphabet. In order to have 
enough, they added still three other figures or Episema (eV/cr^a) , viz. after 
e the r, here called Bad, Vau, and not err ; after it the KoWa, Q or ^j , or 
^ ; and after a> the 2a/z7ri, 'Tfo t The first eight letters with Bav denoted 
the units ; the next eight with KoWa, the tens ; and the last eight with 
2a/x7n, the hundreds. When used as figures, the letters are marked by a 
stroke above, thus : a 1, 0' 2, r 6; i 10, id 11, & 19, k 20, kst 26; p 100, 
cr' 200, o-X/3' 232, etc. The thousands commence again with a, but with a 
stroke beneath the letter, as t a 1000, fi 2000, j3crX/3' ; 2232. See § 70. 

Note 4. There was still another ancient mode of writing numerals, cor- 
responding to the Latin method. In this I was assumed as unity, and then 
the first letters of the numerals TIevre Jive, Aena ten, HeKarov (the old form 
of tKarov) hundred, XiXcoi thousand, Mvpioc ten thousand, were put for these 
numbers respectively; thus n denoted 5, A 10, H 100, X 1000, M 10,000. 
These letters were then combined to express different numbers, just like the 
Roman numerals ; except that whenever A, H, X, or M, was to be repeated 
five times, instead of this it was put only once, but enclosed in a large n. 
Thus lA[ 50, IaTai 61, M 500, M 5000, etc. This was the old Attic sys- 
tem, and is often found in inscriptions. — Tr. 

§ 3. Pronunciation. 

1. The ancient pronunciation can no longer be determined with 
certainty. Among the various ways in which Greek is pronounc- 
ed in modern times, two are most distinguished, called the Reuch- 

* This mark is commonly called Sti, and also Stigma. Its coincidence in form 
with the Bau (see note 3) is only accidental. 

t These three Episema were originally letters of the alphabet, which afterwards 
became obsolete. The resemblance of the r to the later abbreviation for ar is only 
accidental; as a numeral it is called Bad, and is merely another form of the di- 
gamma, F or -^ as i ts place in the numeral system shews, where it corresponds 
to the oriental Vav. The *f, originally cp, is called RoWa, and was derived from 
the oriental Koph, (Lat. Q,) which occupies the same place in the alphabet. Th< 
2a/i7r? is strictly an abbreviation foi anr ; originally, however, it was simply th' 
old letter 2di/, derived from the oriental alphabet ; see Appendix B, — Tr 



i 3. PRONUNCIATION / 

linian and the Erasmian, after their respective advocates in the 
16th century. We follow the latter, because it is most conformed 
to our own pronunciation, and to that which we give to the Latin. 
The Reuchlinian method follows chiefly that of the modern 
Greeks, which they warmly defend as the ancient and true pro- 
nunciation. 

Note. The Latin mode of writing Greek words may be seen above in the 
Latin names of the letters, in the following part of the present section, and 
in sH 5 and 6. — The common usage of the Reuchlinian pronunciation is the 
following : 77 is pronounced like 1 ; the diphthong ac like e in there ;• the 
sounds ei, 01, v, and vt, are all not to be distinguished from 1 ; and, finally. 
v in the other diphthongs (except ov) is pronounced like v or/, e. g. clvtos, 
avtos, Zevs Zefs.% There are indeed many traces, that this method, in its 
chief points, is really founded on an ancient pronunciation ; but this could 
not have been the one at all times and every where current. This appears 
incontestably from the manner in which the Latins wrote Greek words and 
names, and the Greeks Latin ones; e. g. Qrjfirj Thebej Pompeius ILofmrjios ;] 
Claudius ~K\o.v8los. Were the modern Greek pronunciation of 01 as I correct, 
neither the Latins could have made from ILoias Pceas ; nor the Greeks from 
Clartia KAoiAm; and even KcukiXios, Katcrap, for Ccecilius, Ccesar, does not de- 
cide for the pronunciation of ai like ce [e in there) , since we are by no 
means certain in respect to the pronunciation of this Latin diphthong. 

2. In respect to particular letters, the following is to be re- 
marked : 

/3 was probably softer than our b ; hence the Lat. v is given by 
/3, e. g. £e/3%>o?, Bdppcov.t The modern Greeks uniformly 
give to j3 the sound of our v. 

y before another 7 and the other palatal letters (k, % £ ) is sound- 
ed like ng. E. g. iyyv? eng-gus, or like Lat. angustus ; 
avy/cpLaLs syncrisis, Ayyi<jr\<; Anchises (Ang-chises), ^</></y| 
Sphinx. 

f must be pronounced like ds, i. e. with the soft s, like dz. 
Later it was made still softer, like the French zA In some dia- 
lects it was sounded and written crS, sd. 

t) is usually every where pronounced like a prolonged e (e in they) ; 
by some also like e in there. 

& is usually not distinguished from r on the continent of Eu- 
rope ; anciently, however, it belonged to the aspirates, i. e. 
those letters which were pronounced with -a breathing, or as- 
piration (§ 4. 3) ; and it is also still pronounced by the modern 
Grreeks like the English th sharp, as in think. 

1 is simply the vowel i, (i. e. the continental i as in machine,) 

* This mode of pronunciation is sometimes called Iotacism or Itacism (i as in 
machine), because it gives to so many vowels the sound of Iota; the Erasmian is 
also called Etacism (e like a in hate). 

t The bleating of a sheep is also imitated by Prj in the comic poet Cratinus ; see 
Steph. Thes. 

t The sound of v in Latin names is also represented in Greek by ov, sometimes 
alternating with /3; as 'Oktciovios, "Zeovrjpos, etc. 

$ This sound is still the common one among the modern Greeks. 



DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. $ ^. 

and not the consonant j ;* hence lafiftos, 'Icovla, must be pro- 
nounced i-ambos, I-onia. Nevertheless the Greeks employed 
this letter in foreign names instead oij ; e. g. 'lovkios Julius, 
HoyjKr]lo^ Pompejus. 

k is always expressed in Latin by c, even before e and i ; and 
the Latin c is also expressed in Greek by k ; e. g. Klficov Ci- 
7?ion, Cicero Kt/cepoov. This shows that the Romans pronounc- 
ed their c like k before all the vowels. 

ar is to be pronounced like s sharp, or ss. 

r before t followed by another vowel, is not to be pronounced sh, 
as in English, but retains its simple sound ; thus TaXarla Ga- 
lati-a, not Gala-sha, Kptrlas Kriti-as, Bv^dvnov Buzanti-on, 
Hava'iTios Panaiti-os, Lat. Pansetius; so also in Tepevrios 
Terentius. 

v is often employed in Latin names to express the short u, which 
was wanting in Greek ; e. g. *Pq)/jlv\os Romulus. Comp. § 5. 
n. 3. The modern Greeks pronounce it like i. 

</> is somewhat indefinite. The G-reeks always expressed the 
Latin / by their <j>, as Fabius $d/3io<; ; the Latins, however, 
never reversed this, but always wrote ph for <£, e. g. Phcedrus. 

§ 4. Division of the Letters. 

1. The letters are divided into vowels and consonants. The 
vowels are subdivided only according to their quantity ; see § 7. 

2. From the consonants must first be separated the three double 
letters 

f . t r, 

each of these being strictly two letters, for which however only 
a single figure is employed. For these letters see § 22 ; on f see 
also the preceding section. 

3. The simple consonants are divided in a twofold way : 

a) According to the organ with which they are pronounced, 
viz. 

Labials j3 y ir, </>, yu,, 

Linguals $, r, *&, v, \, p, cr y 

Palatals. 7, tc, %. 

b) According to their power,t 

* Thej in Latin, as also on the continent of Europe, has the consonant power 
of y. — Tr. 

t The ancients found in the humming and hissing sounds of the letters £, m, n y 
r, s, a sort of transition to the full sounding vowels, and called them therefore half 
vowels. The first four, on account of their mobility and the ease with which they 
could be joined to other letters, were also called liquids. All the other consonants, 
by way of contrast to the vowels, were called mutes. Of these again, those three 
which were accompanied by a breathing or aspiration, were supposed thereby to 
become thick 01 rough (Sa<rea) ; this was entirely wanting in three others, which 



* 4, 5. DIVISION OF THE LETTERS. DIPHTHONGS. 9 

1. Semivowels, viz. 

Liquids X, p., v, p, 

The simple sibilant c\ 

2. Mutes, viz. 

Aspirates ' ■ . <j>, % % 

Middle ft 7, 8, 

Smooth 7T, K, T. 

Hence it appears that three mutes belong to each organ; and 
that these nine letters, arranged as above, are related to each 
other when taken in either direction ; the first perpendicular col- 
umn being labials ; the second, palatals ; and the third, Unguals. 

Note 1 . It is well to remark, that in parsing and other oral exercises, it 
is usual to designate the labial mutes as the P - sounds ; the Unguals, as T- 
sounds ; the palatals, as K-sounds. 

4. We might here reckon a fourth organ, viz. the nasal or- 
gan ; to which belong the three letters fi, v, and 7 pronounced 
like ng (§ 3. 2). But as these three letters are at the same time 
pronounced with one of the other organs, the nasal organ appears 
only as secondary ; and no special place is due to it in the division 
of the letters. 

Note 2. The affinity between these three letters (/z, v, y) appears, e. g. 
from the fact, that the nasal v in the Prep. £v before labials passes over into 
the nasal labial /x; and before palatals, into the nasal palatal y ; while before 
the first four Unguals (to which organ it belongs) it remains unchanged : 
efi7ra- eym- ivra-. For the changes of v, see § 25. 

5. No genuine Greek word can end in any other consonant 
than one of these three semivowels, 

cr, v, p, 
for those which terminate in f and -v^ end really in a:? and 7r?. 
Only etc and ov/c form here an exception ; and this never at the 
end of a phrase, but only before other words with which they are 
so closely connected in pronunciation as to lose their tone ; see 
« 13. 4. $ 26. 5, 6. 



§ 5. Diphthongs. 

1. The ancient pronunciation of the diphthongs is least cer- 
tain of all ; and it is therefore better to pronounce them in our 
manner, so as to make but one syllable. The manner in which 
the Romans expressed them will appear from the examples. 

at pron. a? (as in aisle), $alhpos Phaidros, Lat. Phsedrus. 
ei ei (as in height), JVetXo? Neilos, Lat. Mlus. Av~ 

fcelov Lukeion, Lyceum. 

were therefore called thin or smooth (\//£Aa) ; while between these two classes the 
medics, {fxiffa) hold the middle place. See Appendix D. 1. 



10 DIPHTHONGS. § 5. 

oi pron. oi Botcorla Boiotia, Boeotia. 

vi ui (like the French ui or uy in hti, tuyau), EtXei- 

6vca Eileithuia, Ilithyia. 
av au TXclvkos Glaukos, Grlaucus. 

cv ) { Evpos Euros , Eurus.^ 

7]v ) I tjv^ov (from av^co) euxon. 

ov ou (as in you), Movcra Mousa, Lat. Musa. 

cov is solely Ionic ; e. g. covtos outos. 

Note 1. The Latin usage is not however fixed, especially in the diph- 
thong ei. This is shewn by the different modes of writing the words 'Icpi- 
yeveta Iphigenia, Mrjdeia Medea, 'HpdicXeiTos Heraclitus, IIoXvKkeiTos Poly- 
cletusy etc. — Some few words in aia, oia, remained in Latin unchanged; ex- 
cept that the i pr< 
Maia, Tpoia Troja. 

2. From these are to be distinguished the improper diphthongs 
so called, which are formed by the Iota subscriptum, or Iota writ- 
ten under the following three vowels : 

a. 77, CO. 

At present the Iota subscript does not change the sound of these 
vowels, and serves merely to mark the derivation; originally 
however it was heaid in the pronunciation. The ancients wrote 
this Iota also in a line with the other letters ; and with capital 
letters this is still the case ; e. g. THI ^O^IAI, rfj crocpla ; tco 
"AlSt) or aSy. 

Note 2. The ancient native Greek grammarians reckon also tjv, cov, vi, 
among the improper diphthongs ; of which their definition is, that they are 
composed of a long and a short vowel, while all the others contain merely 
two short vowels. According to this we may conveniently divide all the 
diphthongs into 

Six proper : ai, et, ot ; av, ev, ov ; and 

Six improper : vi, vv, cov ; a, n, &>. 
It follows also in regard to pronunciation, that in order to distinguish tjv 
from ev, the sound of rj must be made to predominate ; so also in the case 
of av and vi. It is moreover apparent, that the case was the same with a, 
77, o), so long as the 1 continued to be heard, i. e. probably during the 
whole strictly classic period; as is proved by the Latin mode of writing 
tragczdus, corrmdus, for rpayados, kco/jlwSos. But it is also no less evident 
from the later words prosodia, ode or oda, for Trpoo-adia, (o8rj, that then the 
difference between co and <o was no longer regarded ; and this is throughout, 
the case at the present day. 

Note 3. The ov is every where sounded only as a single vowel, and is 
therefore strictly no real diphthong. Still, regarded as a diphthong, it has 
strictly most connection with the proper diphthongs ; since the sound of 
neither of its vowels is wholly lost, as is the case in the improper a, rj, a>. — 
The short u existed also in the more ancient language, and was retained in 
the iEolic dialect and in the Latin, which is nearest related to that dialect. 

* That av and ev before a vowel are still written and pronounced in Latin with 
v, e. g. 'Ayavr} Agave, Ebiv Evan, is an error which has resulted from the Reuch- 
inan pronunciation ; only Agauc, Euan, are correct. 



6. BREATHINGS. 11 

To mark it they employed the letters o and v, which are nearly related. 
The Homeric j36\eo-3e belongs here; see § 114, (Sovkojiai. 

§ 6. Breathing's. 

1. With the letters are connected the two following signs, which 
are set over every vowel or diphthong at the beginning of a word, 
viz. 

1 Spiritus lenis, irvevfia ijn\6v, the smooth breathing. 
1 Spiritus asper, irvevpba Saav, the rough breathing. 

The Spiritus asper is our h ; e. g. "O^po? Homerus. The lenis 
stands where in other languages a word begins simply with a 
vowel ; e. g. iyco ego. Both these classes of words, however, are 
considered in prosody and grammar simply as beginning with a 
vowel. So in the case of the apostrophe (§ 30) and the movable 
finals (§26). 

2. In the proper diphthongs, the Spiritus, as also the accents, 
are always placed over the .second vowel ; e. g. EvpLirlB-rj^, ohs. 
In the improper diphthongs a, y, a), this is not the case, even 
where the Iota is not subscribed ; e. g. "Afoq? (aSrjs) Hades. 

3. The Spiritus asper stands also over every p at the begin- 
ning of a word. When p is doubled in the middle of a word, the 
first one takes the lenis, the second the asper, thus : pp. This 
is founded on a peculiarity of the ancient pronunciation, which 
the Latins also did not neglect in Greek words, e. g. 

pr/rcop, Uvppos, rhetor, Pyrrhus. 

4. In the common language, all words beginning with v have 
also the asper. 

Note 1. Both these "breathings exist in other languages as distinct letters. 
The asper is the h of both ancient and modern languages ; the lenis is the 
Alef or Elif of the orientals. Nor is this latter a mere empty sign. Every 
vowel which is distinctly uttered without the aid of a preceding consonant, 
and consequently every one which is so uttered as to be heard entirely 
separate from the preceding letter,* is actually introduced by an audible 
breathing or gentle impulse ; and the ancients had more occasion to mark 
this impulse, inasmuch as they did not separate the words in writing. 

Note 2. The iEolians very frequently exchanged the rough breathing for 
the smooth, as did also sometimes the Ionians. Hence in the epic language 
occur such forms as vp.piv for vpiv, akro from akXofxai, rjekios for ffKios, etc. 

Note 3. Along with these two breathings the earliest language had still 
another aspirate, which was longest retained by the iEolians. This is com- 
monly called Digamma, from its shape /, i. e. a double r ; see § 2. n. 3 marg. 
Also App. B. It was strictly a real consonant with the sound of v, and 
was prefixed to many words which in the more known dialects have partly 
the asper and partly the lenis. — In regard to the Homeric digamma, which 
has been so much discussed in modern times, the whole subject rests on the 
following remarkable fact. A certain number of words beginning with a 

* E. g. if one would clearly distinguish ab-ortion from a-bortion : or would per- 
fectly articulate the second vowel in co-operate, pre-eminent, etc. 



12 PROSODY. § 7. 

vowel, especially the pronoun ov, of, e, and also ayvvpn, akis, aXwvai, avag, dv- 
8avo3, dpatos, cipva, cicttv, i'ap (ver), edvov, edeipa, edvos, etfico (video) , eUocn, etXa) 
(aXrjvai), tlireiv, e'Lpa> (sero), eKas, eKaarros, etcrjXos, eKrjn, eicvpos, £ko>v, ekdop-ai, 
£\icrcra>, eXna), evvvpi, eoi<a, epyov, epyco, eppco, ipvco, iadrjs (vestis), ecrnepos 
(vesper), errjs, eros, eroacrios, rjdvs, rjdos, rJKa, rjpa, rjxhi ta^, ''iXtos, lov (viola), 
Ipis, i? (vis), l<pi, Icros, 'itvs, oikos, oivos (vinum), ov\ap.6s, ovXos, o>A£, "with 
al] their derivatives, have in Homer so often the hiatus (§29) "before them, 
tha.t, leaving these words out of the account, the hiatus, which is now so fre- 
quent in Homer, becomes extremely rare, and in most of the remaining 
cases can he easily and naturally accounted for. These same words have 
also, in comparison with others, extremely seldom an apostrophe "before them ; 
and moreover, the immediately preceding long vowels and diphthongs are 
far less frequently made short, than before other words (§ 7. 16). Hence 
we must conclude, that there was something at the beginning of these 
words, which produced both these effects, and prevented the hiatus. And 
since short syllables, terminating in a consonant (e. g. os, ov), are also 
often made long before these words, just as if they were in position, and 
that too in cases where they are not affected by the caesura (§ 7. n. 15, 
3), it follows that all these words in Homer's mouth had this breathing 
(v) with the power of a consonant before them ) but had lost it in the far 
later period when Homer's songs were reduced to writing. Moreover, since 
during this time, and even later, these poems underwent many changes and 
received many additions, as is now generally acknowledged, we can hence 
very naturally account for the circumstance, that the traces of the digamma 
in Homer should have been thus obliterated. 



$ 7. Prosody. 

1. The term Prosody, according to present usage, includes 
only the doctrine of quantity ', i. e. the length (productio) or short- 
ness (correptio) of syllables.^ 

2. Every word and every grammatical form had, for every syl- 
lable, with few exceptions, a constant quantity, which the pro- 
nunciation of common life followed; and which must therefore 
be known in order to pronounce correctly. 

Note 1. For the poetic quantity, so called, see below in no. 12 sq. 

3. The quantity is denoted by the two following marks over a 
vowel, (") long, (") short; e.g. 

a short a, a long a, 
a variable or doubtful. 

4. Every syllable, which cannot be certainly proved to be long, 
must be assumed as short. 

5. A syllable is long, either I. by Nature, or II. by Position 

6. A syllable is long (I.) by Nature, when its vowel is long ; 
as in Latin the middle syllable of amare, docere. In Greek this 
is in part determined by the vowels themselves ; for of the sim- 
ple vowels 

* The ancient Greek grammarians included also under the name Trpocrwdia every 
thing by which the sound of a syllable was affected ; consequently also the accents 
and breathings. 



$ 7. PROSODY. 13 

7j and o) are always long, 

e and o are always short. 
These therefore require no further rules. The three others, on 
the contrary, 

a, i, v, 
can all be, as in Latin, either long or short ; and are therefore 
called variable or doubtful, Lat. ancipites. 

Note 2. The epithet doubtful must not he misunderstood. All simple 
vowels are in certain words always long ; in others, always short. For the 
vowel-sounds e and o, the Greek language had distinct marks or letters for 
long and short ; for the three others, not. When therefore one of these three 
vowels, which are only apparently thus doubtful, is found to be really 
doubtful or variable in some particular words, e. g. the a in koXos, the i 
ill avia ; this is only the same that occurs also in the sounds of e and o 
with their double characters, e. g. in rpoxdco and rpa>xdco, aoos and acoos, 
veas and vrjas ; all which instances, in the most ancient mode of writing, 
were in like manner not distinguished. 

7. In regard to syllables which are long by nature, there is the 
following general rule : Tivo vowels flowing together into one 
sound form a long syllable. Consequently the following are long : 

1) All diphthongs without exception ; e. g. the penult in (3a- 
ar'CXeLos, eiraZco. 

2) All contracted syllables ; and in this case the doubtful 
vowels are consequently always long ; e. g. the a in axcop 
for aefccDV, the i in tpo? for /epo?, the v in Accus. (36rpv$ for 
/36rpva<; ; see § 28. 

Note 3. From these contractions, however, we must carefully distin- 
guish the cases of simple elision, e. g. ana-yco for ano-aya ' } see §§ 28-30. 

8. A syllable, even with a short vowel, is long (II.) by Posi- 
tion, i. e. when it is followed by two or more consonants, or by 
a double consonant ; e. g. the penult in XeyeaOat,, tcadeXfcoy, fit? 
Xe\xvov, atyoppos, KaOe^co, vojjll^co. 

Note 4. Very often, also, a vowel already long occurs in position, and 
must then be still more prolonged in pronunciation, e. g. Arjpvos (pron. 
Lemnos), oprrr}^, Xap&vftas, fiaWov ; also in Trpdrra), npd^coy where the a 
is proved to be long by the derived forms (irpa^is, Tvpayfxa) which take the 
circumflex. On the other hand, rdrrco, rd^co, have the a short, like rdgis. 
So too we must distinguish between the last syllable of Soopag where the a 
is long (Gen. Svpanos), and that of avXatj where it is short (Gen. avXaKos) ) 
just as between the final syllables of KvkXco-^ and Ke/cpo^. 

9. A mute before a liquid (§ 4) forms regularly no position : 
hence the penult is short in UepitcXris, are/cvo^, Sl^pa^/Mos, yeviOXr/, 
Svctttot/ulos, etc. By the poets, however, these syllables are some- 
times used as if long, positio debilis. 

Note 5. If the vowel in such a syllable is long by nature, then of course 
it remains long; e. g. in Tvivraffkos, from aOXos, and in yjrvxpos, with the v 
long, as coming from yjsvxoa (see note 8) . Nothing is more common, than for 
learners to suppose, that a mute before a liquid renders even a long vo wel 
doubtful. 



14 



PROSODY 



§7. 



10. To the preceding rule, however, the middle mutes (ft, y, S), 
when they stand before the three liquids X, fi, v, form an excep- 
tion, and make a real position. Consequently, in the following 
words the penult is long, though they are not to be pronounced 
as with a long vowel : ireTrXey/jiai, TeTpd{3c{3\os, ei/oS/zo? ; but in 
the following with p the penult is short : xapdSpa, MeXeaypos, 
/jLo\o/3p6s. 

11. All syllables with a, i, u, the quantity of which is not fixed 
by the preceding rules, can be determined only by usage. This 
is best learned from the poets, especially the Attic poets. This 
mode of determining the quantity is said to be " ex auctoritate," 
by authority. So far now as it regards the root or stem-syllable 
of words, the quantity must be learned by observation or from the 
lexicon. The quantity of such syllables, however, as belong to the 
formation audi flexion of words, and the cases where the root itself 
in the course of flexion or formation changes its quantity, will be 
every where pointed out in the grammar in the proper place. 

Note 6. In regard to the quantity of syllables which serve for formation 
and flexion, it will only be necessary to specify the instances where the 
doubtful vowels are long; and every syllable on which no remark is made, 
and where the contrary does not follow from the general rules, is to be 
regarded as short ; see no. 4 above. E. g. the penult in TvpdypaTos, e'ru^a- 
[xrjv ; and so too in the formative endings, as in gvXivos, biKaioavvrj. 

Note 7. In our modern mode of pronunciation, it is for the most part 
only the quantity of the penult in words of three or more syllables, that we 
can render distinctly perceptible. And since it is important to become 
early accustomed to the correct pronunciation of such words, before one is 
already familiar with the poets, we give here a table of those which are 
most essential • but only such as have the penult long, 

6 (pXvapos idle talk. larpos physician aKparos unmixed 

dviapos afflictive avddbns haughty crivain mustard 

ndpa turban nofiaXos rogue r} aiayd>v jaw-bone, 

dirados follower 
with all words in -ay 6s derived from ay<a and ayvvpi; as Xo^ayus captain, 
vavayos one shipwrecked ; 

d^lvn axe 

'icpdi/jLos strong 

prjTLvr) resin 

6 opiXos multitude 

6 o-TpofttXos cone of a pine 

7re8iXov sandal 



r] yeXiScoi/ swallow 
eptdos labourer 
aKpifir}? exa^t 
aKoviTov aconite 
evLTn) threat 
to rapids stockfish. 



f) Kaptvos fire-place 
6 xa^wos bridle 
aekivov parsley 
Kvpivov cumin 
o-vKapivov mulberry 
KVKXdpivov (a plant) 
dcoTivrj gift 

6 klvSvvos danger r) irdnvpos papyrus 

6 Qodvvos clitch Xdcpvpov booty 

evdvvr] account Trirvpov bran 

dicr^vvr] shame aynvpa anchor 

7rpeo-(3vTT]s old man yecpvpa bridge 

6 yj/Lpvdos white lead oXvpa spelt 
to KtXvcpos shell, pod 

Also laxvpos strong, from Icrxvo. On the contrary, ex v P^ s aiM * "X V P (}S s ^ nra ^ 
from i'x<o y as also other adjectives in -vpos, have the v short. — The follow- 
ing words are also best pronounced long, though they also occur as ? on 



KoXXvpa sort of loaf 
Xenvpov rind 
ciavXop asylum 
dvTr) cry 
apvva defence 
dpvpoiv blainclcss. 



v 7, PROSODY. 15 

pvpUrj tamarisk Kopvvrj club 

nXrjppvpls flood-tide ropvvq stir ring- stick. 

The following proper names are also long : 

2rvp(paXos, <&dpo-a\os, Tlpiairos, "Aparos, Arjpdparos, 'Aya-ny?, AevKdrr]?, Ey- 
cppdrrjs, TSKpdrr]?, Qeava>, 'iacrcoz/, "Apaats, "Sdpanis Serapis.* 

TUvpnros, 'Evnrevs, 2ept<po?, Ypdv ikos, Kd'iKos, Qoivlkt], *Oaipis, Bovaipis, 'Ay^t- 
<xr)s, A'iyiva, Kapdpiva, 'A&poh'iTrj, 'Ap<pirpm;. 

Aiovvcros, 'Ap(ppvcr6s, Kapj3varjs, 'Ap^vray, Kcokvtos, Brjpvros, v A/3v8o?, Bl6v- 
vos, Ud^vvov, KepKvpa or Kopuvpa. 

For a list of the words of the third declension, which have the penult long 
in the Gen. and other oblique cases, see Appendix E, Third Declension. 

Note 8. Not unfrequently, however, the first syllable of words, by some 
change or by composition, comes to stand in the distinctive or audible place 
(note 7) . As such, the following deserve particular notice, having the first 
syllable long : 

\jfi\6s bald \ltos little vikk] victory 

6 %ik6s fodder ptKpos small kXlvi] bed 

6 Xtpos hunger np,f) honour divij whirlpool. 



■q pwos 



hide 



6 Qvpos mind 6 xpvcros gold (fivXr) tribe 

6 pvpos shaft Xvprj outrage vkij forest, stuff 

6 xv pos fluid, sap gvv6s common XvTrr) grief 

6 x v ^ds juice icvcpos crooked rrvyrj posteriors 

6 rvpos cheese ^XV sou ^ f^ vr ) pretext. 
6 Trvpos wheatf 

arr) destruction cppdrcop class-fellow rpaxvs rough. 

6 8aX6s firebrand f] acppayis seal 

In the barytone verbs, ending in a simple <o appended to the root, i and v 
are always long (except in yXvcpco carve) ; e. g. rpi[3a>, crvpco, if/vx®, etc. But 
a on the other hand is short, e. g. ciya, ypdcpco. — For verbs in dvco, Ivco, vvco, 
see § 112. n. 6. — Of the contracted verbs, the following deserve particular 
notice, as having the first syllable long : 

Kiveco move 8t(pdoo dive (pva-dco blow 

• piyeco shudder crvkdco plunder piyoco freeze. 

(riydco be silent 

The knowledge of all these words is useful, not only in respect to ordinary 
derivatives, as anpos, a^rvxos, erpiftov, Starpt'/3o), ipfipidr]s, etc. but also for 
many proper names, as Hermotimus, Demonicus, Eriphyle, etc. 

Note 9. All words nearly and clearly related to another word, or de- 
rived from it, have regularly the same quantity as the root. In verba] 
nouns, however, there are some forms which adopt, not the long vowel of 
the Present, but the short one of the Aor. 2. This takes place : 

a) In some nouns in rj, as rptfir], dtarpX^r], dva\jsvxyi 7rapa\jrvx^- On the 
other hand, ^rvxr] soul. 

b) In some adjectives in rjs, G. eos, as evxpii///?, drpi(3rjs, 7ra\ivTpifii]s, and 
subst. naiboTpij3r]s. 

Note 10. The rule that one vowel before another is short, which in Latin 
is uncertain, is even less applicable in Greek. Still, a long vowel before 
another vowel is far more rare, than before a simple consonant ; and espe- 

* The Ionic forms often furnish here a help to the memory in respect to a, hav- 
ing 7] instead of a ; e. g. 2Tvp<pr}\os, Uplrjiros. 
t On the other hand nvpSs, Gen. of rb irvp, fire. 



16 PROSODY. § 7. 

cially the forms of nouns in tos, iov, and ta, are always short, with the ex- 
ception of 

toy arrow"* alida insult Kovia dust 

Kakid nest avla grief *AKadrjfiia y 

and even of these avla and Kovia occur in the epic poets as short. Generally 
speaking, one vowel before another was probably in many cases doubtful, 
even in common usage ; and such instances were treated by the poets, and 
particularly the epic poets, with still greater freedom. f Especially dim- 
cult to determine is the ending of the Present of verbs in va> and la>, which 
we must leave for the most part to the learner's own observation. We re- 
mark only that in the senarius, many of those which have a long vowel in 
the future, are always employed in the present also as long, viz. daicpva), 
fj.rjvvco, laxuco, aXvco, Sugo, Qva>, <pva>, \vco, va>, nplco, XP l0i - l* 1 the other kinds 
of verse, many of these and also of the others are doubtful. — The following 
words deserve notice as having the a long : 

6 \a6s people 6 vaos temple 

kclcd (for Kaico) burn Kkda> (for Kkala) weep; 

further, the penult in \lr)v or \iav very, 'Eroai Bellona ; and of those in ia>v 
and dav, all which take o in the Genitive, consequently the comparatives 
(e. g. j3ekrlcov) and many proper names, as 'Ap-cplcov, 'YTreplcov, Ma^acoy, 'A/xu- 
Odcov, G. ovos. On the contrary AeuraXiW, ®opp.la>v, G. covos, have the i short. 
— As to proper names in aos, those of which Ado's- is a component part, have 
the a of course long ; besides these we have 

5 ' Ap,(pidpao$ long, Olv6[iaos short. 

12. Thus far we have treated of the prosodical laws of the lan- 
guage and the quantity of syllables in a grammatical sense. We 
subjoin what is necessary to be said upon that part of prosody call- 
ed Poetic Usage, which in part belongs to the subject of metre. 
As the general rule, we may remark, the poets were bound by 
the natural quantity of syllables, as it existed in the common 
language. Still the different species of poetry and of verse had 
a great influence on the prosody. There was especially a great 
difference in this respect, between the hexameter of the Ionic epic 
poetry, and the iambic trimeter or senarius which was the prin- 
cipal verse of the Attic drama, and according to which also the 
iambic and trochaic measures of this species of poetry were gen- 
erally regulated. 

Note 11. This Attic poetry had fewer poetic licenses; and regulated 
itself essentially according to the actual pronunciation q£ the Athenian 
people. The hexameter on the contrary, which followed originally the old 
Ionic pronunciation, allowed the poet in particular cases great freedom. 
The other kinds of poetry occupied the middle ground between these two ; 
and hence, even in the drama, those parts which in the expression of pas- 
sion departed most from the language of ordinary conversation, especially 
the lyric passages and choruses, employed more or less not only the forms 
but also the licenses of the epic language. Even the tragic senarius differed 
in such passages from that of comedy, which every where followed closely 
the language of ordinary life. 

* On the other hand, rb fou (t) the violet. 

t For the sake of the metre the eph poets could lengthen the i even in 'AckA*, 
7nr>f, 'lAiov, an fill), etc. See note 14. 



§ 7. PROSODY. 1? 

Note 12. To the peculiarities of the hexameter in respect to the quantity 
by nature, (see no. 6, 7, above,) belong especially the two following words, 
which in the Attic language are every where employed as short : 

koXos beautiful, 'icros like; 
but in. the epic language they are long, and the latter is therefore written 
laos. It is also to be noted, that dpd> epic dpi), curse, is in the Attic poets 
short, and in the epic, long; while dpi) misfortune is every where short. 
Others again have in the epic poets a quantity entirely doubtful, especially 

dvr)p man, "Aprjs Mars, 
of which the first syllable is elsewhere always short. Hence, even in the 
exclamation *Apes, "Apes, which occurs several times in Homer, the first a 
is long, the second short. 

Note 13. This difference between the two kinds of poetry is particularly 
conspicuous in respect to position. In the softer Ionic dialect the junction 
of a mute before a liquid is of itself sufficiently harsh ; and hence in the 
epic poets, especially the older ones, this case forms almost every where a 
position. Among the Attics, on the contrary, the rules above given (no. 
9, 10) for short syllables, hold every where good in the comic senarius, 
while the tragic poets follow more the epic usage. 

13. In many cases the Rhythm alone occasioned in the poets 
a deviation from the usual laws of quantity. These are in the 
strict sense poetic licenses ; because they arise solely out of the 
necessity of the versification, and have no root in the language 
itself; and because the nature of a syllable thus arbitrarily em- 
ployed is not thereby really changed. 

Note 14. Still we are not to suppose that this license was without re 
straints, any more than the others ; for this would have destroyed the 
charm of the versification. Those old bards were limited by their feelings 
and taste in such a manner, as to admit of these rhythmic licenses only in 
certain words and forms, and in particular cases. So especially : 

1) In proper names: ' Air6Xka>vos with a prolonged, 'EXevaividao with the 
first i shortened, Hymn. Cer. 105, comp. 97. 

2) In words which have too many short voiuels, as in dnoveeaSac, dddvaros, 
in both which the a of the first syllable w~as prolonged ; and hence this 
rhythmus of dOdvaros became afterwards usual among all poets. 

3) At the beginning of a hexameter, where even Homer writes 'E7m- 
| Si) — , and 3?l\e K.a- \ aiyvrj- | re — . 

14. Further, the following general rules hold good for poetry, 
especially the Homeric. When of two successive words the first 
ends, and the second begins, with a consonant, there is always 
a valid position. When however the two consonants begin the 
second word, the position is indeed regular, (e. g. Homer : "EvOa 
| a<f>cv Kara — , Xalpe \ %elv — , II. f. 73 avre | Tpooes,) but not fre- 
quent, except when the ictus comes to its aid; see note 15. 1. 
The Attics observed this position more accurately ; except that 
in this case also a mute before a liquid commonly makes no posi- 
tion ; e. g. Eurip. Iph. Taur. 1317, JToj? (pr/s ; \ t'l irvev- 1 fia ; 

15. In the dactylic hexameter, when the arsis falls upon the 
last syllable of a word (i. e. the masculine caesura, App. A. 24. b), 
not unfrequently a short syllable is thus by the force of the ictus 

B 



18 ACCENTS. § b. 

made long. This is called a lengthening by the ccesura. E. g. 
II. e. 359 <£t\e tea- \ alyvr)- \ re ko/jLl- \ aac. So a. 51 /3e- 1 Xo? e^e- 
| irevfck i- \ fak. See App. A. 20, 23, 24. 

Note 15. This mode of lengthening a syllable, however, is not often so 
simple as in these examples. More frequent is it : 

1) When the following word begins with two consonants; which species 
of position (see 14 above) without this ictus does not regularly make a 
long syllable ; e. g. otl pa ^vrjo-Kovras 6pa.ro. 

2) When the following word begins with a liquid; because such a letter 
can be easily doubled in pronunciation; e. g. II. e. 748 e/ Upr] \ 8i 
pa- | crriyt — . 6\ 274 apa \ 8i vecpos | eiVero — , pron. demmastigi, denne- 
plws. The p especially can be so easily doubled in such cases, that 
even in the Attic poetry, in the thesis as well as in the arsis, a short 
vowel before p is very commonly made long ; e.g. in the arsis of the 
senarius, — tov \ irpocrco- \ nov to. \ paicr), Aristoph. Pint. 1065 ; and the 
thesis of the spondee among anapaests, — avrat \ Se pi- | vas ex ov ~ I °~ tv » 
id. Nub. 343. Indeed, where a short syllable was necessary, the p 
was even avoided. 

3) When the following word had the digamma • the aspiration of which 
could in like manner easily be increased. Hence the verses of Homer 
so often close with the possessive os (from e) in this manner : Svyare- 
| pa rjv, — noo-e- \ 'i a>. See § 6. n. 3. 

16. In the dactylic hexameter, further, there is also this rule, 
viz. that a long voivel or diphthong at the end of a word be- 
comes short when followed by another vowel ; e. g. eifKev a- \ pi- 
<7to?, — eao-erai | aXyos, • — cro- \ (jxorepTj | dWcov. When however 
this case coincides with the arsis, the syllable remains long ; in 
other instances, rarely ; except before the digamma, as has been 
already remarked, § 6. n. 3. On the other hand, in the Attic se- 
narius this mode of shortening a long syllable was unknown ; the 
case being always avoided as hiatus. 

Note 16. In the middle of a word also the shortening of a long vowel or 
diphthong before a vowel sometimes occurs ; but only in certain words and 
forms, which must have had some such tendency in their pronunciation ; 
as in 77oieu/ (often written Troelv), ttoIos and its correlatives, olos, toiovtos, 
etc. But every such long sound is always shortened before i demonstrativum 
($ 80), e. g. tovtovi, avrrji, avrau, etc. also in the epic eneir] for eVeiS^. 

§ 8. Accents. 

1. Along with the quantity of syllables, the Greek language 
paid regard also to the Tone, or what we call the Accent* The 

* There is no reason for believing that the accents were a mere invention of the 
Grammarians. It is true that the earlier writers had no marks for the tone-sylla- 
ble ; nor did they need them. It was only later, when the pronunciation of words 
with a false accent was creeping more and more into the language of common life, 
that observant Grammarians introduced the stiil current marks or accents; and this 
not as in other languages only here and there in special cases, but according to a 
well-considered system throughout the whole language ; just as the Masorites af- 
terwards did the same with the Hebrew text of the Old Testament. For these en- 
deavours we owe them no small thanks, in consequence of the variable nature of 
the Greek tone 



$ 9. ACCENTS. 19 

Greek accent, however, falls just as often on a short, as on a long 
syllable ; and hence, if we utter this accent in our modern way, 
it must often injure the quantity ; e. g. TtdrjfM, ^cofcpdrr]?. For 
the manner of avoiding this, see § 9, notes. 

2. A knowledge of the accents, both in general and in their de- 
tails, is indispensable for every one who would learn the language 
thoroughly ; nor are they without practical benefit even for com- 
mon use. Very often the quantity of syllables is indicated by 
the position of the accents ; many words and forms, which other- 
wise would have the same sound, are distinguished only by them ; 
and even when they teach us nothing directly, they yet serve to 
point out to us the general laws of the tone. 

§ 9. The Acute and Circumflex. 

1. Every Grreek word, considered by itself, regularly has the 
tone upon one of its vowels ; and this is of two kinds, the acute 
and the circumflex. The acute, b%ela (sc. irpocrcpBla accent), is 
the sharp or clear tone, denoted by the mark (1). 

2. The circumflex, TrepiaTrco/xevri, i. e. the winding or prolonged 
tone, is denoted by the mark (1). It can stand only on a sylla- 
ble long by nature. 

Note 1. According to the theory of the ancients, there rests upon every 
syllable, which in our mode of speaking has not the tone, another called the 
grave or falling tone, /3apelct, Lat. gravis. But its mark (_1) is not in prac- 
tice written over such syllables ; and is to be well distinguished from the 
grave treated of in § 13. — According to the same theory, a long vowel 
marked with the circumflex is to be regarded as composed of two short ones 
which are drawn together in pronunciation, of which the first has the acute 
accent and the other the grave ; e. g. w from 66. On the contrary, when 
two short vowels accented thus, 66, pass over into a long one, this latter 
takes only the acute, co. 

Note 2. The audible expression of this difference in pronunciation is for 
us difficult. It will be sufficient here, to warn the learner against two 
principal errors. On the one hand, let him accustom himself to distinguish 
every accented long vowel (a> or co) from an unaccented one (<o), e. g. in 
avdpairos, in such a manner, however, as not to read the latter as short o.^ 
On the other hand, let him avoid also the opposite error, and not prolong 
the accented short vowels ; e. g. not pronounce oWp like &irep.-\ 

* Thus one can accent the first syllable in fri/Opcairos, and yet prolong the second. 
Something like this occurs also in English, in the words grandfather, alms-basket, etc. 

t So soon as we endeavour to accent a short syllable, there arises the tone which 
we are accustomed to mark in English by doubling the following consonant. Hence 
comes a difficulty ; since we must presume that the ancients distinguished between 
'6ti and orn, j8a\e and /3aAAe, without prolonging the vowel. To make this clear, 
we may compare the word ZcaKparns with the three similar English monosyllables 
so had they, of which the middle one is short and yet can have the tone. This is 
manifestly very different from so danced they. — It seems more difficult to pronounce 
aocpia, without lengthening the i; and it requires some practice in order to pro- 
nounce this accented short vowel immediately before another vowel. 



20 ACCENTS. tt 10, 11. 

§ 10. Words named according to the Accents. 

1. The proper tone or accent, acute or circumflex, can stand 
only on one of the last three syllables ; the acute upon either of 
them, the circumflex only on one of the last two. 

Note 1 . That cotivi and the like are only apparent exceptions, is evident 
from $ 14. n. 2. 

2. In its relation to the tone, the last syllable gives to the 
whole word its grammatical name. According as the last sylla- 
ble has 1) the acute, 2) the circumflex, or- 3) no tone at all, the 
word is called : 

Oxytonon (oxytone), as 0/37/7, ^eo?, o?, Tervcfrm 
Perispomenon (ch'cumilexed), as ^iXco, vovs 
Barytonon (barytone), as tvittco, Trpayfia, ir pay para. 

3. All barytones of two or more syllables are again subdivided 
— according as they have 1) the acute on the penult, or 2) on 
the antepenult, or 3) the circumflex on the penult — into 

Paroxytona ; tvtttcd, t€tv/jl/jl£vg<; 
Proparoxytona ; Tvirrofievos, av6p(D7ros 
Properispomena ; irpayfia, (f>iXovcra. 

Note 2. For apparent barytones, e. g. like opyr], rervcpcbs, etc. and for the. 
atona, see § 13. 

§ 11. General Rides of the Accents. 

The place of the tone in every word is learned by observation 
and practice, better than by all rules and exceptions. Still, the 
following fundamental rules may be laid down, in regard to the 
distinction between the two species of tone. 

1. The circumflex requires a syllable which is long by nature, 
i. e. from the nature of the vowel itself, and not solely from posi- 
tion. E. g. 

K7]8os, <p(os, rel^ps, ovtos, (jpJqypba. 

TLJ1CLT6, rjfUV, 7TVp. 

In these last three words the doubtful vowels a, 1, v, are long. 
A short vowel consequently, when it has the tone, can take only 
the acute ; e. g. erepos, yu-ew?, iva, 7rpos, irokv, 7r\eyfia. 

Note 1. Hence ap.rjyfxa has the circumflex only because of the 77, and not 
because of the position y/x. Since now e. g. npayixa and fxaXkov have also 
the circumflex, we hence know that the a is here long in itself, and not on 
account of the y/x and XX, § 7. n. 4. 

2. The acute can stand also upon a long vowel ; e. g. <ro(f)a)~ 
repos, Bevrepos, (pevyco, tljjh], jSacriXei)?, cjxop. 

. 3. "When a final syllable, which is long by nature, has the tone, 
it can have the circumflex ; and in contracted final syllables this 
is almost always the case ($ 28. 6) ; e. g. a\?q6eo<$ akrjOovs, Troieco 



$ 11. ACCENTS. 21 

itolo). In other instances it is, generally speaking, more rare. 
Many monosyllables have the circumflex ; e. g. irvp, (3ovs, iras, 
o$v, vvv. But among words of more than one syllable, which 
have the tone on the last, with the exception of the contracts, 
only the following take the circumflex : 

a. The adverbial ending &>?, \ 115. 3. 

b. The G-en. and Dative endings, § 33. 7. 

c. The Vocative endings ev and ol, § 45. 

4. When however a penult syllable, which is long by nature, 
has the tone, it must have the circumflex, whenever the final syl- 
lable is short, or long only by position '; e. g. 

prjfia, olvos, ^v^ps, {3a)\a% (Gr. a/co?). 
Note 2. This rule does not apply to words to which, enclitics are ap- 
pended; hence eire, ovre, &cmep, rJTts, rovcrhe, etc. § 14. n. 2. — The only real 
exceptions are the particles ewe and vai%i, prolonged from el and vai The 
accentuation vaiyi is false. 

5. On the contrary, when the final syllable is long by nature, 
the circumflex cannot stand upon the penult, but only the acute ; 
hence 

pTjTtop, dlvr), tyll^G), ^(l)pa% (Gr. CLKOS). 

6. The antepenult syllable can have only the acute (§ 10. 1). 
When however the final syllable is long, either by nature or from 
position, the antepenult cannot have the tone ; hence 

ScDKpdrrjs, auWeyo), epi/3(b\a%. 

7. The endings av and ot, although in themselves long, have 
nevertheless in respect to the two last preceding rules only the 
power of a short vowel ; hence 

Tplaivat, Trpocprjrai, 7ra>Xoi, avdpcoiroi, Plurals of rpiaiva, Trpocprjrrjs, ncokos, 

avOpcoTTOS. 
TV7TTOji.ai, TVTVTeTai, Tinrreardai, Terv^tai, Passive forms. 
7roirjcrac, arrjcrai, Qelvat, Infinitives. 
7roLTja-aiy cTTrjo-ai, Imperatives Mid.' 

Note 3. The following are exceptions : 

1) The third person of the Optative in oi and at, e. g. cpevyoi, TToifjo-at. 
2] The adverb oXkoc at home. Plur. oIkol houses is short. 
3) Words to which enclitics (§ 14) in oi are appended ; e. g. fioi, rot, as 
o'lfioi, woe is me ! rjroi, whether from rj truly, or from rj or. 

8. The a in the endings of the Attic declension so called like- 
wise permits the tone to be on the antepenult ; e. g. irokeoj?, tto~ 
\eo)v (§ 51), and N. and A. Sing, and Gr. Plur. avcoyewv, § 37. 

Note 4. So also the a> in the Ionic Gen. in ea> of the first Declension ; 
e. g. betnroTeoz for dea-jrorov, § 34. IV. 5. 

Note 5. It is now easy to see, how the learner can readily ascertain the 
quantity of many words by means of the accents. It is at once known : 

1) From the circumflex, that the syllable on which it stands, is long. 

2) From the acute in such words as KapKivos, (3&6pov, etc. that the penuli 
is short (Text 4). 

3) From the accent of such words as Kelpa, apovpa, that the last syllable 
is short (Text 4, 6). 



22 ACCENTS. §§ 12, 13. 

4) From the acute in x®P a > AqSa, "that the last syllable is long (Text 4, 5) 
Further, we pronounce the t in acnros long, and in SeocpiXos short, because 
alros has the circumflex, and (pikos the acute. So also in bUrj, a'Si/cos-, 
we recognise the short t, because the Plur. 8Uai occurs sufficiently often to 
recollect, that we have never seen it with the circumflex (Text 7). 

Note 6. Only the circumflex on monosyllables decides nothing for their 
lengthened forms ; since the monosyllabic nominatives of the third Decl. 
are always long (§ 41. n. 3. § 42. n. 2) ; e. g. irvp, p.vs, Gen. nvpos, /ivos. 

§ 12. Changes of the Accents. 

When a word is changed by decimation, conjugation, or in any 
other way, this change has in very many cases an influence on 
the accent; viz. 

1. A necessary influence, when the change is such, that the 
accent of the primary form, according to the preceding rules, can 
no longer be retained ; in such cases 

The circumflex is exchanged for an acute, e. g. olvos Cren. dlvov 

h 11. 5 ; prj/jLa Gren. prjfiaro^ k 10. 1. 
The acute for a circumflex, e. g. ripur) Gr. rifir}? k 11. 3. b ; 

favyo) Imperat. <fievye § 11. 4. 
Or the accent is removed from the antepenult to the penult ; 

e. g. avOpcoiros Gr. dv0pco7rov, apovpa Gr. apovpas k 11. 6. 

2. But even in cases where according to the preceding rules it 
would not be necessary, the accent is often, not indeed changed 
for another, but removed from its former place ; viz. 

a) The accent is drawn back ; chiefly: 1) When the word re- 
ceives in any way an addition at the beginning ; e.g. tvittw 

TV7TT6 6TV7TT6 ; 6B6$ <TVl>0$0<; ; TTCuSeVTOS aTTCLL&eVTOS. 2) 

When the cause, which held the accent to the penult in the 
primary form ($ 11. 6), falls away; e. g. ircuSevco, Imperat. 
iraiheve. More exact details and the exceptions are given in 
the notes under no. I, at the end of § 103, and in the rules 
for the composition of words § 121. 

b) The accent is moved forwards, but far the most part only 
when the word receives one of those endings, which always 
have the tone ; e. g. the Part. Perf. in c6?, as rervcfxi Part. 
rerv(f)co<; ; the Genitives of monosyllables in the third Decl. 
as ^rr/p, ^po?, § 43. n. 4 ; also many endings hi the forma- 
tion of words, § 119. 

Note. For the shifting of the tone in Anastrophe, see § 117. 3; in Apos 
trophe ) see § 30. n. 1 ; when the Augment is dropped^ see § 103. m. 2. 

§ 13. The Grave Accent. Atona. 

1. Hitherto we have considered the tone, only as it belongs tc 
every word and every form by itself. But the connection of 
words has also an influence on the tone. This takes place in two 



H 13, 14. ACCENTS. ENCLITICS. 23 

principal cases ; viz. the tone of a word is modified by its depend- 
ence either upon the following or the preceding parts of a sen- 
tence. This we call : I. Tendency of the tone towards the fol- 
lowing word or words, as shewn (1) by a depression of the acute, 
or (2) by casting off the tone ; II. Tendency of the tone towards 
the preceding word, or Inclination. 

I. Tendency of the Tone towards the folloioing Word or Words. 

2. When an oxytone (4 10. 2) stands in connection before other 
words, the acute tone or accent is depressed, i. e. it passes over 
more or less into the grave, and the final syllable thus loses its 
sharp or clear tone. This depressed acute is thus marked, 1. At 
the end of a period, however, and consequently before a point or 
colon,* the acute remains unchanged. E. g. 

'Opyrj Be iroWa Bpav avay/cd^ei K,atca. 

Note 1. According to the theory in § 9. n. 1, all syllables without the 
tone (Lat. graves) ought to receive this mark. But as this was not usual, 
the same mark was chosen for all those accented final syllables, in which 
the tone was weakened in order to connect them the more readily with 
other words in a sentence. Hence in grammar such words are never called 
barytones, but remain oxytones. 

Note 2. The interrogative pronoun rls, n, (§ 77,) is the only exception 
from this rule. For the acute on final syllables before enclitics, see § 14. 

3. The following monosyllables, all beginning with a vowel, 

ov (ovKy ov^) not, co? as, el if, 
ev in, eh (e?) into, e'f (etc) out of, 
and these nominatives of the prepositive article (§ 75) 

6, rj, ol, at, 
appear commonly wholly unaccented, because of their close con- 
nection with the following word ; hence they are called atona, 
words without tone. E. g. 6 vovs' rj\6ev ef "Aata^- t»? eV irapo- 
Brp' ov yap iraprjv. 

4. So soon however as such words are no longer in connection 
with the following words, whether they stand alone, or at the 
end of a sentence, or after the words on which they depend, they 
immediately take their tone. E.g. ov no; 7rco? yap ov ; ivhy 
not? ^"eo? co? irlero as a god; ovBe /catcayp ef, for etc /ca/ccov. 

Note 3. These words stand, in respect to the tone, nearly in the same 
relation to the following word, as the enclitics do to the preceding one ; 
hence they are now often called, after Hermann's suggestion, proclitics. 
See Ausf. Sprachl. § 13. 5, note. 

§ 14. Enclitics. 
II. Tendency of the To'ne towards the preceding Word. 
1. This is the Inclination of the tone so called, ey/cAicu?. 

* Through a misunderstanding of the ancient principle, the acute is now placed 
o/ mcst editors also before a comma. 



24 ENCLITICS. $ 14. 

There is in Greek quite a number of words, of one and two syl- 
lables, which can connect themselves both in sense and pronun- 
ciation so closely with the preceding word, as to throw back their 
tone upon it. Since now these words, in respect to their tone, as 
it were lean or support themselves (iy/cXlvecrOai) upon the fore- 
going word, they are therefore called Encliticce, Enclitics. On 
the other hand, every accented word, and these enclitics them- 
selves when they retain their tone, are called orthotone, opOoro- 
vovfieva, i. e. with upright tone, not inclined. 

2. Sucli enclitics are : 

1) The indefinite pronoun rh, rl, through all the cases, as also 
the forms rod, rS, which belong to it. The interrog. rk, rl, 
ivho ? has on the contrary always the acute, § 77. 

2) The following oblique cases of personal pronouns : [xov, fjuoi, 
/jue ' crov, croi, ere • ov, ol, e • /ullv, vlv, and most of those begin- 
ning with c-(/>. h 72. n. 2. 3. 

3) The Pres. Indie, of el fit and (f>7]/il, except the monosyllabic 
2 pers. Sing. § 108. IY. § 109. I. 

4) The indefinite adverbs irais, tttj, ttoi, ttov, ttoQI, iroOev, rrore, 
which are distinguished solely by their enclitic tone from 
the interrogative particles 7r<w? ; irdre ; etc. § 116. 

/)) The particles iron, re, rot, ^nfjv, >ye, icev or ice, vvv or vv,* irep, 
pa, and the inseparable particle Be, see notes 2. 3. 

3. Whenever the inclination takes place (comp. 7 below), if 
the word which immediately precedes the enclitic be a propa- 
roxytonon (avOpcoTros) or a properispomenon (crco/xa), the enclitic 
throws back its accent upon it ; but always as an acute upon the 
final syllable ; e.g. 

avOpcdTTos ecrri, acofid fiou. 
When an atonon or unaccented word (as el) precedes, this word 
receives the accent ; e. g. el Tt?. 

4. When however the preceding word has already an accent 
of its own upon the final syllable, or has simply an acute upon 
the penult syllable, this accent of its own serves also for the en- 
clitic ; but in such cases the acute on the final syllable is not, as 
elsewhere, depressed into the grave (s s 13. 2) ; e. g. 

dvTjp Tt? • fcal rrore • (f>i\co o~e • yvvaaccov rtveov. 

5. When a monosyllable enclitic follows a paroxytone, the en- 
clitic loses its accent, and no further change takes place ; since 
here too the accent of the paroxytone serves also for the enclit- 
ic ; e.g. 

avBpa re' Xeyets ri' 

6. When one enclitic follows another, the first, after having 
thrown back its tone upon the preceding word, receives itself the 

* This particle (noiv, well, indeed) is distinguished by its enclitic form from the 
adverb of time vvv now. 



14. ENCLITICS. 20 

tone of the second enclitic, but always as an acute ; and so on, 
when several follow, quite to the last, which alone remains un- 
accented; e. g. el rfc Tivd cf)7]al fiob irapelvai. 

7. The enclitics retain their tone, that is, become orthotone (see 
I, above), when the inclination is hindered. This takes place : 

1) When an enclitic of two syllables follows a paroxyione ; 
e. g. Xoyos 7Tore e^oopet' evavrLo*; acplcjiv (note 1). 

2) "When the syllable upon which the tone of the enclitic would 
regularly have been thrown back, has been cut off by apos- 
trophe ; e. g. ttoWoI S' elaiv. 

Note 1. The more readily to -understand the rules for Inclination, the 
learner may refer them back to those for the accent of single words in con- 
nection with the number of syllables j yet without taking into account the 
quantity of the final syllable as affecting the accent. If we conceive of 
two words combined into one through the inclination, (which is really the 
case except in the writing,) then avOpcoiros eVrt must receive a second ac- 
cent, because the accent on the fifth syllable from the end is not enough 
for the word ; and so in cr%ia p.ov, with the circumflex upon the antepenult. 
On the other hand, in dvrjp tis, cfiikco ere, avdpa re, the usual accent is sufficient ; 
and only the manner in which dissyllables are inclined after perispomena, 
varies from the rule. Hence examples like yvvaiKcov rivcov sand, Iovtlvcov are 
not marked as enclitic by recent grammarians. In cases where an enclitic 
dissyllable follows a paroxytone, the inclination is said to be hindered; i. e. 
the accent of the paroxytone can not serve at the same time for the enclitic, 
e. g. \6yos 7tot€. To write here \6y6s nore would violate the rhythmic law 
of arsis and thesis, by placing two syllables with equally sharp tone in im- 
mediate succession. Hence it remains, Xoyos rrore. App. A. 20. 

8. Besides these cases, an enclitic can regularly remain ortho- 
tone, only at the beginning of a clause or sentence, or when some 
emphasis in the thought falls upon it, especially in an antithesis. 
Many of these words, however, (especially those in no. 2. 5,) 
are in their nature such, that they can never come into these cir- 
cumstances, and are therefore always enclitic. 

Note 2. Many words, which are usually connected with an enclitic in 
some particular sense, are also written with it in one word; e. g. coo-re, 
ovre, pivroi, oaris, covrivcov (§ 77). — The enclitic de (different from de but) 
occurs only in this shape (as inseparable) in ode, roaoade, code, dopovde, etc. 
(§§ 76, 79. § 116. 2, 7). Such an enclitic takes the tone of another follow- 
ing one, only in cases where the general rules require it, as oXrives elaiv, code 
re ; otherwise usually not, as ovre n. — Still, in most of the cases which be- 
long under this note, there is little uniformity in the editions; particularly, 
where the first word in such a compound (according to Text 3) must receive 
two accents. In this case we find sometimes e. g. v Epej36ade, oloo-re, fully 
written ; and sometimes only the second accent. 'Epefioade, oloo-re. 

Note 3. The demonstratives, whenever they are strengthened by de 
(§ 79. § 116. 7), move forward in all cases their own tone upon their final 
syllable; e. g. roaos, rolos — roo-oade, roioade' ttjXlkos — rrfkiKocrde' evBa — iv- 
6ade' Tolai — Toio~Lde. Since this now becomes the regular accent of the 
principal word, the Gen. and Dat. of these compounds take also the circum- 
flex upon their long vowels, according to § 33. 7. E. g. roo-ovde, Too-jjde, 
Totoicrde; on the other hand, Nom. and Ace. roo-rjde, roiovcrde. 



26 interfunction. mutations of consonants. $§ 15, 1(5. 

§ 15. Marks of Interpunction and other Signs. 

1. The Greek written language has the point (period) and 
comma, like our own. The colon is marked by a point above 
the line, e. g. ov/c r)X6ev • aX\a — . The note of interrogation 
(;) is like our semicolon. 

Note. The note of exclamation (/) lias been only very recently intro- 
duced by a few editors. 

2. From the comma the Diastole or Hypodiastole ( , ) must 
be distinguished. This serves more clearly to separate some 
short words connected with enclitics, in order that they may not 
be confounded with other similar words ; e. g. 6,tl (epic o,ttl) 
neut. of ogtls, and to,t6 (and that), in order to distinguish them 
from the particles ore (epic om) that, and rore then. 

3. The following marks have reference only to letters and syl- 
lables : 

— the Apostrophe, see § 30. 

!_ the Coronis or mark of crasis, see § 29. 
:: the mark of Dicer esis (French trema), placed over the last 
of two vowels, to show that they are to be pronounced sep- 
arately, and not as a diphthong ; e. g. ot? o-is, irpavs pra-us. 

h 16. Mutations of the Consonants 

1. In tne formation of words and derivation of forms, there oc- 
cur in the Greek language many changes of the letters, chiefly 
for the sake of euphony and easier pronunciation. These often 
make the root' very difficult to be recognised ; while they yet al- 
most always proceed from acknowledged principles. 

2. In regard to the Consonants it is in general to be observed, 
that letters of the same organ, or those which in different organs 
have the same power (§ 4. 3), are also most inclined to pass over 
into each other, or be exchanged for one another, whenever a 
change takes place in a word. 

3. This circumstance is also the foundation -of the difference 
of dialects ; as the sketch in the following notes will show.* 

Note 1. The dialects exchange most frequently for one another: 

a. The aspirates; e. g. SXav crush, Att. (p\au. So the name <pr)p for a 
centaur (man and beast) is only an earlier form for Srjp beast; opvis, 
G. opvedos, Dor. opvixos. 

b. The middle; e. g. yk^av penny-royal, Att. (3Xr]x cov ' y^, old Dor 6a' 
ofte'Xos spit, Dor. obeXos. 

c. The smooth; thus the interrogative particles and their kindred forms, 
instead of the usual 7r, (ttov, ttoos, 7toios, 6770105, ttw, etc.) have among 
the Ionics always k, (kov, k£>s, koios-, SkoIos, k&>, etc.) — So nore waen. 
Dor. ttoko.. Also Trevre jive, iEol. nep,Tre. 

* The learner must take care not to regard the following dialectic changes as 
genera 1 or frequent. In many of them the examples adduced are the only ones 
that exist 



17. $ ASPIRATES. 27 

d. The liquids; thus the Dorics say, for rj\6ov, fieXncrTos, (ptXraTos, — rjvdov, 
fievTUTTos, (pivraros; the Ionics and Attics for nvevpcov lungs, 7r\evpcov; 
for KXiftavos oven, there exists an Attic form npifiavos. — For plv and viv 
see § 72. n. 6. 12. 

e. The letters of the same organ; e. g. the Attics say yvacpevs fuller rather 
than Kvacpevs ; and rams carpet was equally good with dams. The Ion- 
ics sometimes also exchange the aspirates for the corresponding smooth 
mutes; e. g. deKopai for be-^opat take; avrcs for avOis again; Att. da<pd 
payos, Ion. dcnrdpayos, asparagus. 

*. The <x, especially with the other Unguals, viz. 

With r ; as for o~v, 77X770-/02/ near, TLocreiblov, — Dor. rv, Tvkariov, HoTcibdv. 
With 3- in the Laconic dialect always; for $eos God, Selos divine, Lac. 

crios, aelos. 
With v, as in the ending pev, Dor. /Lies', e. g. rvirropev, rvTrropes. 
With p ; thus many of the Doric tribes, instead of the endings as, tjs, 
os, as, employed in all cases ap, r\p, op, cop. 
g. The double letters with the kindred simple ones, especially £ with S ; 
e - g- £6p£ a form of 86pg roe; pd£a dough, Dor. pddda. — In many words, 
the old language and the iEolic dialect, instead, of £ and ty, transposed 
the two corresponding simple letters, e. g. ctkIvos for £ivos strange, tnra- 
Xls for yjsa\[s shears. And especially the Dorians, instead of £ in the 
middle of a word, employed commonly crd ; e. g. crvpicrbco for avpl^co, 
fxeo-dcov for pe£cov or pei£cov, etc. Comp. § 3. 2. 
Note 2. Instances of the commutation of letters which are not in the 
above manner related to each other, are exceedingly rare ; e. g. poyis and 
uokis hardly, Koelv an Ionic form for vo*~iv io think; Kskaivos, iceXaivr], poetic 
for p,e\as, pekaiva, black. * 

Note 3. Two exchanges of letters, founded on what is above adduced, are 
so frequent, that they deserve to be particularly marked, viz. 

tt and crcr 
* pp and per. 
The first of these takes place in most words, where these letters occur ; and 
the latter in very many. The forms tt and pp belong chiefly to the Attics, 
era and per mostly to the Ionics ; e. g. 

Att. Ion. Att. Ion. 

TaTTeiv — Tacrcreiv, arrange app-qv — aparju, male 

ykcoTTa — yXcocraa, tongue Kopprj — Kopcrr], cheek. 

Still, the Ionic forms are also found in the best Attic writers, and in the 
earlier ones even by preference; see § 1. n. 6. 

§ 17. The Aspirates. 

1. Every aspirate is to be considered as having arisen from the 
corresponding smooth mute (tenuis) in connection with the Spiritus 
asper. Hence the Latin mode of writing the aspirates, ph, th, ch, 

2. When therefore in composition a smooth mute and the rough 
breathing meet together, there arises from this junction an aspi- 
rate. E. g. the words eW, 8e/ca, avros, compounded with r)/xipa 
day, after dropping their respective final vowels, give 

icp?i/jL6pos, Se^^epo?, avOrjfiepos. 

3. The same takes place also in separate words ; e. g. (ovk) 
ov% ocr/o)?. Also with an apostrophe (§ 30) ; e. g. 

airo, air — a<f> ov. clvtl, clvt — av& o)v. 

* For this and similar instances, see the author's Lexilogns. II. 109. 



28 ASPIRATES. § 18. 

Note 1. The Ionics retain in "both cases the smooth mutes; e. g. eV 
ocrov, ovk &)?, lardvat — perLcrrdvai, Kardirep for KaOdirep (kclB'' airep). Comp. 
§ 16. note 1. e. 

Note 2. A singular case of this change of a smooth mute, is, when an- 
other letter stands between it and the rough breathing, as in redpunrov a 
four-horse chariot, from rerpa- and iWos ; and in some Attic contractions, 
as Soip,driov for to ipdriov (§ 29. n. 4, 5), (ppovbos from npo and odos.^ 

§ 18. Laws of the Aspirates. 

1. It is a law of the Greek language, that when two successive 
syllables would regularly begin each with a rough mute, one of 
these, and usually the first, passes over into the corresponding 
smooth of the same organ. This rule is without exception in all 
reduplications ; e. g. 

irecplXrjKa, Ke^ojprjKa, rfflrjfu, — instead of (f>ecf>. x e X' ^^' 
Elsewhere, however, in flexion and derivation, this law is observ- 
ed only in some few cases. 

2. Some few words have already in their roots strictly two as- 
pirates, of which consequently the first has been exchanged for a 
smooth. So soon, however, as in the course of formation or flex- 
ion the second aspirate is in any way changed, the first immedi- 
ately reappears. E. g. 

Root @PE<1>: Pres. rpe(j)co nourish, Fnt- 'hpe-^rco, Derivatives 
rpo<f>rj, ^peirrrjpiov, ^pefifia. 
Similar causes may also already have operated upon the primary 
form, which stands in the lexicon (the Nominative or Present), 
and not upon the forms derived from it. Hence arises the case 
apparently opposite to the former one (rpecfrcD, ^pe^co, — Sr/otf, 
Tpixos) which however is at bottom the same : 

Root ©PIX: Noni. $•/?/£ hair, Gren. rptxos, Dat. PI. ^>pi%iv, 
Derivative rp^a. 
Here belong still some other verbs (see in h 114 ^ra7rrco, &A$-, 
^rpvTTTco, Tpexco, tvcjxd) ; also the adjective Tayys, Compar. Sw- 
awv, k 67. 

3. Yery seldom, when two aspirates thus come together, is the 
second one changed. Yet this is the rule in respect to Impera- 
tives in ^tl ; e. g. Imper. Aor. 1 tikjjOtjtl for tv$Qt}6i. See n. 2. 

Note 1. In some words the Ionics change the first aspirate, the Attics 
the second, and vice versa ; e. g. x L ™ v tunic, Ion. taOcov ; evrevdev, ivravBa, 
[on. evdevrev, evdavra, § 116. 7. 

Note 2. The Passive ending $tjv, and the forms derived from it, act only 
upon the preceding 3- in the two verbs 

Sveiv burn incense, Sehai place, 
as ervdrjv, ertdrjv, redeLs. In all other verbs no such change occurs, e. g. 
ixv&rjv, a>p0d)0T)v from opdoco, Scufideis, i8pe<p8r}v, i§£\v6riv. Of the Imperative 

* Meanwhile the form (ppol/xiov (for Trpooi/juou) from Trp6 and o'ip.rj, compared 
with Srpaaaca abridged from Tapdcnrw, shows that even in the absence of the 
rough breathing the tenucs readily became aspirated before p. 



$ 19. ACCUMULATION OF CONSONANTS. 29 

ending Si, n, the Imp. Aor. 1. Pass, is the only certain ease; see in the 
verb ridrjfii § 107. m. 5. The Imperative <padl from ^77/xt, and the Homeric 
redvaOi (see $vr](TKa)), deviate from this law.— No other ending affords ex- 
amples for the general rule of this section ; for we find #eo-#e, Kopii/66$i, 
Travraxodev, etc. • 

Note 3. Among compound words, the rule is followed only in eKeyeipia 
truce, from e'x"*' an( i X ei P » a/wrex® (see the anom. verb ey©), eVac^, a7re- 
0#oy, where the regular aspiration of the it before the rough breathings 
acprj, £<p66s, (§17. 2,) is omitted. In all other compound words no change 
occurs ; as ecpvcpalvco, dficpi^ydeis, avdocfropos, etc. 

Note 4. This law, strictly speaking, extended itself also over the Spiritus 
asper, which it changed into the lenis. The clearest example of this is in 
the following verb : 

Root e EX : Pres. ey&> have, Fut. e£co, Deriv. cktikos. 
Generally however the breathing remains unchanged, e. g. acpfj, iKpalva), 
■q\i, edev. 



§ 19. Accumulation of Consonants. 

1. From the immediate juxtaposition of consonants, there often 
arises a harshness, which the Greek language endeavours to avoid. 

2. In general three consonants, or one consonant and a double 
letter, cannot stand together, unless either the first or the last of 
them is a liquid, or <y before a palatal ; e. g. ireiifyOefc, <rfc\7]p6s, 
rey^co, arey/cros. In composition, however, k and a at the end 
of the first word can remain before two other consonants ; as 
hvcrfyOapTos, 6ktttcd(tl^, Itctyvya. In all other cases, such a con- 
currence is either avoided, or one letter is dropped ; as iafyakOai 
for icrfyakcrOai in the Perf. Pass, h 98. 2. 

3. But the concurrence of even two consonants can occasion 
harshness ; and to avoid this there are certain definite rules, which 
are given in the following sections. 

Note 1. In some rare cases the insertion of a third consonant serves to 
ease the pronunciation. When e. g. the liquid p. or v, after dropping a 
vowel, comes to stand immediately before the liquid X or p, the middle 
mute (/3, d) corresponding to the first, is inserted; e. g. from r\pkpa comes 
pearjpfipia mid-day; from pepeXrjrat, came the epic pepftXercu ; and dvr\p has 
Gen. dvdpos. 

Note 2. Sometimes, but equally seldom, a consonant is transposed by 
metathesis, to a more convenient place. So arose the Nom. ttvv^ from the 
root IIYKN, which re-appears in the oblique cases ttvkvos, 7tvkvl ; etc. (See 
the Table of anom. Nouns § 58.) But even without any strong motive of 
euphony, such transpositions have occasionally been introduced ; e. g. in 
the formation of the Aor. 2, Trepda), eirpaQov ; or on account of the metre, 
KpaSia for icapSia. ; and also the reverse, drapivos for arptmos, fiaoSw ros for 
fipaftiaros, etc. 

Note 3. In the ancient language two consonants stood together more 
frequently ; one of which was afterwards dropped in the ordinary language, 
but was often retained by the poets (Epenthesis), for the sake of the metre 
or of the more energetic sound; e. g. nroXepos, 7tt6Xls, and their compounds, 
for Trokepos, ttoXis. Hence we also see how xapai on the ground and -^Gapa- 
\6s low are connected. 



30 ASSIMILATION OF MUTES. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. H 20, 21. 

Note 4. On the other hand the a has a great propensity to introduce it- 
self before other consonants (Prosthesis) ; e. g. the Ionic- Attic crpiicpos for 
fiiKpos ; and thus arose the forms crplkag, o-KeMco, [iio-yco, omadev, and others, 
from the more ancient jju\ci£, KeMa), M1TQ, (whence piyeis, etc.) oiuOev, etc. 



h 20. Assimilation of Mutes. 

1. Two mutes of different organs can stand together in Greek, 
only when the latter is a lingual (r, 8, or S-). The following gen- 
eral rule is almost without exception : 

A smooth mute admits before it only a smooth ; a middle only 
a middle ; and a rough only a rough. 

E. g. eirrd, vvktos' fSSeXvpos, epiyhoviros' d^Oo^, cpdivco. 

2. Hence, when in the course of formation or flexion two mutes 
of different organs come together, the first generally assumes the 
character of the second. E. g. by appending the terminations 
tos, 8t)v, ^ew, are formed 

from ypdcpco write — ypairro^;, yodftdrjv 
from ifXetcco braid — 7rA,e^(9e/s\ 

3. When two mutes of the same kind stand together, if one of 
them be changed, the other must also be changed. Thus from 
eirrd, uktco, come e{3$op,o<;, oySoos ; and when of two smooth mutes 
the second passes over into the rough in consequence of the ac- 
cession of the Spiritus asper ($ 17. 2, 3), the first also follows 
it; e.g. 

eirrd. rjfiepa — ecpOijfiepos, of seven days, 
vv/cra — vvy& o\r)v, all night. 

4. The k of the preposition i/c alone can stand before all the 
other mutes, and remains unchanged before them all ; e. g. i/c- 
Oeivai, eK^ovvai, itc(3dXkeiv, iicyeveadai, i/ccpevyew. See § 26. 6. 

$ 21. Doubling of Consonants. 

1. Consonants doubled are not so frequent in the Greek as in 
English. The semivowels, X, fi, v, p, a, are offcenest doubled; 
and after them t. 

2. The p at the beginning of a word, is always doubled in the 
common language, whenever in formation or composition a sim- 
ple vowel comes to stand before it ; e. g. 

eppeirov, dppeinf}^, from peirco with e and d, 

Treplppoos, from irepl and pew, 
see § 83. 2. k 120. 6. With diphthongs this does not take place , 
e. g. eupcocTTo<;, from ev and paovvvpa. 

3. The rou2fh mutes can never be doubled ; but take before 
them the corresponding smooth, e. g. 

^clttcjxd, Bdfc%os, HnOev^. 



H 22, 23. consonan rs changed. 31 

Note 1 . The poets, with the exception of the Attics, often double a con- 
sonant for the sake of the metre; e. g. ocrcrov, ottl, oniroTe, evvene, for ocov, 
etc. So also ok.x ^ o-kvtt^os, for oyor, <ricv(po?. This however does not take 
place arbitrarily, but in certain words often, in others never (e. g. en, erepo?, 
apa, avepos) ; most frequently with the semi-vowels. See more on this sub- 
ject § 27. n. 14 sq. 

Note 2. On the other hand, the same poets avail themselves, though far 
more rarely, of a simple consonant, when the common usage employs a 
double one; e. g. 'AyiAeiir, 'Oouoeu?, for 'Ay/AAeur, 'Obvaaevs. In like man- 
ner they omit to double the p; e. g. epe|e from pega. 



§ 22. The Double Letters -\fr and f . 

1. When the letters ft, tt, </>, and y, k, % come to stand before 
o-, they pass over with it into the kindred double letters *fy or £. 
E. g. by appending the future ending crco are formed from 

rpl/3a> Tptyco, \6L7tco XetycD, ypdcfxo ypdtyco 
Xeyco A-efo), 7rXefcco ifki^w, arel^G) o-tel^co, 
and with the ending of the Dat. Plur. ctl, ctlv, are formed from 
"ApajSes "Apa^i, fcopa/ces icopa^iv, cW^e? ovu^c. 

2. Here also the preposition etc constitutes an exception : e. g. 

Note 1 . We must by no means suppose, that the \js when it thus stands 
for (da and (per, and the £ when it stands for ycr and ya, are always to be 
pronounced the first like bs or fs, and the latter like gs or chs. If this 
were so, the double letters were but a poor invention. The true state of 
the case is, that before o-, the letters y and x were changed into k, and /3 
and cp into n ; and then were written together with the o- in £ and y\r. An 
evident proof of this is a comparison of the Lat. scribo^ scripsi. 

Note 2. The £ is also a double letter, and stands originally for o-§ (§ 3) ; 
Dut in the ordinary course of flexion and formation, the cases where it is 
written instead of these letters, occur for the most part only in some ad- 
verbs of place, which are formed by appending the syllable 8e ; as 'Adr]va(e 
for -ao-Se. Hi 6. 



§ 23. Consonants changed before /j,. 

1. Before fi in the middle of words, the labials or P -sounds 
((3, it, <fi) are always changed into [jl ; e. g. in the Perf. Pass, and 
in derivative words : 

rpif3co rpt/jL-/jba, \6L7tcd XeXei/i-fiat, ypd<f>co ypafi-fiT]. 

2. The palatals and Unguals are often changed before /x, viz. 
k and x (K-sounds) into y, e. g. 

7r\e/CG) irkey-fia, rev^co rervy-fiat, 
and the T-sounds, 8, ^r, r, with the double letter f, into a, e. g. 
aSo) aa-fia, irelOoa irkireia-ixai, yfrrjc^l^co ^njcbicr-fMa. 
Note. In the formation of words generally, the palatals and Unguals are 
nevertheless sometimes found unchanged before p.; e. g. duprj, eyjua, 'idpcov, 
K€v6p,b)v, norpo?. Other examples are peculiar to the dialects; e. g. from 
n(<o (OAQ) comes Ion. oo>r}, comm. 007x77. 



32 CONSONANTS CHANGED. $§ 24, 25. 

§ 24. Changes of the Linguals. 

1. The Unguals 8, S-, t, g can stand only before the liquids X, 
v, p. Before pu they are commonly changed into cr (§ 23) ; and 
£ as a double letter, does not appear before another consonant. 

2. Before other linguals they are changed into cr, e. g. . 

77S&) rjcr-OrjV, ireiOod ireicr-Teov. 

3. Before cr they are dropped, e. g. 

aBco a-crco, ireiOco Trei-crco, crcopbara crcopLa-cn, 
(f>pd£co (ppd-crcs. 
Note. For the changes of t in the abbreviations of Kara, see § 117. n. 2, 

§ 25. Changes of the Consonant v. 

1. The z; generally remains unchanged before S, &, and t. Be- 
fore the labials (ft, tt, <£, /x) it is changed into fi ; and before the 
palatals (7, k, %), into 7 with the sound of ng ($ 4. 4). E. g. in 
compounds with cruz; and eV, 

crvfi7rdcr%(0, ifi/Salvco, ovficfrepa), efjutyv%ps 
i<yicaXa), crvyyevrjs, iyy6Lpi^co 3 iy^eco. 

Note 1. In appending the enclitics (§ 14. n. 2) an exception is made foi 
the sake of distinction, but only in writing; e. g. rovye, ovnep, pron. royye, 
opnep ; see n. 4. 

2. Before the liquids X, /jl, p, the v is assimilated, i. e. changed 
into the same letter, e. g. 

crvWeyco, eWewra, ifipbevco, cruppdiTTa). 
But the preposition eV remains commonly unchanged before /> ; 
as ivpdiTTO}. 

3. Before or and £ the z> in composition is sometimes retained, 
sometimes changed into cr, and sometimes dropped (see n. 2) ; in 
flexion v is commonly dropped before cr, e. g. in the Dat. Plur. 

haipuov-es haipbo-ari • jjLi)v-e^ pLrj-criv. 
Here too the preposition iv remains unchanged ; as ivaelco, iv^eco. 

4. When after the v, a $, ^sr, or r has also been dropped before 
the <t (k 24), the short vowel becomes long, e. g. 

irdvr-es ird-cTL, TWJravTes tv^Hcti (§ 46) ; 

in order to which, e passes over into ei, and o into ov ($ 27. 2), e. g 

<T7rev$-co, Fut. cnreLarw e/eovr-es, Dat. e/cov-criv. 

Note 2. Exceptions to these rules are verbal forms, like Tre^avaat (2 
Perf. Pass, from (patva), Treiravais, subst. from ireiraivoi ; also the nominatives 
of words in Decl. 3 having vOos in the Gen. as 71 e\pivs worm, fj ireipivs 
basket-wagon, Tipvvs. 

Note 3. Sw and ttoXiv before simple cr, change their 'v into c, as avcrai- 
ria, 7raklaro-vTo?. When, however, cr is followed by another consonant, and 
also before £, avv drops its v, as crvuT-qpa, crvaKiafa, av^vyia; but ttoXiv coni' 
monly retains it, as naXlvaKio?. — "Ayav, except where a doubling or assimi- 
lation takes place (as dydwufio?, dydppoos), every where drops the i>, as 
dyaaOevq?, dyaK~kvTo?. 



$ 26. MOVABLE 7INAL LETTERS. 33 

Note 4. By the ancients, the v at the end of words was also pronounced 
according to the principles of this section, when the following word began 
with a consonant; especially in the article and in prepositions. E. g. rbv 
Sozfiov, iv 7rvpi, avv Kapncp, were pronounced thus : Top.fi(op.6v, ep-nvpi, avy- 
Kapna. In old inscriptions, which do not separate the words, such instances 
are often thus written. 

§ 26. Movable Final Letters* 

1. Certain words and endings have a twofold form, with and 
without a final consonant. The first is commonly used before a 
vowel, the latter before a consonant. 

2. Here belongs particularly the movable v, called in Greek 

V €<p€\fCV(TTLfc6v, 

which the Dat. Plur. in criv, and in verbs all third persons in ev 
and iv t can cast off or retain, see n. 2 ; e. g. 

iraaiv elnev avro, naai yap etVe tovto 
€rv\j/eu ep.e, ervy\re ere 
\eyovcrtv avro, Xeyovai tovto 
Ttdrjatv V7TO, tl6t]o-l kclto.. 

3. A similar v is also found in the following words and forms, viz. 

1) The local ending acv derived from the Dat. Plural ; e. g 

'OXv/jbirlao-iv at Olympus, h 116. 3. 

2) The epic termination <j>iv. § 56. n. 9. 

3) The numeral eUoo-iv twenty ; where, however, the form 

without v can also stand before vowels. 

4) The adverbs irkpvcnv and voacpiv. 

5) The enclitic particles /cev and vvv. k 14. 

6) Sometimes the l demonstrative. § 80. n. 3. 

4. Of the same character is the ? in ovtcds, ovtco, so ; and also 
in fjuexpts, ayfiis, until; except that the last two often stand with- 
out ? before a vowel. 

Note 1" The Ionics omit the v also before a vowel. On the other hand-, 
it is used not only by the poets even before a consonant in order to make a 
position j but it was also frequently employed in this manner in the Attic 
prose, in order to give energy to the tone. Besides these cases, it stands 
also in correct editions, without reference to any following word, at the end 
of sections and books; in short everywhere, wherever the discourse is not 
immediately connected with something following. For metrical reasons the 
v is also written at the end of most kinds of verse, even when the next 
verse begins with a consonant. 

Note 2. This last circumstance shews clearly, that this v is not, as is 
generally supposed, merely an invention for the sake of euphony; but that 
this, as well as the other final letters of the kind, certainly belonged to the 
ancient formation, and was first droned before consonants, as the language 
became softer. Hence there are also other forms, which cast off their final 
letters among the Ionics, or for the sake of metre ; as the adverbial termin- 
ations 6ev and kis; e. g. aXXode for aXXodev, 7roAAa/a for noWa/cis; axpkp.a and 

* These are called movable, not because they are simply audible, as the term im- 
plies in Hebrew grammar; but because they may be added to certain words, or 
removed from them, at pleasure, in certain circumstances ; and in distinction from 
fixed letters, which cannot be thus removed. Comp. § 87. n. 2. and n. 5.1. — Tr. 

c 



34 CHANGES OF THE VOWELS. § 27 

arpepas. — Exactly similar to the movable v, is also the v in composition with 
a privative; e. g. avainos. § 120. 5. 

5. The particle ov not, no, takes before a vowel a final a;, and 
consequently, before the rough breathing, a final % ; e. g. 

ov irapeo-Tiv, ov/c eveorriv, ov% vireaTiv. 
When however this particle stands at the end of a clause, or where 
there is a pause in the sense, the k falls away ; e. g. tovto 8' ov, 
but this not. Ov • aXX b'rav — , no : but when — . 

6. The preposition e'f out of, has this form only before vowels 
and before a pause ; e. g. 

e£ ijjbov, ef orov, tca/ccov ef. 
Before all consonants the ? of the double letter £ (/e?) falls away, 
and the k remains ; e. g. 

etc rovrov, etc ^aXacrcrris, iic yrjs. 
This k remains unchanged, at least in the written language, also 
in composition ; where it forms the exceptions mentioned in § 20. 
4. § 22. 2. 

$ 27. Changes of the Yowels. 

1. The vowels are changed in Grreek, as in all other languages , 
but without any fixed universal law. In flexion and in the near- 
est derivatives, when the primary vowel or diphthong is exchang- 
ed for another, this latter may be called the alternate vowel or 
sound (Grerm. Umlaut) ; meaning simply the corresponding vowel 
or diphthong, which thus alternates with that of the ground-form, 
or into which that of the ground-form is changed. E. g. Tpeiroj 
I turn, erpaTTov I turned, rpoiros turn, trope ; where the a and o 
in the latter words are the alternates of e in the first word. 

2. To the change of vowels belongs also the lengthening and 
shortening of a sound ; both which, however, are generally con- 
nected with some other change ; e. g. a into r\. So too when 
from any cause the sounds e and o are lengthened, they seldom 
pass into r\ and co, but are changed, 

e into ei, o into ov. 
Comp. note 1 ; also k 25. 4. § 41. 4. § 46. 2. 

3. All these changes of the vowels constitute another prin- 
cipal part of the peculiarities of the dialects ; of which the fol- 
lowing notes give a general view. Comp. h 16. 3. 

Notes. 
1. The Ionics thus lengthen the e and o of the other dialects, chiefly 
however when these sounds are followed by the semi- vowels ; e. g. £e«/oy 
€?veK.a, v7T€ip, for t-tvos strange , eve<a on account of, virep over; vov<ros, ovvopa 
TrouXvr, Kovpn, for v6<ros disease, ovopa name, 7rahv? much, Koprj maid; — or elst 
when the e is followed "by another vowel, e. g. \eiovcn lions, o-ivfios cave 
Xpvaeio? for xpvcreor golden. Of these licenses the poets also availed them- 
selves, especially the epic. But here too the same caution holds good, as 
above in the doubling of consonants (§ 21. n. 1) ; for the change in question 
was never admitted in some words, e. g. in 7roAir, 6Vor, /uez/or, 7repi, etc. 



$ 27. CHANGES OF THE VOWELS. 35 

2. When a and o before a vowel are lengthened by the Ionics, they pass 
over into at and oi ; e. g. deros eagle, dec always. Ion. aUros, alei- noa grass, 
Ion. wolrj. 

• 3. In other instances the Dorics, Ionics, and poets take the directly op- 
posite course, and write e. g. efie£e for eSet£e (from SeUvvpi), pefav, Kpeacrcou, 
^epof (G. of x et '/°)» f° r / Ltet 'C &)J/ > e ^c. — For fiovXeorOe stands the antique /3dXe- 
cr#e (§ 5. n. 3) ; and for the Ace. in ov?, Dor. or, see Dec. II. 

4. Elsewhere the Dorics and iEolics often have a> for o and ov, and before 
o- also ol for ou. E. g. Kwpos for Kopor or icovpo? boy, bcokos for SowAo? stave, 
o)v (also Ion.) for ow, Mcoo-a and Moio-a for Mouo-a, dKoiaco for aKouora) from 
a/couo). 

5. The 77 in Greek words has arisen in most cases out of the a, which 
pr ad animated in the more ancient language, and remained afterwards the 
characteristic vowel of the Dorics ; who instead of 77 commonly had a long; 
e. g. dpepa for rjpepa day, (papa for (})r]prj rumor, crrdvat for crrrjuai. The same 
takes place also in the solemn poetry of the tragic choruses. Comp. § 1. 
2, and n. 12. 

6. When, on the contrary, the Ionics in some single instances change 77 
into a, this a is short; as in dpapvla for dprjpvla, TtOakvia, etc. Hence in 
the Ionic forms XeXao-pac from Xrjda>, peaapfipia for peo-r]p(3pia, the a must 
not be lengthened in pronunciation, as in the Doric. 

7. Elsewhere the Ionics prefer throughout the 77, and commonly use it 
instead of long a; e. g. rjpiprj, crocplr], for -a; r\r\p, rjepos; for drjp, depo? ; Irj- 
rpos, Qa>pr]£, for larpos physician, Qcopaf- Gen. clkos breast-plate; 7rpf)<rcroo, 
Trprjypa, for Tvpda-crco, irpdypa. — Hence also vrjvs, yprjv?, for vavs, ypavs ; and 
even 77 for ac in the Dat. Plur. in 77?, 770-1 of Dec. I. 

8. For e the Ionics use 77 only in some cases of flexion (as /3acr 1X770.), and 
in the diphthong ei, which they often resolve into 771; e. g. kXt]'i? for KXei'v, 
dyyrflov for dyyelov, fia<rikr]tr) for fiao-tXeia (§ 28. n. 3). — The Dorics for ei 
before a vowel have 77; e. g. crapfjov for 0-777x6107/. 

9. In most instances the Ionics change a before a liquid or a vowel into 
e; e. g. recrorepe? for reo-aape? four, eparju for apcrrjv male, veXos for 75aXos 
glass, pvia for pvda mina, and in the verbs in dco (§ 105. n. 8). In some 
instances, on the contrary, e is exchanged for a, as rpdirco, rdpvco, for rpeVco, 
rc/;i>cD ; peya6os for peyeOos. 

10. A particular Ionic- Attic usage is, that when long a stands before 0, 
the former is changed into e, and the latter into a> ; e. g. for Xao? people, 
vdos temple, we find Att. Aeoor, veus ; for ;(paofiai (i wse) Ion. -^piaypai; and 
thus is explained the Ionic Genitive in eco, from the antique form in ao, see 
Dec. I * 

11. The Ionics change av into a>v or <ov in the compounds with avros, and 
in the words Qavpa ivonder ($avpd£a> etc.) and rpavpa wound; as epecovrov, 
icovrov (§ 74. 3), Soovpa, rpcovpa. The simple aurds 1 remains unchanged among 
the genuine Ionics; and. covto? stands merely for 6 avros. § 29. n. 6. 

12. Examples of other vowel-changes are : 7rapoaXir, Dor. TrdpoaXiy; ovo- 
pa, iEol. ovvpa; 10-7-/77 Ion. for eo-n'a hearth. 

Notes on the Lengthening of Syllables generally. 
(With reference to §§ 21 and 27.) 

13. The merely poetic lengthening of o into o> takes place very rarely, 
as dvco, Atcbi/uo-oy, for dvo, Aiovvaos. — Whenever a, 1, v, are short in the ordi- 
nary language, but are long in the old or poetic dialect, (e. g. 'iXt'ou with 

* This change takes place also in the adj. '/Aews, av, for 'iXaos, ov; in the Gen. 
veas for va6s from vavs ; and in several proper names in aos, as Mev4\aos, 'Afi<pid~ 
paos, or -ews ,- but not in those in aos, as Olv6/j.aos. 



36 CONTRACTION § 28 

the middle syllable long, dvrjp with long a, etc.) this does not appear in the 
written form j except sometimes in the accent, as in lao? for 'Laos. 

14. In the early written language, moreover, there was no visible sign 
for a syllable thus lengthened ; inasmuch as on the one hand the letters e 
and o stood also for -q and ei, a and ov ; and on the other, the consonants 
were not written double. § 21. 1, and n. 1. 

15. The Grammarians first introduced into the works of the ancient poets, 
the mode of marking the metrical prolongation of a syllable, by doubling 
the consonants, or by long vowels and diphthongs. But here also the usage 
was never entirely settled. Very often such words were written in the 
former usual manner ; and the correct metrical pronunciation was left to 
the intelligent reader.* Of this there are still in the poets, as they have 
come down to us, many remains; thus okojjai (II. a. 342. x- 5 ) nas the sec- 
ond syllable long, and also die/ioLpdro (Od. £. 434) ; just as we sometimes 
find written e. g. ep.p.a6ev. And when the epic poets make the first syllable 
long in 'A77oXXoz/or, ajroveeaBai, avve^e^, ocpis, it is doubtful whetl.er this was 
done by lengthening the vowel, or by doubling the consonant. 

16. In modern times, many have endeavoured to restore the ancient 
usage of not doubling the consonants in writing. This has been done how- 
ever in a very unsettled and indefinite manner ; and hence the learner must 
be put upon his guard, in order that he may not be led into error, when he 
finds sometimes diroWrjyeiv and sometimes dnoXrjyeiv with the same quan- 
tity ; and sees, in various editions, the consonant in some words doubled, 
in others not. 

17. Not unfrequently however a consonant is doubled even after a long 
vowel, e. g. fictWov, fj(T(ra>v, rjrToov, Kvaicrcros, 'Y^tto?, Xeycrcrco, Kpeiacroov, 
Kpeirrcov ; and the same is the case in 7rpdo-crco (Ion. 7rprjcro-<o), Uapvacro-os 
(Ion. ITapi/770-o-oy), Kvlcraa, Krjtjucraos; in which the vowel is to be pronounced 
long. Here too some editors prefer in the proper names the ancient orthog- 
raphy, and write Ki>o>cr6V, Hapv-qaos, Kv7aa, Krjcpicro?, 'ikiaos; etc. The names 
of places in -ovcraa have arisen out of -oeacra ; thus ^Korovaaa, UidrjKovcro-ai, 
'Apyivovcrcrai, etc. But 'SvpaKovcrac, -ovcrios; with the short form "2vpa.K.6<rios, 
were already used in the ancient language. See Ausf. Sprachl. § 21. n 9. 

§ 28. Contraction. 

1. A vowel immediately preceded by a vowel in the same 
word, is called pure, and is said to have a pure, sound, i. e. a 
sound not ushered in by a consonant. More particularly, the 
endings which begin with a vowel, as a, o?, co, are called pure, 
whenever they are preceded by a vowel ; as in crcxjyla, StTrAoo?, 

2. The characteristic difference between the Ionic and Attic 
dialects is, that the former prefers in most cases the concurrence 
of vowels; while the latter mostly avoids it. (See however 
notes 1 and 5.) 

3. The usual methods of avoiding a concurrence are : 

1) Elision, where one vowel is dropped and the other re- 
mains unchanged. This takes place chiefly in the contact of 
two separate words, and in composition ; see §§ 30, 120. 

* The same usage as to orthography, in the opposite case of shortening a long 
vowel, see in § 7. 16, and n. 1G. 



J 28. CONTRACTION. 37 

2) Contraction, where two or more vowels are drawn to- 
gether into one combined long sound. This takes place ac- 
cording to the following principles : 

a) Two vowels form in themselves a diphthong. In this way 
arise ec and ot out of el and o'i, e. g. reu^el re'iyei, alSo'i alBot, § 49, 
The other proper diphthongs cannot well be formed in this man- 
ner ; but the improper ones readily, as 

a> V' <?> ou ^ °f a *» ^ W» e - £• yvp ^ VVPty ^4), ©prjlcrca 
Qpfjcraa, Xcolcttos \oxttos (§ 68). 

b) Two vowels pass over into a kindred long sound, commonly 
so that there arise the following, viz. 

rj out of ea, — rel^ea TeLyr\, Keap fcfjp heart. § 49. 

ec out of €€, — -iroiee iroiei, peeOpov peWpov stream, k 105. 

, £ i ao and aov, — Tifxaofjiev Ttfioifiev, rc/xdov tl/jLco. § 105. 

\ oa and or), — alSoa alSco, ficaOorjre puicrOcdTe. k\ 49, 105. 

( oo, — 7rA.oo? ttXovs, fuo-66o/i€v fMcrOovfiev. §§ 36, 105. 
ov out of < 06, — ifJilaOoe i/Jblo-Qov. § 105. 

( €0, — Tefyeos refyovs, Trocio/xep iroLOv/xev. §§ 49, 105. 

c) The doubtful vowels a, i, v, when short, absorb the follow- 
ing vowel, and thereby become long, e. g. 

Ion. a€0\os (a short) Att. a0\o$, struggle ; rlfiae rlfia. 

XLos Xto? {one from Xlos) ; Dat. "Ifai "I<pi. 

Plur. lx@ves and iyBvas (u short) t%#i)?, from Sing. &%0ia. 

d) A long sound absorbs a vowel either before or after it, with- 
out further change. This takes place particularly with a, e, o, 
before and after every kindred long sound, and before co; e.g. 

(ptXeo) (f)t\cb, (note 7), rifirjevros TifirjVTOS, TifidcD tl/aco, Uocrei- 

Sdcov (long a) Iloo-ecScov, \<m? X,a? stone, pnaQoovcri /.«- 

gQqvgi, ifKooi 7r\ol. 

4. When a diphthong with i (the improper ones included) is 

to be contracted with a preceding vowel, the contraction of the 

first two vowels takes place according to the above rules. The 

o is then either subscribed, e. g. 

Tvirr-eau rviTT-r) (s s 103. n. III.) 

aei-Bco a-hco, doi-Srj a>-8t], n/x-dei and Tifi-dr) — rifi-a ; 
or else it falls away, if the new sound does not admit the i sub- 
script, e. g. 

pLLo-6-6eiv fJLicrO-ovv, ^Oiroet^ 'Ottov^. h 41. n. 5. 
Note 1. What is said above includes only regular and analogical con- 
traction. Various exceptions and peculiarities occur below under the De- 
clensions and Conjugations ; and for the contraction of two words, or crasis, 
see § 29. — Moreover contraction does not take place^ even among the Attics, 
in all cases, where according to the preceding rules it could occur ; as will 
be seen below and also from observation. 

Note 2. On the other hand the Ionics, as above remarked, commonly 
neglect the contraction, and often resolve a long sound into its constituent 
parts, which had long fallen out of use among the other Greeks ; e. g. 2 
pers. Pass. Tvirreai for rimrr) ; so even (fitkeeai, liraivUai, etc. for <j>iXer] t etc 



33 CONTRACTION. § 28. 

which is commonly again contracted, <piXfj, (Att. iwra, cpiXel, according to 
§ 103. m. 18.) — The Doric dialect has many of these resolved forms, in 
common with the Ionic. 

Note 3. From the same propensity of the Ionics, comes also in the epic 
language the so frequent resolution or separation of the diphthongs in cer- 
tain "words j e. g. nd'is for ttols, otopai, evrpoxos, as also dyyrjiov for dyyelov, 
and the like ; likewise the resolution into a double sound (Germ. Zerdeh- 
nung), or rather the doubling of a vowel sound (§ 105. n. 10) ; e. g. cpdav- 
6ev, Kprjvvov, for (pdvQev, tcprjvov ; and the Ionic insertion of e; e. g. jje for rj> 
TjfKtos for rfkios, eelnocri for e'lKocn, and so ddeXcpeos, rovreov, etc.^ 

Note 4. Sometimes the Ionics even promote the concurrence of vowels 
by dropping a consonant ; e. g. repaos for reparos (§ 54). Comp. rvTrreai, etc. 
in $103. n. III. 

Note 5. There are also cases where the Ionics contract, and the Attics 
do not ; e. g. Ion. Ipos with long t, for lepos. The Ionics have also in com- ' 
mon with the Dorics a peculiar contraction of eo and eov into ev ; e. g. 
7rAe{)j/es for rrXeoves, iroi-evpevos from 770i-ed/zei/os, and iroi-evai from noi-eovai 
(comp. § 105. n. 13). — Finally it is to be observed, that the Ionic of the an- 
cient epic j employs contraction much oftener than the later Ionic prose. 

Note 6. The ancients often wrote out the vowels in full, and left the 
contraction to the pronunciation. This usage, called Synizesis (crvvlfyo-is), 
or also Synalapha (crvvaXoKpf)), has in many cases been retained in the 
works of the ancient poets, especially the epic; e. g. II. X. 282 "Acppeov de 
orrjdea, where the two endings cppeov and 6ea are to be pronounced as one 
syllable, thus, acppevv de ar^Or]. So #. 763 ^aX/ceoi/ (pron. ovv) de oi rjrop. 
The same occurs among the Attics very often in Seos, Seov, which otherwise 
is never contracted, and in some proper names, as NeoTrrdXe/zos. — For the 
Synizesis between two words, see § 29. n. 11. 

Note 7. The contraction above pointed out in no. 3. d, (cpiXeco <pt\£), etc.) 
could also be considered as elision or merely a dropping of the e. But in 
the middle of words, a vowel is thus dropped (except in compounds, as eVo> 
yco for em-dyco) mostly only in some Ionic elisions, as cpofieo for (pofieeo (§ 105. 
n. 7). In the cases first in question, however, there was evidently a pur- 
pose of producing a new combined sound, as is proved by the analogy of 
other examples, and by the circumflex wherever it is written (see 6, below) ; 
but the long sound already existing was adopted, or rather was retained, to 
represent this new sound. 

Accent and Quantity. 

5. When neither of the two syllables to be contracted has the 
tone, the contracted one does not take it ; e. g. TrepiifKoo^^ eri- 
uaov, contr. irepLifXovs, irl/jicov. 

Note 8. Exceptions from this general rule are rare and anomalous ; e. g 
yjpvcreoS) contr. -^pvaovs^ § 60. 

6. If however one of the two original syllables has the tone, it 
then remains also upon the contracted one ; and if this be a penult 
or an antepenult syllable, the accent is determined according to 
the general rules (H 10, 11). If it be a final syllable, it takes 

* Here it must be borne in mind, that although grammatical theory is wont to 
represent this as separation and insertion, in reference to the common form, yet 
that this common form itself may just as well be only a form originally contracted 
from the separate form, and in most cases actually is so. This can be shown in 
many instances; c. g. in ev- for i'v- from lus, since eds does not exist. 



$ 29. HIATUS. CRASIS. 39 

the circumflex, as voos vovs, ^>iXeo) <f>t\co ; unless the original form 
had the acute upon the last syllable, which seldom occurs, and 
then the acute remains, according to § 49. n. 1 ; e g. idv r\v, 
kaTaos karoos, Sat? 8a$. Exceptions are rare ; see e. g. the Ace. 
rjxoa r)X<£>, § 49. 

Note 9. Sometimes in contraction the accent is shifted; e. g. in SeXrjTos, 
(pprjTos, § 41. n. 7 ; aepyos dpyos, § 121. n. 6; also the flexion of evvovs, § 60. 

Note 10. Although every contracted syllable is in its very nature long, 
yet in some forms of declension which end in a contracted a or t, the pro- 
nunciation has so obscured these mixed sounds, that they are sometimes 
found short. So especially the Neut. Plur. in a, e. g. ra yepa (§ 54. n. 3), 
and some Datives, as KXeo/3t from KXeo/3is-, G. ios, (in Herodotus), with 
which also 8at (t) for daidi, and some similar epic forms, are to be compared 
"(§ 56. n. 5). That however some of these instances may be considered as 
an elision of the first vowel, is apparent from § 53. n. 2, 3. 

§ 29. Hiatus. Crasis. 

1. "When of two successive words the first ends, and the sec- 
ond begins, with a vowel, the breathing (spiritus) which is heard 
between them, whether rough or smooth, produces an effect call- 
ed Hiatus. This hiatus between two words was more unpleas- 
ant to the ear, at least to the Attic ear, than a concurrence of 
vowels in the middle of a word. It was therefore rarely allowed 
in poetry ; in Attic poets almost never. In prose also, the Ionic 
excepted, its frequent recurrence was avoided. 

Note 1 . The Attic verse permitted the hiatus for the niost part only after 
the interrogative tl, the particles ore and nepi, and in the phrases ovde els, 
pjSe els (§ 70. 1), ev oUa, etc. 

2. The natural means of avoiding the hiatus is by uniting both 
syllables into one. # This takes place in two ways : 1) By eli- 
sion with the apostrophe (s s 30). 2) By contracting both sylla- 
bles into one combined sound, or Crasis, Grr. KpacrLs a mingling, 
from fcepdvvvfu. This crasis, or the combination of two syllables 
of different words in writing and pronunciation, often varies essen- 
tially from ordinary contraction in one and the same word ; and 
is found, especially in prose, only in a small number of examples, 
which are given in the following notes. 

Note 2. In crasis there are three things to be particularly observed. 

a) Every crasis makes a long syllable (§ 7. 7). In this way several cases 
of crasis are distinguished from an elision by apostrophe • e. g. rdX^- 
6es, Kaperr), for to aX. Kai dp. with short a. Hence such instances as 
ravBpos must be pronounced long; and TaXka (for ra aWa) must be 
written with the circumflex ; which however is denied by some, who 
therefore write rakXa. For the sake of uniformity, other instances like 
ravroy ravrd, (for to auTo, to. avrd,) must also be referred to crasis ; 
comp. § 28. n. 7. 

b) The iota subscript is written in a crasis, only when in the original 

"* That the movable v is not to be regarded as a means of avoiding the hiatus, 
appears from § 26. n. 2 



40 crasis. $ 29 

syllables an t occupied the last place j tlras in Kara from kol eha, bu1 

not in kov for kcu av.% 
c) Over a crasis is commonly written the sign L , called coronis (nopcovls). 
Note 3. The crasis occurs most frequently in the article, e. g. 

ovk, oiml, for 6 in, 6 enX 

rovvavrlov, tovttos, for to evavTiov, to erros 

Tovvopa for to ovopa 

Tablet, raVt, for to. epd, to. enl ) 

Tayadd, raXXa, for ra dya6d, tcl «XXa \ with long a, see in note 2. a. 

TakrjOes, to.8lk.ov, for to dX. r6 a§. ) 

toircLLTcov, covrjp, for 6 aTraiToov, 6 dvfjp.f 
Similar to these are the less frequent cases of crasis in the Neut. of the 
postpositive article or Relative Pronoun (§ 75) ; e. g. 
aboge for a edege, av for a av, etc. 
Note 4. Less easy to he distinguished are those cases of crasis where 
the contraction absorbs the diphthongs ; e. g. 

ovpoL for ol e/xot 

amavTwvTes or drravT&VTes, for ol aTravTUivTes 

Tavdpos, rdi/opt, for tov avbpos, rco dvdpi (see note 2. a) ] and so TavTov, 
TavTCd (§ 74), drro TavToparov, etc. 

tqtiov for to a'tTiov, 
or where the r of the article passes over into $ because of the rough breath 
ing (§ 17. n. 2), e. g. ^ 

QolpaTiov, Plur. QalpaTia, for r6 t/x. ra t/x. 

Qr)peTepov for roG r)peTepov. 
Note 5. With eTepos the vowels of the article are commonly contracted 
into a ; which comes from the antique and Doric form aTepos (d) for eTepos ; 
thus 

aTepos, arepot, for 6 eTepos, ol eTepoi 

SaTepov, SaTepcd) QaTepa, for tov, r<w, to. er. 
Note 6. The Ionics also have the crasis, but always contract o and a 
into co ; e.g. T&yakpa, TaArjdes, tcotto tovtov for r6 oVo tovtov. In three 
words they also change the spiritus asper into the lenis, e. g 

a>pio~TOS, coXXot, courdy, for 6 apicrTos, ol aXkoc, 6 clvtos. 
So also tcovto, for r6 avTo (tcivto). § 27. n. 11. 

Note 7. The conjunction Kat also often makes a crasis; and the k before 
a rough breathing passes over into x ; e. g. 

Kav for koX iv ; kciv for kol av and kcu edv 

KaneLTa, KaKelvos, Kayw, for kol eireiTa, etc. see note 2. b. 

Kara for Kat etra 

KapeTT], klo-oS) for Kat apeTi), kcu 'iaros 

kcovos, KtoKia, for Kat otVos, Kat ot/a'a 

XaTepos for >cat eTepos ; x<*> f° r Ka * ° — • 
Other long syllables remain unchanged, as 

Kel, kov, Kev-, for kol el, ov, ev- ; Kel%ov for Kat el^ov. 
The Ionics and Dorics use rj for a, e. g. Krjv, KqireiTa. 

Note 8. The particles rot, pevToi, tjtol, also make with av and apa a long 
a, and must therefore be written as crasis, tov, Tapa, peuTav. Very often 

* Some however unnecessarily deviate from this rule, for the sake of avoiding 
ambiguity, and write k^v, K$7rerra, etc. 

t According to a critical theory which is not to be rejected, the only ordinary 
contraction of 6 with a among the Attics was into long a, e. g. avr)p (pron. hdner) ; 
at least in the more common instances, as avrip, 'dvdpawos, a5ek<p6s, etc. It is as- 
sumed, that in all cases, where in our copies only avf)p stands, and the sense seems 
to require the article, it should be written avi)p; and this is done in most of the 
recent editions. 



§ 30. APOSTROPHE. 41 

however we find r av, r apa or r apa, etc. where the ro'i (r ) must not be 
confounded with re". 

Note 9. Among the many other cases of crasis, which must for the most 
part be left to observation, we adduce only the following : 

eycppai, eyeaSa, for eycb oipat, olda 

povo-riv, povSccKevj and the like, for poi io-nv, edcoicev 

npovpyoVy Trpovk'iyov, for irpb epyov, okiyov 

ovycoXeyov for 6 eycb e\<zyov, Aristoph. 

Note 10. To crasis must also be referred all those instances, where the in- 
itial vowel of a word is absorbed by a preceding long vowel or diphthong, e. g. 

ovvena for ov eveica 

oOovvtKa for otov eveica (comp. n. 4), which is very often incorrectly 
written o0' ovveica 

tovdpame, oovep, cova^, for a> avdpcoire, clvep, ava£. 
To avoid ambiguity, however, most cases of this kind are written as elisions, 
and marked with the apostrophe, e. g. 

2> 'yade (dyade) — rrj 'prjpia (eprjpia) 

7rov 'otiv [icrTiv) — eycb V rot? (eV). 
Hence some grammarians distinguish such examples from elision in the 
strict sense (§ 30), and also from crasis, by calling them Aphceresis (dcpai- 
pecris).^ 

Note 11. Many other contractions were never expressed in writing, but 
left to the pronunciation, as cases of Synizesis (§ 28. n. 6), here also called 
Synecphonesis (avveKCpcbvrjcrts), which however it is not always easy for us 
to determine ) e. g. iirei ov as an iambus (Soph. Philoct. 446) ; prj ov in 
Attic poetry always as one syllable. So too in Homer, II. e. 446 i) eiVo/cezt 
as a dactyl ; II. p. 89 — ao-fte j arco ot>6° vl- | bv — . 



§ 30. Apostrophe. 

1. In Greek, as in other languages, when a short vowel at the 
end of a word is removed by elision before another vowel, an apos- 
trophe _! is set over the empty place ; e.g. 

iir ejjbov for eirl ifMov. 
When the following word has the rough breathing, and the elided 
vowel was preceded by a smooth mute, this latter becomes rough 
017.3); e.g. 

a<p ov tor airo ov. 

2. In prose there are certain words of frequent occurrence, 
which most commonly suffer elision, especially : 

1) All Prepositions of two syllables ending in a vowel, except 
irepL § 115. 2. 

2) Many Particles, as aWd, apa and apa, elra, afia, en, Xva ; 
Be, re, yi, and their compounds ware, etc. 

* That all these are real cases of crasis, just as cpiXeco cpiAeb is a real contraction, 
is shewn by the analogy of many acknowledged instances, as aSo|e, rant, byre pa 
(rrj ere'pa) ; and by the circumstance that such an elision is never found after a 
short vowel. — This plainer mode of writing such instances of crasis sometimes has 
difficulty ; especially when the syllable that has been absorbed, had the accent, 
which we then often find written over the empty place ; e. g. el psti "x 01 ^ 1 i^X 01 ^)- 
\11 such case?, as well as those above, must be regarded as if written p^x° l ^k 
ropTipiq, etc. 



42 APOSTROPHE. § 30. 

3) Certain frequent combinations, as vrj Ala (vrj Ai), ttovQ 
ocra, olcrO'' ore, rovr eart, etc. 

4) Very often the short vowel of a word before dv, e. g. /idXtcrr 
dv, ravr dv, ^av/Jbd^ot/Jb dv, etc. 

Such elision occurs least of all in Ionic prose. The poets, on the 
other hand, avail themselves of this freedom in respect to most 
of the short vowels. The only limitation is, that short v, and 
monosyllables in a, i, o, (the epic pa excepted,) are never elided. 

3. In Prepositions and Conjunctions, if the elided vowel had 
the accent, this is also cast off with the vowel ; e. g. dir from 
diro, ahX from dXkd, ov& from ovoe. In all other words, the ac- 
cent is thrown back, always as an acute, upon the preceding syl- 
lable ; e.g. 

(Kdfcd) /cdfc 67T7], (Deivd) cjelv eiraOov, ((fyrjfil) (pij/J? iyco, 
(rcvyaOd) rdyd& av^ercu, (eTrrd) €ttt eaav. 

Note 1. Enclitics of two syllables, after paroxytones, must not in case 
of elision be treated like those of one syllable which merely cast off their 
accent (§ 14. 5) ; but they follow the preceding rule. This however, for 
the sake of clearness, is not always observed. E. g. Soph. El. 542, "Aidrjs 
t'iv t[i€pov (for Tiva). 

Note 2. It is very difficult to determine any rules for the use of elision 
in prose ; since he, otto, etc. which are most commonly elided, are also often 
found without apostrophe. The investigation is so much the more difficult, 
since it is proved, that the ancients very often wrote a vowel which was 
elided in speaking. 

Note 3. The Dative Sing, in i and the particle on are never elided by 
the Attics ; and by the epic writers, for the most part, only when no con- 
fusion can thereby occur with the more frequently elided Ace. in a and the 
particle ore ; e. g. iv dair — , dorrip oneopiva- — , yiyvcoo-Kcov, or avaKtas. 

Note 4. The third persons of verbs, which have the movable v, can be 
elided by the poets according to the necessities of the metre. So the Dative 
Plural; except that the forms of Dec. I and II, in mat, yen, oieri, which in 
the earlier language are the common ones, coincide then with those in ais, 
j]s, ots, and therefore take no apostrophe even before a vowel. The elision 
of the Dat. Plur. of Dec. Ill, was avoided j because this case would then 
almost always be like the other cases which terminate in $•. The strength- 
ened epic form in eren, e. g. x e '<-P e<T(Tl > wocr&i, sometimes admits it. 

Note 5. The poets elided, though seldom, the diphthong at; but only io 
the Passive endings p,ai, erai, rat, erOai, e. g. $ov\eerd' eefir), epx ^' %X° iV ' ^ ne 
at of the Inf. Aor. 1 Act. is never thus elided ; but rather, when it seems 
to be elided, it makes a crasis with the syllable following.* Whether the 
Datives jioi, eroi, were elided, is still very doubtful ; see the Ausf. Sprachl. 
[. $ 30. n. 6. — To crasis, and not here, belongs all that is elsewhere ad- 
duced as instances of the elision of long syllables, viz. Kai and rot (§ 29. n. 
7, 8). So too the apparent elision of rd, to (ib. n. 2. a), and of initial vow- 
els (ib. n. 10). 

* This at, of the Inf. never falls away before a short vowel in such a manner that 
the syllable remains short; but in every instance the metre requires or admits a 
long syllable. According to the rule in the preceding section then, (comp. § 29. 
n. 2. a,) all such instances are to be regarded as cases of crasis ; where however, 
for the sake of clearness, the apostrophe must be used ; in the one case thus, ytda" 
vfias for yevo-cu v/xas (long u) ; in the other thus, yrj/xai 'irrjpe (eV^pe) ; unless we 
prefer to write the svllables in full, as a case of Synizesis. 



PART II. 



GRAMMATICAL FORMS AND FLEXION OF 
WORDS. 



§ 31. Parts of Speech. 



1. Strictly speaking, there are only three principal parts ol 
speech. Every word which names or denotes any subject or ob- 
ject is a Noun (nomen) ; the word by which something is predi- 
cated of any subject or object is called a Yerb ; and all other 
words, by which the discourse thus constituted is rendered more 
definite, connected, and animated, are called Particles. 

2. It is however customary to make several important subdi- 
visions of these principal parts ; and hence in most languages it 
is common to assume eight parts of speech; viz. (I.) The Noun, 
which has its own subdivision of Substantive and Adjective ; and 
from which are separated : (II.) the Pronoun, which includes also" 
the Article; and (III.) the Participle, which as to Syntax be- 
longs to the Yerb. (IY.) The Yerb remains without subdivi- 
sion; but the Particles are subdivided into (Y.) the Adverb, 
(VI.) the Preposition, (VII.) the Conjunction, and (VIII.) the 
Interjection ; of which, however, the last is commonly reckoned 
by the Greek Grammarians among the Adverbs. 



THE NOUN AND ITS DECLENSION. 
§32. Gender. 

1. The gender of nouns, whether masculine, feminine, or neu- 
ter, is commonly known from the terminations ; as will be point- 
ed out under the several declensions. To mark the gender in 
grammar, the article is usually employed, viz. 6 masc. rj fern, to 
neut. For the mode of declining the article, see § 75. 

2. The names of persons, (man, woman, god, goddess, and the 
like,) have their gender according to the sex, let the termination 
be what it may ; e. g. r) ^fvydrrjp the daughter, rj was the daugh- 
ter-in-law. But diminutives in ov are always neuter ; e. g. to 
yvvaiov from yvvrj woman, to fiecpaKiov from fietpa^ a youth. 



44 GENDER. DECLENSION. ^§ 32, 33. 

Note 1 . The word to dvdpdnobov slave is neuter, because the slave was 
not regarded as a person, but only as an article of property. Neuter also 
is to TeKvov or to t€kos child, and the Plur. to. rraidiKa darling, used instead 
of the Sing, these being classed with diminutives — Nevertheless, in con- 
struction, all words which do not stand in immediate contact with such 
personal neuters, are referred to the true gender and number ; thus Homer 
even says tzkvov cplXe. See Syntax, § 123. n. 3. § 129. 11. § 143. 5. c. 

Note 2. It follows from the above, that every personal appellative which 
is common to the two sexes, is in grammar also of the common gender; e. g. 
6 civOpamos the man, rj avOpconos the woman. Also 6 and 77 Seos god and 
goddess, 6 and 77 Tpo(p6s male and female nurse, 6 and 37 cpvXag male said, female 
watcher, and the like ; although in many such cases there are special femi- 
nine forms, as 37 Sea, goddess. These however were less employed by the 
Attics. 

Note 3. Many names of animals are in the same manner common; e. g. 
6 and 77 (3ovs ox and cow, 6 and 37 iWos- horse and mare. — In most instances 
one gender serves for both sexes, and this is called, if masculine or femi- 
nine, epicene, Genus epictznum (eiriKoivos) ) e. g. 6 Xvkos wolf, 77 oXcotttj^ fox. 
But in nouns of common gender also, one of the genders is that of the species, 
e. g. 6 miros horse, generally and indefinitely, al alyes goats, i. e. the whole 
species. In general the fem. has here the preference ; thus al /3oes- is very 
often (but only in the Plur.) cattle generally. Thus apicros bear and /ozp?- 
\os camel, when the marking of the sex is not essential, are commonly 
feminine (37 apicros, fj mp-rfkos), even when used of the male animal; and 
the same is very often the case with eXacpos deer and kvcdv dog. — The fem. 
?/ Ittttos has moreover the special signification cavalry. 

3. Masculine, as in Latin, are the names of nations, as oi %icv- 
6ai, oi TaXdrai ; of rivers, following 6 irorafjio^ river, as 6 &ep- 
fjbcoScov, 6 Urjveios ; of months, after 6 fjurjv month, all ending in cov, 
as 6 Tajxrjkioiv ; of the winds, after 6 avepuos wind, as 6 %e<pvpo$, 6 
f3oppas. 

4. Feminine, with few exceptions, are the names of trees, as 
rj (pTjyos the beech, r) ttltv^ the pine; also the names of cities, 
countries, and islands, as r) K6pLv6os, r) AtyvTrros Egypt, (but 6 
Alyvirros the Nile,) rj AaKeSalptcov, r) Aeaftos, etc. 

Note 4. Exceptions from the above, and for the most part masculine, are: 

1) The names of some trees; e. g. 6 epiveos wild fig-tree, 6 (poivig the palm, 
6 37 Kepacros the cherry-tree, 6 37 kotlvos the wild olive-tree, 6 37 Trdirvpos the 
papyrus-reed. 

2) Of names of cities : Plurals in 01, as oi <friXnnroi, and those in evs, as 
Qavorevs, always. Of those in os, 'Opxop-evos is always masculine ; and 
IlvXos, Enidavpos, 'AXiapros, 'Oyx 7 ? "-" '^ are usually so. Those in ovs G. 
ovvtos, and as G. avros, are chiefly masculine* as 6 ^iXivovs, 6 Tdpas. 
Those in d>v are commonly feminine * as 37 BaftvXav, 6 f] *2lkvo>v. — Neu- 
ter are those names of cities without exception, which have the neuter 
endings ov and os (Gen. ovs) : e. g. to AovXlx^ov, to "Kpyos. 

h 33. Declension. 

1. The G-reek form of declension has the five ordinary cases 
of other languages. It has no distinct form corresponding to the 
Latin Ablative, but gives the signification of this case partly to 
the Genitive and partly to the Dative. 



\ 33. 



DECLENSION. 



45 



2. In declension, as well as in conjugation, the Greeks have 
one number more than our occidental languages, viz. the Dual, 
where only two are spoken of. This however is not always em- 
ployed ; by some writers never ; most frequently by the Attics. 

3. The Dual has never more than two endings ; of which one 
is common to the Nom. Ace. and Voc. the other to the Gren. and 
Dative. 

4. The Greek has three Declensions ; corresponding to the 
first three in Latin. Their case-endings, or terminations in the 
different cases, are arranged together in the following Table. 

Sing. Dec. I. Dec. II. Dec. III. 

Nom. v, a ???, a? o? Neut. ov — 



y, a 


7js, a? 


?7? — d? 


ov 


v — £ 


rjv—av 


7]— 


-a 



Neut. like the Non? 



Gren. ??? — &9 ov ov o? (&>?) 

Dat. xi — a co I 

Ace. r]v- — av ov do] 

Voc. v — a e Neut. ov 

Dual. 

N.A.V. a co € 

Gr. D. cilv ow ow 

Plur. 

Nom. ai oi Neut. a 69 Neut. a, 

Gfen. cov cov cov 

Dat. clls 0^9 <tlv or o~i 

Ace. £9 ovs Neut. d <x9 Neut. cl 

Voc. at oi Neut. a 69 Neut. a 

In this Table the form called the Attic Dec. II, is omitted for the sak* 
of easier comparison; see § 37. 

5. When these endings are pure, and admit of contraction 
(§ 28), there arises the contracted form of declension, which is 
specified below under each of the three declensions. The words 
which retain this contraction through all the cases and numbers, 
are called okoiradrj, affected throughout. This is always true of 
the contracts of the first and second declensions ; in the third, 
strictly speaking, never, k 48. n. 2. 

6. The above endings are all simply case-endings, i. e. such as 
mark the case, but do not belong to the root or stem of words. 
What precedes them is always the simple root or stem of the 
word (not the etymological root) ; e. g. of tl/jlt] the root or stem is 
Tifju. In this respect the first and second declensions are essen- 
tially distinguished from the third ; since in the first two the 
Nom. has already a case-ending, and in the third not. Conse- 
quently, in the Nom. of the first two the simple stem already ap- 
pears ; in that of the third it is indeed present, but mostly some- 
what changed ; see k\ 39, 40. 

Note 1. The three Greek declensions correspond nearly to the first three 



46 



FIRST DECLENSION 



$34. 



in Latin; except that os in the Nom. becomes in Latin us, and in the Gen. 
is; while ov and a>v are there um; and v mostly "becomes m. 

Note 2. The Dat. Sing, has in all the declensions t; in the first two 
however the t is subscript. 

Note 3. The Dat. Plur. has strictly in all the declensions criv or at ; 
since ais, ois, of the first two, is only an abbreviation from the ancient forms 
atcriv, oicriv, or aiai, oiai. § 30. n. 4. 

Note 4. The Dual is perhaps only an old abridged form of the Plural, 
which usage afterwards limited to the number of two j compare the Plural 
forms afijxe, vfifxe (§ 72. n. 6. 10) with the Dual of Dec. III. At least Ave 
still find, especially in the epic language, undoubted instances where the 
Dual stands for the Plural. They are however limited mostly to the verbs 
(§ 87. n. 6) ; and among substantive forms they occur solely in participles, 
e. g. II. e, 487. Hymn. Apoll. 487, etc. See the Ausf. Sprachl. 

7. In respect to the Accent, the rule is universal, that the case- 
endings of the Gen. and Dat. when they are long and have the 
tone, take the circumflex ; those of the Nom. Ace. and Yoc. hi 
the same circumstances take the acute. Here however it is to 
be remembered, that in the third declension the ending of the 
Nom. and Yoc. Sing, is not a case-ending. \ 39. 



h 34. First Declension. 

1. All words in ?;? and a? are masculine, and all in r\ and a 
feminine. 

2. "Words ending in a pure {\ 28. 1) or pa, have the Gen. in a?, 
and retain their a through all the cases of the Singular ; as ao- 
<fila, fjbd^atpa. The a is also retained by the contracts, e. g. fivd 
(note 1) ; further by aXdkd Gren. a? ivar-cry, and by some proper 
names, viz. Arfia, AvSpo/ieBa, <&iXo/jLij\a, Teka, Acorlfza, which 
have also long a in the Nominative. 

3. All other words in a, i. e. all those in which a is preceded 
by any consonant except p, have the Gren. in 77?, and Dat. in rj ; 
but in the Ace. and Yoc. they resume their a ; see Movaa. 

4. In the Dual and Plural words of all the four terminations 
coincide. The several forms may be learned from the following 
examples ; in which also the regular changes of the accent are 
marked. 






Sing. 


r) [honour) 


7] (ivisdom] 


r) [Muse) 


6 [citizen) 


6 (youth 


Nom. 


TlfJLT) 


crocf) la 


Movaa 


TroXlrrj^ 


veavias 


Gen. 


n/J,rj<i 


ao<f)la<; 


Movarjs 


TToXlTOV 


veavlov 


Dat. 


Tl/Jifj 


ao(f)la 


Movay 


TToXlrrj 


veavla 


Ace. 


ri/irjv 


ao(j)lav 


Movaav 


iro'KuTTjv 


veavlav 


Yoc. 


Ti[MTj 


ao(f)la 


Movaa 


iroXlra 


veavla 


Dual. 












N.A.Y. 


Tifia 


ao(f>la 


Movaa 


TroXira 


veavla 


G.D. 


TlfjLCUV 


aoifilaiv 


Movaaiv 


TToXvraiv 


veavlaiv 



34. 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



47 



Plur. 












Norn. 


Tifiai 


acxfilcu 


Movaat 


iroXlrai 


veavlcu 


Gen. 


TlflCOV 


coifiicov 


Movacov 


7TO\lTCOV 


veavi&v 


Dat. 


ti/jlcus 


o-o<filcu<; 


Movcrcus 


TToXlTCLlS 


veavlais 


Ace. 


rifids 


crcxfilas 


WLovcrax 


Troklras 


veavias 


Yoc. 


TL/jLdl 

7 (justice) ' 


croifilai 


M-ovaai 


TToXlTCU 


veavlcu 


Sing'. ' 


7 (opinion) 


7) (trident) 


7] (dagger) 6 (Atrides) 


Nom. 


hlKT] 


yvcofirj 


rplcuva 


pbayaipa 
fia^alpa^ 


Arpeior}^ 


Gren. 


Slfcrjs 


ryVCOfJLTJS 


TptalvT)? 


^Arpelhov 


Dat. 


SiKfj 


fyvddfJbr) 


rpialvrj 


jjLa^aipa 


^ArpelSy 


Ace. 


BifC7]V 


<yV(0/LL7]V 


rplatvav 


jjbd^aipav 


'Arp€L(!)r}v 


Voe. 


SlfCT} 


JVCO/JL7] 


rplcuva 


\idyaipa 


1 'ArpeiSr) 


Dual. 








N.A.Y. 


Sl/ca 


yvcofjua 


Tpialva 


pbayalpa 1 'Arpelfia 


a. p. 


81/caiv 


yVCQ/jLdlV 


Tpialvaw 


yba^alpaw\ 'ArpelBacv 


Plur. 








Nom 


Sikcu 


yVCOfjLCLL 


Tplaivai 


pLci'xaipai 1 


'ArpelSai 


G-en. 


SlKCOV 


<yVQ)/jL(OV 


rpcatvcov 


\iayaipwv 


^Arpeihaiv 


Dat. 


Slkcus 


ryvcbfiais 


TpLdLVCUS 


fia^alpai^ 


'ArpelScuti 


Ace. 


$L/cas 


<yvcQ{ia<? 


Tpialvas 


ficv)((ilpas 


^Arpelhas 


Voe. 


81/ccu 


ryVCOjULdl, 


rpiaiva 


fjbd^cupai \ 


'ArpelSat, 



Examples for practice see in Appendix E. 

5. Of the masculines in ??? the following have the Vocative in 
a, viz. all in r^?; many compound verbal nouns, which merely 
append 77? to the consonant of the verb, as yecofieTpTjs, fjuvpoTrdyK^, 
7ratBoTpl/37]<; ; and all national appellations, as ileparjs, ^kvO^. 
All others, which however are by far the smaller number, have 
7) ; especially the patronymics in S77?, e. g. 'ArpelSr)?, q. v. 

Notes. 

1. There are contracts of this declension; all of which are 6Xona8rj (§ 33. 
5). Hence in all the cases, and even the Nominative, the ending has the 
circumflex. There are contracts in all the four terminations, in a, 77, ar, 
r}?, which in other respects are declined regularly ; except that contracts in 
a retain this vowel throughout, as being originally pure; and those in as 
all take the Doric Genitive in a (note IV. 4). The uncontracted forms of 
such words are for the most part unused, or have been retained, with some 
changes by the Ionics. E. g. 

pvda contr. \xva (Ion. pjvka) mina, G. pbvas, D. /xva, Ace. pjvav. Plur. N. 

fjLvai, G. fivcov, D. p.va.ls, Ace. p.vds. So too 'Adrjva, from 'Adrjvda, Ion 

'Adrjvair]. 
Xeovrea contr. Xeovrrj (Ion. Xeovret], XeovTeirj), lion-skin, G. Xeovrrjs, D. 

Xeovrrj, Ace. Xeovrrjv. Plur. N. Xeovrai, etc. So too yrj earth, from 

TAA, Ion. yaia, rarely yea, 
'Epjxeas (epic 'Epp.eias) contr. 'Epprj?, *Epp.ov, 'Epp,fj, 'Ep/irjv, 'Epfirj. Plur. 

'Epfial, etc. 
fiopeas, also jSoppa.?, G. fioppa, D. fioppq, Ace. fioppav. The doubling of 

the p is here merely an accidental peculiarity. 
II. Quantity. 1. The Nom. in a which has the Gen. vs, is always short. 

2. The Nom. in a which has the Gen. as, is sometimes long and some- 



48 FIRST DECLENSION. $ 34. 

times short. The accent is here a sure guide ; since not only all proparox- 
ytones and proper ispomena (as p,dxatpa, p.oipa) have of course, the a short 
(§ 11. 4, 6); but also for this declension there exists the fixed rule, that 
oxytones and paroxytones which have the Gen. ay, are long in the Nomina- 
tive, as arod, x a P<*, 7rerpa, f)p.epa, aocpia, etc. The only exceptions are the 
numeral fxia, and the proper names Ilvppa, Kippa. 

3. The quantity of the final syllable must however be known, in order 
to the proper accentuation of a word. But since this cannot always be re- 
ferred to simple general rules, we subjoin here only the two following, as 
sufficient for the present. 

a) Dissyllables in «a have the a long, as xP ita » words of more than two 
syllables have it short, as aXydeia from dkr]6r]?, Mrjdeia, y\vKe7a fem. 
from ykvKvs. Exceptions are, abstract nouns from verbs in euco, e. g. 
dovkeia from dovXevio, j3a.arikela kingdom from /3ao-iAei>co. But fiao-iXicia 
queen from (3acri\ev?. See § 119. n. 6. 

b) All words of three or more syllables, that are female appellatives, are 
short ; e. g. y\rd\rpia, boreipa, ''Op.7rvta, etc. So too the adjective norvia. 
But all other feminine adjectives which fall under this head are long; 
as Kvpios; Kvpia, etc. 

4. The Vocative in a from masculines in rj? is short ; from those in ay, 
long. — The Dual ending a is always long. 

5. The ending ay is long in this declension, in all the cases where it occurs ; 
and the Ace. Plur. is thereby distinguished from that of Dec. Ill, where 
it is short. The Dorics alone make also the Ace. Plur. of Dec. I, short. 

6. The Ace. Sing, in av always follows the quantity of the Nominative. 

III. Accent. 1. It is characteristic of this declension that the Gen. 
Plur. regularly has the tone (the circumflex) upon its ending, let the tone 
in the other cases be where it may; as Movaa Movaav, uKavda dicav6a>v. 
The cause lies in the contraction of this Genitive from the more ancient 
form in aW, see n. IV. 3. Exceptions are : 

a) The feminines of adjectives and barytone participles in oy ; as £eVoy, 
£;6vi£>v • atrtoy, alrta — alrioav • rvmop-evos, rj — rv7Trop.ev(£>v. 

b) The substantives xPV°" ri l s ' usurer, ol ir-qalai trade-winds, depvr) anchovy. 
By this anomalous accent the Gen. xprjo-T&v, depveov, are distinguished 
from the like cases of xPW T ° 9 useful, and depvr]? unformed. 

2. In the other cases the tone always remains, so far as the general rules 
permit, upon the same syllable as in the Nominative ; e. g. Nom. Plur. ao- 
cbiai, Voc. TroKlra. The only exception is Voc. SeWora from becnTorrjS master; 
since the Homeric p,r]riera for prjTurr]?, evpvoira, etc. are already so accented 
in the antique Nominatives; comp. IV. 2. 

3. The feminines of adjectives in oy throw the tone, so soon as the final 
syllable permits, upon the syllable where the masculine has it ; e.g. agios 
F. a&a, Plur. a^LOL, agiai. 

IV. Dialects. 1. The Dorics, in all the endings, put long a for rj, as 
ri/za, ay, a, dv. The Ionics commonly put rj for long a, as crocplr), ^y, rj, rjv • 
paxat-pa, ws, rj, av 6 vet]v[r)?, etc. the Ace. PI. excepted. — But the epic writers 
retain the a in Sed, £eay, etc. in NauatKaa, da?, and in some proper names in 
ay, as Alvela?. Another epic peculiarity is t) instead of short a in nviorar], 
2KvX\r], commonly Kvlcraa, 2,Kv\\a ; and vice versa we find the Homeric 
vvp.(pa for vvptprj. 

2. The old language had also masculines in a, which remained in some 
dialects; and therefore also in Latin. Thus Homer and the other epio 
writers have often in the Nominative tWora instead of iinroT-qs ; so /xj/ri'era, 
evpvoira, etc. 

3. The most ancient form of the Genitive Sing, of the masculines, is ii? 
do, and of the Gen. Plur. of all the terminations, in aW. So the epic 'Arpst 
fiuo, Mouodoij/, etc. 



4 35. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



49 



4. The Dorics contracted these Genitives into d; e. g. tov 'ArpeiOR, rav 
Moiaav for Movcra>v, ra>v 'ArpeiBav. — This Doric Genitive has remained in 
common use in the Sing, of some few words, especially proper names, e. g. 

'Avvifias Hannibal, tov 'Avvifia 
tov opvidodrjpa the bird-catcher's. 

5. The Ionics on the other hand converted the do into eco (§ 27. n. 10;, 
where however the 00 has no influence on the accent; so 7j-oXireco (§ 11. n. 
4) ; and from d&v they made e'cov ; thus pouo-eW.— Here too the common lan- 
guage retained this Gen. Sing, in some names of Ionic men, as GaXeco from 
Ocikr)?, Ae<rx e <° from Aeor^r. — When this ending is preceded hy a vowel, the 
c can in verse he dropped, e. g. evppeXico from euppeXn/r, Bopeco from BoperfS. 

6. The ancient form of the Dat. Plur. aiai, aio-iv (§ 33. n. 3), e. g. Tipalo-i, 
Movo-aicnv, etc. occurs not only in the more ancient dialects, hut also in the 
Attic poets, and sometimes even in the earlier Attic prose, e. g. in Plato. 
So too in Dec. II, the Dat. Plur. in oiai, oiaiv. — The Ionic dialect has in 
Dec. I, yo-iv, 770-i and rj?. In the epic writers, however, the usage in respect 
to the shortest form is variable between at? and rj?. These Ionic forms are 
also sometimes employed in the Attic drama. 



§ 35. Second Declension. 

All words in ov are neuter ; those in o? are commonly mascu- 
line. Many in 09 however are feminine ; not merely among the 
names of persons, animals, trees, and cities (§ 32) ; but also many 
others. See the list of such words in Appendix B. 

Note 1 There are also several feminines in or, which are properly ad 
jectives, where a feminine substantive is omitted; e. g. rj SiaXocror (sc. cpavr]) 
the dialect^ f] didpeTpos (sc. ypapp-fj) the diameter, rj aropos (sc. ovorla) atom, tj 
awbpos the desert, 77 x*P°~ os an ^ V fjtreipo? (sc. x^P") the continent, fj crvyKXt]- 
to? (sc. (3ov\t)) the senate; and many others. 



Sing. 


6 (word) 


rj (beech) 


6 (people) 


6 (man) 


™{M) 


Norn. 


\6yo$ 


<f)7)y6^ 


Srjfios 


avdpwTTO? 


(Tvkov 


G-en. 


\6yov 


<j>rjyov 


hrjfjiov 


av$pa)7rov 


av/cov 


Dat. 


\6y<a 


(j>7]ya> 


§rffi(p 


aV0p(t)7T(p 


GVKXp 


Ace. 


\6yov 


ipTjyov 


Srjfiov 


avOpcQirov 
avdpcoire 


(TVKOV 


Yoc. 


\6ye 


(prjye 


Syfie 


crvKov 


Dual. 










N.A.V. 


\6yco 


(prjyco 


Srj/jbco 


avOpoDirco 


avfeco 


G-.D. 


Xoyow 


cjyrjyolv 


Stj/jLOLV 


avOpoonroiv 


avKOiv 


Plur. 










Nom. 


\6yoc 


(f)r]yol 


Srjfioi, 


avOpcoiroi, 


crvica 


Gen. 


\6ycov 


(jyrjycov 


hrj/JLcov 


avOpwirwv 


ctvkcov 


Dat. 


\6yois 


<f>7]yOL$ 


Stf/jLOLS 


avOpCOTTOL? 


GVKOIS 


Ace. 


\6yovs 


<f)r)yov<$ 


Srjfiovs 


avQ pwnrovs 


av/ca 


Yoc. 


\6yoi 


(j)7)yol 


Bij/iot, 


avOpCDTTOL 


crvKa 



Examples for practice see in Appendix E. 

Note 2. The Vocative is sometimes like the Nominative, for the sake of 
euphony, as in 3e6? (but 'Apcpideo? has Voc. 'Ap<pi#ee, Aristoph. Ach. 176); 
sometimes without any such cause, especially in Attic writers, as a> cpCXos, 
Aristoph. Nub. 1167. So too in adjectives; e. g. Z> \ap7rp6? aldrjp Eurip. 
Fr. Hippol. 

D 



50 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



36, 37. 



Note 3. The quantity and accent require here no particular remarks ; the 
ending a is short, as in Latin; the circumflex on the Genitives ana Datives 
(see (prjyos) has already been noted in $ 33. 7. 

Note 4. Dialects, a) The Genitive in ov was in the ancient language 
probably the uncontracted oo ; hence the Thessalian Genitive so called in 
mo, of which the epic and lyric language availed itself ; as Xo'yoio, eprjyolo. 

b) The Dorics have in the Gen. co, and in the Ace. Plur. coy; e. g. 6 vo- 
fios, G. ra> j^o/ico, Ace. Plur. -nay vd/zecy. More rarely they have in the Ace. 
Plur. oy; e. g. from 6 Xvkos Theocritus has rcby Xvkos for rovy Xvkovs. 

c) In the old language the Neut. Plur. in a appears to have had the Gen. 
in dcov ; as Hesiod. Scut. 7, fiXeqbdpav — Kwaedmv. Hence the Homeric edu~ 
from ra EA goods; see Anom. eifr, § 58. 

d) For the Dat. Plur. in oio-i, oiaiv, as Xoyoiai, <pr)yo\o~iv, see § 34. n. I\ 
6. — The epic language lengthens the oiv of the Gen. and Dat. Dual by re 
solving it into ouv, as Iittvouv ; see § 27. n. 2. § 28. n. 3. 

§ 36. Contracted Second Declension. 

Many words in oo$ and oov, eo? and eov, are usually contracted 
throughout, i. e. as oXoiraOr), § 33. 5. This takes place according 
to the general rules (s s 28) ; except that the a of the Neuter ab- 
sorbs the preceding e or o, and becomes long ; as oared bcrra, 
aifkba anfka. Comp. under Adjectives, h 60. 5, 6. 
6 (sailing-) Plur. 

7t\6o9 7r\ov<; it\6ol irkol 
7r\6ov ifkov ifXocov irkwv 
ttXoois rrkols 

7r\00V$ 7rX0U? 

ttXool irXol 



Sing, 

Norn. 

(xen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 



7rX6(p 7T/Vc3 

ttXoov ifkovv 
irXoe 7r\ov* 
Dual. N. A. 7r\6(o ttKoo 
Gr. D. ifkooiv irkolv 



Sing, to (bone) 

OCTTeOV OCTTOVV 
OCTT60V OCTTOV 

bcrreco barco 

bcrreov bcrrovv 

bcrreov bcrrovv 

bcrreco barcof 

bareoiv barolv 



Pirn. 

bcrrea bar a 
bcrreoov bcrreov 
bcrrioLS bcrroh 
bcrrea bcrra 
bcrrea bcrra- 



Note 1 . Like irkoos are declined the substantives 6 voos mind, poos' stream. 
Spoos noise, ^vdoy foam, down. But all these nouns seem not to occur in 
the Plural, except in compounds ; as evvovs, etc. § 60. 5. — Further, like 
7rXdoy are declined also the names of kindred in dovs, (e. g. d8eX<pi8ovs nephew.) 
although they are contracted from deos. For their Vocative, see marg. note 
below. — For the transition of some words into Dec. Ill, see § 58 in irpoxovs, 
and Ausf. Sprachl. p. 154. 

Note 2. Like oo-reov is declined the subst. ndveov Kavovv basket, with a 
shifting of the accent; see ypvatos, \ 60. 6. 



s N 37. Attic Second Declension. 

To the second declension there is commonly subjoined the de- 
clension of several words in a>? masc. and fern, and in cov neuter, 

* This regular Vocative is placed here on account of some proper names, as 
UavQovs Voc. FLdvOov. — From 8opv£6os, -ovs, spear -sharpener, occurs the Voc. Sopv^e, 
with o elided, Aristoph. Pac. 1260. The like form probably occurred in the names 
of kindred in Sods (Seos) : thus S> aSekcpiSe. (Compare the marg. note under § 60. 5.) 
Besides these a proper Vocative will hardly be found. 

t The accent of this Dual is contrary to the rile in § 28. 6. Comp. § 49. n. 7 
Ausf. Sprachl. $ 35. n. 2. 



38. 



THIRD DECLENSION. GENDER. 



51 



under the name of the Attic declension. It takes through all the 
cases co, instead of the usual vowels and diphthongs of the com- 
mon second declension ; and puts i subscript, where the latter 
has 01 or co. The Vocative is always like the Nominative. The 
Genitive, when it has the accent on the ending, takes the acute, 
rod veco, contrary to the rule in § 33. 7. 



Sing. 


o (temple 


I to (hall) 


Dual. 


Plur. 


Nom. 


veebs 


dvcbyecov 


veco 


avcoyeco 


vecb 


avcoyeco 


Gen. 


V6CO 


avcoyeco 


vecov 


dvcbyecov 


vecov 


dvcbyecov 


Dat. 


veco 


avcoyeco 




ve&s 


avebyeeps 


Ace. 


VeOJV 


dvcbyecov 




veco? 


avcoyeco 


Voc. 


vecos 


dvcbyecov 






Vecb 

t 


avcoyeco 



Note 1. Like vea>? is declined 6 Xeobr the people; both having the parallel 
forms j/aor and Xaor, § 27. n. 10. Besides these very few words belong here; 
and of these the most also pass over into Dec. III. Thus, like vea>? we may 
decline (referring to § 56. n. 6. a, c, d) the following: 6 irarpai?, /x^rpcor, 
paternal and maternal uncle, 6 rad>r peacock, 6 \a.y<i>? hare (see n. 2), Mii/co?; 
comp. anom. KaXcor, § 58. Like dvaiyeow may he declined the Neuters of ad- 
jectives in tor; as iXecoi/, etc. § 61. — This mode of declension is called Attic, 
because when two forms are current, (as Xa-yoor, Ion. Xaya>ov or XayoV,) that 
one which belongs here is employed particularly by the Attics. 

Note 2. The words of this declension have also a peculiar 
Accus. in co, 
sometimes together with the regular one, e. g. rbv \ayoov and Xayco ; in other 
words seldom ; in others again exclusively, or almost so. This is the case 
in these names of places : Kwr, Keoor, TeW, "A#cor, and in rj eco? aurora, Ace. 
rrjv eco, which is the Attic form for the Ionic ^&>y Gen. rjoos, ovs (§ 49). — The 
Neuters of some adjectives also have co in the Nom. and Ace. especially 
dytjpas not growing old, Neut. dyrjpo). 

Note 3. The Gen. in coo in this declension corresponds to the epic Gen 
in oio ; e. g. Hereon? G. Uerecoo, Homer. 

Note 4. For the anomalous accent of this declension, see § 11. 8. 



Third Declension. 
§ 38. Gender. 

1. In the variety of endings which belong to the words of this 
declension, any general rules for ascertaining the gender from the 
termination must be very imperfect. Nevertheless, there are cer- 
tain endings, of which the gender may be more accurately de- 
termined ; see the note. 

2. In general, final ? belongs more to masculines and femi- 
nines ; a short voivel in the final syllable, more to the neuters- 
There is no neuter in £ or ty. 

Note. Least of all can we determine the gender of words ending in o^ 
G . cows 1 and ovos ; those in vs ; and those in £ and ^ ; all which vary be- 
tween the masculine and feminine. In the exceptions no reference is had 
to those appellations of persons, like fj ^rrjp mother, rj Mp.ap spouse, the 
gender of which is known of course (§ 32. 2) j but whenever a form is 
marked as without exception, there also no personal form occurs of any 
other gender. 



52 THIRD DECLENSION. GENDER. § 39. 

Masculines. 
All in €V9, as 6 dpevs mule, dficpopevs amphora. No exceptions. 
Substantives which have the Gen. in vros, as 6 re'i/cov, ovtos, tendon; c 

odovs, ovtos; tooth; 6 tpay, dvros, thong. Here names of cities only make 

some exceptions, § 32. n. 4, 2. 
Those in rjp, as ^coo-r^p girdle. — Exceptions : Fern, f) yacrTrjp belly, r) Kf)p 

fate, and in the poets f) dr)p and f) aldtjp. Also the contracted neuters. 

of which "below. 
Those in coy G. coroy; as 6 ye'Xcoy laughter, 6 epcoy love. 
Those in r)v ; as 6 \xfjv month, 6 ai>xfjv neck. Exceptions are : f) <ppf)v mind, 

V ° XV V goose. 
Single examples are 6 novs- nobos foot, 6 ktcls kt€vos comb, 6 aXs coram, ol 

a\es salt; hut f) aXy sea. 

Feminines. 

All in co and coy, G. ooy; as f)x<», ol8d)S. No exceptions. 

Those in ar G. aSoy; as f) Xafnrds forcA; with the exception of some ad- 
jectives common, as Xoyay, criropas, § 63. 5. 

Those in is ; as f) noXis, f) Yap iy « Exceptions : Masc. are ocpis serpent, e^is 
adder, Kopis bed-bug, opx iS testicle, Kvpfiis law-tablet, /xdpis a liquid meas- 
ure, all with Gen. ecoy; kls wood-worm, Xty lion, G. toy; SeXcpt'y G. Ivos. 
Further, 6 f) opvis G. 60s ; f) 6 rlypis G. toy; 77 6 S-is G. Stvos heap, bank. 

Abstract nouns in rns (Lat. tas), as f) pt/epoY^y parvitas. No exceptions. 

Single examples are : f) x^P hand, f) vavs ship, f) io~6r)s G. rJTos garment, 
fj xXety key, f) 6 <fi8cip louse. 

Neuters. 
All in a, rj, 1, v ; as to crco/xa body, Kaprj head, fxeKi honey, acrrv city. No 

exceptions. 
All short final syllables with e and o; as to retyoy, r6 rJTop, and the 

Neuter adjectives in ey, ev, ov. 
Those in ap ; as to fjrrap, to veicrap. So also those in -qp contracted from 

-cap ; as to eap rjp spring, t6 Keap icrjp heart, to o~Teap arrjp tallow. The 

only exception is 6 tydp starling. 
Those in cop which are not personal appellations ; as to vScop, to rexpcop, 

etc. Except 6 lx<*>P lymph, 6 ax^P scab. 
Those in ay Gen. aroy and aoy ; as to Tepas G. aroy wonder , to btTras- G. aos 

goblet. Except 6 Xay stone and 6 or to KPA2 head. 
Besides these the only neuter substantives in this declension are to 7rvp 

fire, to <po>y light, to ovs ear, to arais dough. 
Nouns in ay consequently, according to the above rules, with the Gen. in 
uvtos, are masculine; — Gen. aSoy, feminine; — Gen. aroy and aoy, neuter. 

k 39. Decl. III. — Root or Stem and Case-endings. 

1. In every declinable word, it is necessary to distinguish be- 
tween the root and the case-ending, which, alone is changed; 
\ 33. 6. In the first two declensions the Nominative also has 
such a case-ending ; in the third, this is appended onlv in the ob- 
lique cases, e. g. 

Dec. II. \6y-os, \6y-ov, \6y-(p 
Dec. III. ^rjp, ^rrjp-09, ^rrjp-L 

2. But in the third declension, the Nominative seldom suffers 
so little change as in &jJ/>. In most instances the final syllable 
undergoes some alteration ; for which see the next sections. 



H 40, 41. THIRD DECLENSION. NOMINATIVE. 53 

Note 1. It is here to be particularly noted, that the ground-form or root 
of a word in respect to flexion, which we call the stem, is very different from 
the proper root in respect to etymology. Thus in cr^iia G. o-co/xaroy, the 
etymological root is o-co/i, and a, error, appear as endings ; but in respect to 
flexion, the root or stem is ereoitar, and os is the case- ending. 

Note 2. In order to decline a word rightly in the third declension, it is 
consequently necessary to know the Nominative and one of the oblique 
cases ; for which purpose the Genitive is commonly taken. When however 
only one of these two is known, the rules are far simpler for finding the 
Nominative from the Genitive, than for the reverse j because in the Genitive 
the root, on which all depends, is commonly unchanged ; and in the Nom- 
inative commonly not. As now in reading, it is most frequently the Geni- 
tive, Dative, etc. of an unknown word, that we meet with ; in order to find 
such a word in the lexicons, we must be able to deduce the Nominative from 
the Genitive j and for this purpose rules are given in the following sections. 

§ 40. Decl. III. — Formation of the Nominative. 

1. The most common changes which the stem undergoes in 
the Nominative, are the following :* 

1) It assumes 9 ; e.g. fiorpvs fiorpv-os, aX? aA-69. 

2) It rejects r, without assuming 9 ; e. g. o-co/xa, aojfiaT-o^. 

3) The short vowels e and o of the stem in masculines and 
feminines, become rj and co ; e. g. el/ccov elicov-os, aXrjOijs 
a\r)6e-os. 

2. For the more exact application of these precepts, we must 
here distinguish two main circumstances, viz. when the case-end- 
ing of the Nom. is preceded (1) by a consonant, or (2) by a vowel. 

k 41. Decl. III. — The Nominative with a Consonant before the 

Case-ending. 

1. Except fju and or, all the simple consonants are found before 
the case-ending. Those among them which cannot stand at the 
end of a word (\ 4. 5), and often also v, assume an 9 in the Nom- 
inative. Of course this 9, with the letters 7, tc, %, and /3, it, </>, 
passes over into £ and ty, k 22. E. g. 

Kopa^ fcopatc-os, ovv% oVir^-09 
co-ifr &)7T-o?, ^akvyjr ^a\u/3-09. 

2. These Nominatives in f and -vjrtoever change the e and o of 
the stem ; e. g. (fiXety cjikeflos, </>\6£ <j)Xoy6$, aldloyfr aWioiros. Ex- 
cept rj aX(07T7]^ a\co7re/co9 fox. 

3. When however the letter before the case-ending is either h, r, 
or S-, this of course falls away in the Nom. before the 9, § 24. 3. E. g 

\a/jL7rd<; Xajiird^o^, Adopts AcoplSos, /cr)\k fcrjXiSos 
opves opviOos, Kopvs fc6pvdo<$, 77 UapvrjS IIdpvrj6os 
repas repdros, yapis 'X&piTOS. 

* In the following examples the learner must take notice, that e. g. the citation 
36rp»s, f}6rpv-os, is to be thus understood, viz. " From the stem fiorpv, which ap- 
pears in the Gen. fiSrpv-os, comes the Nom. jS^Tpvs." And so of all the re<^ 



54 THIRD DECLENSION. NOMINATIVE. § 4l 

When the r is preceded by k, after the t is dropped the «; with 
the 5 passes over into f ; e. g. 

vvi; vvkt-os • ava% ava,KT-o%. 

4. So too v and vt fall away before the ?, but then the short 
vowel is made long ; in the case of vt always, in that of v usu- 
ally, in the manner specified in h 25. 4. E. g. 

yiryds yiyavros, yapleis yapievTOS, oBovs 686vto<z 
&e\(/>/? (long i) oi\(f>LVos% Qopicvs <P6p/cvvos 
fiekas fjuekavos, KTeis /crev6s.\ 

5. Final consonants of the stem which do not assume ? in the 
Nom. are : p always, v often ; as ^rjp ^/o-o?, alcov atiov-os. Be- 
sides these, only stems ending in t often do not assume ? ; but 
the t must then be dropped ;$ e.g. 

acojuLa acbjJLaT-os, aevocfrcov aevocpcovr-os. 
In all instances where the Nom. ends in v or p, the short e and o 
in masculines and feminines are changed into 77 and co ; e. g. 
\ijjLr}v Xt/xev-o?, prjTwp prfrop-os, yepwv <yepovT-o<$. 

6. Some neuters which have the G en. aros, take p in the Nom- 
inative instead of?; e.g. vprap TJirar-os. Comp. § 16. n. 1. f. 

7. In accordance with the above rules we subjoin here the or- 
dinary instances in which the case-ending is preceded by a eon- 
sonant, viz. 

( yoy, /cor, X o* | f N £ | fc #o'| etc. 
( poy, 7roy, cpoy j ( i/r, a)\|^, etc. 

— — — Soy, to?, Sos from Nom. in y, as XauTray, Xap.7ra.d0?, etc. 

and especially 

!a (crcofia, aroy) 
ay (repay, aroy) 
ap (rjrrap, aroy) 

.oyfromNom.inK^na^y) 

( y (pty, pivo?) 
especially 
evoy and orof from Nom. in 771/ and coy 

(KtprjV \lfJL€VO?, €LKOiV (IkOVOS) 

iay, ety, ouy, t>y 
{did? (bdvTO?, $ei'y $eVroy) 
(oovy 001/roy, (pvy cpvvro?) 
coj/ (yepcoi/, oj/roy) 

— — — poy from Nom. in p, ^p, -Jfypdy, etc. 

especially 
epoy and opoy from Nom. in t]p and cop 

(aWfjp aldepo?, p^rcop prjTopo?) 
and from two neuters in op 

aop sword, rJTop breast. 

* In the lexicons and grammars the Nom. of the Gen. in ivos is also given in iv ; 
but in the earlier writers we always find 5eA<pls, olktIs, pis, etc. 

t The only other similar instance is els, for which see § 70. 1. 

1 Hence also yd\a G. ydXanros may be explained ; see in § 58. Also the two 
Vocatives, dva from &/a£, clvuktos ; and yvvai, from the obsol. form TTNAIH; see 
yvirf} in § 58. As all these forms assume no s, they of course drop their consonants 
at the end, § 4. 5. — Also b*d,uap belongs here ; see Text 8. 



The Gen. in 



* 42. THIRD DECLENSION. NOMINATIVE. 5^» 

8. The following examples may be noted singly : 
6, fj aXr ako? salt, sea, the only example with X. 
to peki jxeXiTos honey, to Kaprj KaprjTos (Ionic) head 
f) hdjxap ddfxapTO? spouse 

6 TTOV9 (or TTOVS) TTohoS foot. 

Note 1 . When the penult of the Genitive has a, i, or v, the quantity can 
be determined only by authority ; just as in the Nominative of other words. 
(See the list of those words where this penult is long, in Appendix E.) We 
here give only the rule, that all substantives, whose Genitive terminates in 

avos, ivos; vvos 
have these penults long ; e. g. ILav Ilavo?, Tvaidv iraiavos, pis plvos, 8e\(pis 
dikcplvos; poo-vv pocrvvo?. 

Note 2. The endings of the Nominative, of which the quantity has not 
been determined above, usually conform in this respect to the penult of the 
Genitive! Hence, with a few exceptions in the poets, opvls -l6o?, Krp\i<? 
(long i) -TSoy, ixaidv (long a) -avos: So too before £ and -^ in like circum 
stances, the long sound must be made audible in pronunciation, and not 
unfrequently it is apparent from the accent; e. g. Sapag -5,kos (Ion. ^coprj^ 
-t]ko?) ; further, in cpoivii; -i/cor, nrjpvg -vko?, in later writers <pom£, Ktjpv^. 
On the contrary, avXag -dico?, etc. 

Note 3. All monosyllabic Nominatives, the pronoun tls excepted, are 
long; so nvp, Trvpos. Compare § 42. n. 2. 

Note 4. The few words which have v0o? in the Gen. drop only the 6 before 
r of the Nom. and retain the v, contrary to the usual custom of the Greek 
language; e. g. eXptvs eXpw&os worm, Tipvvs Tlpvvdo?. § 25. n. 2. 

Note 5. When the termination exr, cvto?, is preceded by rj or o, a contrac- 
tion usually takes place; e. g. Tiprjei? TiprjevTos; contr. Tiprjs^ TipJqvTos ; /xeXi- 
Toei? ocvtos, contr. /^eXtro{i$ , ovvtos. For the flexion see § 62. Here belong 
the names of cities in oi)y, ovvto?, as '07ro{5y, etc. 

Note 6. The contractions which take place in the Participles of the con- 
tracted conjugation, as <piXoov (piXovvros, Tipcov Tip.a>vTos, etc. may be better 
seen in the paradigms of this conjugation (•§ 105). We only remark here, 
that such proper names as Sevo<j>cov, 5>vtos, are derived from this mode of 
contraction. 

Note 7. Another contraction arises, when the ending ap is preceded by 
€ ; e. g. Keap icrjp heart, G. iceapo? tempos. So too eap rjp spring; of which in 
prose the uncontracted form is most usual in the Nom. and the contracted 
one in the Gen. and Dat. i. e. eap, rjpos. The same contraction takes place 
also in some words which have r in the Gen. hat in these the accent does 
not follow the usual rules of contraction, but takes the most convenient 
place; e. g. o-Teap aredTos tallow, contr. crTrjp o-ttjto? ; eppeap well G. (ppeaTo? 
(pprjTO? ; deXeap bait G. SeXe'aroy deXrjTO? ; Qpr)i£, 6pfj£ Att. Qpa£, G. QprfiKos 
QprjKos Qpa.K.6?. Comp. § 28. n. 9, with § 43. n. 2. 



* 42. Decl. III. — The Nominative ivith a Vowel before the 

Case-ending. 

1. Those words which have a. vowel before the case-ending, 
i. e. which have o? pure in the Genitive ($ 28. 1), almost univers- 
ally assume ? in the Nominative. The only exceptions are some 
neuters in i and v, and feminines in co. 

2. Only neuters can have the short vowels, e and o, in the end- 

* II. i. 605, according to Wolf's reading, which is the only correct one. 



56 



THIRD DECLENSION. FLEXION. 



43. 



ing of the Nominative (s s 38 note). Hence in masculines and fem- 
inine s. the e of the Gen. becomes in the Nom. rj or ev, and o be- 
comes (o or ov. 

3. Thus we have in particular the following : 

The Gen. in do? from neuters in ay; as o~e\a? treXaoy. 

— — — toy and vo? from Nom. in tr, i, and v?, v ; as 

jar Kioy, ddicpv vo?. 

— — — cooy from Nom. in coy ; as «9coy #coo'y. 

SNom. in ouy, as /3ot)y /3oo'y. 
the feminines in co and coy ,• 
as rj^d) 6o?, atScoy 6o? 
SNom . in T/y and ey ; 
as d\r)6r)?, Neut. akrjdes, G. eo? 
Masculines in ev? ; as Innev? t7r7recoy« 

Here is also singly to be noted rj ypav? ypdos old woman. 

4. Besides the above instances, Genitives in eo? and eo)? come 
also, through a change of the vowel : 

1) From the numerous neuters in o? ; e. g. rectos, ret^eo?. 

2) From most of the Nominatives in £? and t, and from some 
in v ? and u ; as ttoXis iroXecos, dcrru dareos. § 51. 

Note 1. The Gen. in -qos "belongs to the dialects ; see under words in avs 
and ev? ; and under 7r6Aiy, § 50-52. See also the Anom/'Ap^y, ev?, npecrfiv?, 
vlo?, § 58; and some contracts § 53. n. 5. 

Note 2. The vowels a, i, v, before the ending of the Genitive, are short 
in all these words, except in ypdo? ; hence they are also short in Nomina- 
tives of more than one syllable in ay, iy, vs. In regard to monosyllabic 
Nominatives, the same rule holds here as in the foregoing section^ that they 
are always long ; thus p.v? p,v6?. — Oxytones in vy (as 6<ppv?, IxQv?) have this 
syllable and the Ace. in vv for the most part long. 



§ 43. Bed. III.— Flexion. 



1. The following 1 


will serve 


as general examples of the ordina 


ry flexion of words in this declension. 






Sing. 


6 (beast) 6 (age) 6, rj (divinity 


6 (lion) 


6 (giant) 


Nom. 


H», 


aioov 


oatjucov 


Xecov 


ylyds 


Gen. 


^frty)0? 


alcovos 


Bai/iovo? 


Xeovros 


yvy&VTO? 


Dat. 


^rr/p i 


alcovo 


haljxovi 


Xeovri 


yiyavTL 


Ace. 


^rrjpa 


alwva 


haifiova 


Xeovra 


ylyavra 


V T oc. 


a* 


alcov 


Balfiov 


Xeov 


yiyav 


Dual. 








N.A."V 


% n ]p6 


alcove 


Sal/nove 


Xeovre 


yiyavre 


G.D. 


^fTJpOLV 


aloovotv 


haijxovoiv 


XeovTotv 


yiyavTQiv 


Plur 








Nom. 


S%>6? 


alcoves 


haifjLoves 


Xeovres 


yiyavres 


Gen. 


^ypcov 


aloovcov 


Sac/iovcov 


Xeovrcov 


ycyavrcov 


Dat. 


^r) pa i (v) 


alioau (v) 


SaL/nocn (v) 


Xeovai (v) 


yiydai(v) 


Ace. 


^rrjpa^ 


aloovas 


haipLovas 


Xeovras 


yiyavras 


Voc. 


S%e? 


aU&ves 


hatfjuoves 


Xeovres 


yiyavres 



§ 43. 




THIRD DECLENSION. FLEXION 




$ 


Sing-. 


6 {raven) rj (night) 6 (fool) 


6 (hero) ^ wood : 
v ' worm) 


Norn. 


fcopa£ 


vv^ 


7TOO? 


Tjp(ii$ 


fCLS 


G-en. 


KOpCLfCOS 


VVKTOS 


7ToSo? 


rjpwos 


Kl6% 


Dat 


KOpCLKl 


VV/CTL 


7TOoY 


rjpCDL 


Kit 


Ace 


KOpCLKCL 


VVKTCL 


jroha 


Tjpcoa 


KiV 


Voo. 


KOpai; vv£ 


7TOl)? 


tfpCDS 


/CIS 


Dual. 






N.A.V. 


Kopaice 


VVKT6 


irohe 


rjpcoe 


KL€ 


G-.D. 


KOpOLKOtV 


VVKTolv 


7ToSoLV 


rjpcooiv 


Kiolv 


Plur. 






Nom. 


/copafces 


vvKTes 


7roSe? 


Tjpcoes 


kies 


G-en. 


KOpCLKWV 


VVKTWV 


TToScOV 


rjpoawv 


KLWV 


Dat. 


icopafy (v) 


vv£l (v) 


7T00-l(v) 


rjpcoai (v) 


/ao~l(v 


Ace. 


KOpCLKCLS 


vvferas 


7r6S<X? 


rjpeoas 


KiCLS 


Voc. 


Kopa/ces 


VV/CT6S 


7r6Se? 


ripcoe? 


/ae? 


Sing 


to (th 


ing) Dual. 


Plur. 


Nom 




irpayfjua 


7rpar/fiaT€ 




7rpay/jLa,Ta 


Gen. 




TTpdy/zaTOS 


irpayfjiCLTOiij 




iTpajy/juaTcov 


Dat. 




irpar/jiaTi 






ir pay fiacre (v) 


Ace. 




7rpay/JLa 






irpdyfiara 


Voc. 




irpayfi 


% 








7rpdyfiara 



Examples for practice see in Appendix E. 

Note 1. These examples are fully sufficient; for so soon as one knows 
the Nom. and Gen. of a word, his own reflection will readily teach him the 
rest, viz. that like icopag are to be declined all those words which end in £ 
and \^ ; like alcav, also SeX^i'r deXcplvo? ; like novs no^os, all which have in the 
Gen. Soy, #oy and to? ; like Sai/xcov daifiovo?, also ^icoi/ ^lowr, Ttoi}xr]v tvoijxZvos; 
like Aecoj/ AeoiTor, also obovs obovros and even Sets Scvto? ; and. finally like 
n-pay/ia, aro?, also rjizap fjnaTO?. — For fjpeos see also in § 58. 

Note 2. Dialects. Besides what will be adduced in the following sec- 
tions, we remark here only : 1) That the Dual ending oiu is here resolved 
into ouv by the epic writers, just as in Dec. II, (§ 35. n. 4. d,) e. g. nobouv 
for Ttoholv. 2) That the Ionics sometimes insert e before <u in the Gen. 
Plur. when it has the circumflex; e. g. Herod, y^i/eW for xi v ^ v * fr° m XV V 
\rjvos. 

Note 3. Quantity. The case-endings t, a, and ay, are here always short ; 
see in § 52 the exceptions to words in evr. — For the quantity of the final 
syllable of the Nominative, and of the penult of the Genitive, see § 41, 
notes. 

2. In respect to Accent, the following rules are here valid : 

1) In words of two or more syllables, the accent remains, so 
long as its nature admits, upon the same syllable as in the 
Nominative ; see above in Kopa%, alcov. 

2) Monosyllables throw the accent in the Gen. and Dat. of all 
the numbers upon the case-endings ; and upon the endings 
cov and oiv, this is always a circumflex 33. 7). See above 
in ^7/0, /a?, vvl;, i oO?, See the exceptions in n. 4. 



dS third declension, accusative singular. h N 44. 45. 

3) The Accusatives, Nominatives, and Vocatives, on the con- 
trary, never have the tone on the case-ending.* 
Note 4. From the second rule are excepted : 

a) The Participles, as Be is Szvtos, a>v ovtos, etc. 

b) The Gen. and Dat.'Plur. of the adjective Tray, nav, (navTos, iravTi), G. 
Plur. TvdvTwv D. nacrLv. 

c) Some words which have become monosyllables by contraction, e. g. 
"Xdas Xds G. Xdos (see § 58) ; i'ap rjp, Keap Krjp, G. rjpos, tempos. But not 
all such; see in § 41. n. 7, and also ols, § 50. n. 6. 

d) The Gen. Plur. and Dual of the following ten words : 6 rj nais child, 
6 Sots jackal, 6 8pcos slave, 6 Tpcos Trojan, to (pats' light, 17 (peps brand, f) 
das torch, and the anomalous to KPAS head, to ovs ear, 6 o-rjs moth; 
consequently, 7rai8a>v, Qeooov, dpoocov, Tpaxov, (puiTodv, (pepbav, dabcov, Kp&Tav, 
a>T(£>v, cricov ) and so in the Dual Traidow, etc.f 

e) The lengthened epic Dat. Plur. €o~i, eo-cri, § 46. n. 2. 



§ 44. Decl. III. — Accusative Singular. 

1. The principal ending of the Accusative in this declension is 
in a. But words in t?, u?, avs, ou?, have also an 

Accusative in v, 
which is formed as in the other declensions, by simply changing 
the ? of the Nominative into v, and retaining the quantity and 
accent. In those words which have a vowel before the case-end- 
ing, this is the only form ; e. g. /3ovs G-. (Boos A. (3ovv • Spvs G. 
Spvos A. Spvv. So too l%0vv, iroXiv, ypavv, etc. 

2. Those words on the other hand which receive a consonant 
in the Genitive, have always a, when the last syllable of the Nom- 
inative is accented; e.g. ikiru; -i3o? K.eXnriha' nrovs 7roSo? A. 
TroSa. If the last syllable of the Nominative is unaccented, they 
commonly have v, but often also a ; e. g. epi$ -tSo? A. epiv and 
epiha • /copvs -v6o$ A. Kopvv and KopvOa • eveXnus -tSo? A. evekiriv 
and evekiriha • ttoXvttovs -080s A. iroXvirovv and nroXviroha. 

Note 1. So too Xdas contr. Xds stone, Gen. (kdaos) Xdos, has in Ace. Xdav 
contr. Xdv. — See also the Anom. icXeis and ovs (§ 58) ; and for words in &> 
and cos-, see § 49. n. 7. 

Note 2. From the ancient language, the poets (not Attic) retained /3oa 
for j3ovv, evpea for evpvv, l^dva for l\^v, and some others. 

h 45. Bed. III. — Vocative. 

1. In this declension the instances are particularly frequent, 
where a word can indeed form its Yocative regularly, but never- 
theless makes it commonly, or at least among the Attics, like the 

# It must not be overlooked, that in this declension the ending of the word (o-cot- 
--f]p), is always to be distinguished from the ending of the case (<rcoTrjp-a) , § 39. n. 1. 

t In several of these words, this accentuation is a trace of contraction from the 
more ancient forms 7rai's, (puis, dais, KPAA2, ouas ; in the others, it probably pro- 
ceeds from an endeavour to distinguish them from the similar Genitives of the 
words al Towai, d/xevai, Srwrj damage, 6 <pd>s man, etc. 



45. THIRD DECLENSION. VOCATIVE. 59 

Nominative (n. 4). This holds true of all Participles of this de- 
clension in cov, et?, a?, etc. even when, according to the following 
rules, they would have a Yoc. of their own (see 3, 4). And al- 
though apxtov (fr° m ftpX *) nas Voc. ft) &PX 0V > ^hi s is because it is 
no longer a Participle, but a noun, O Archon. — We subjoin here 
the examples in which the Yoc. most commonly has a form of 
its own. 

2. The endings ew, *?, u?, as also the words irah, ypavs, fiovs, 
drop their ? to form the Vocative ; and those in ew then assume 
the circumflex (§ 11. 3). E.g. fiacriXevs Yoc. a> (BaaCKev. So 
Tldpc, Acopl, Tr]0v, rjSv, etc. also iral, ypav, /3ov. 

3. Words in a? and et?, before which v has fallen away, also 
drop their 9 to form the Yocative, and then for the most part re- 
sume the v ; e. g. rdXas, avo<$, co roXdv • AXas, avros, co Alav •■ x a ~ 
pieis, evros, c5 yap'^v* But several proper names in a?, avros, have 
in the Yoc. only long a without 'the v; e.g. "ArXas, avros, oj 
"ArXa. 

4. ■ Words which have rj or a> in the ending of the Nominative, 
simply take e or o in the Yocative ; regularly however only when 
the other cases have e or o, and the Nom. is not oxytone ; see in 
the examples Saificov and \ecov (§ 43). So too /ArjTTjp, epos, oj fAv- 

T€p ' pYjTCOp, OpOS, Si pTjTOp ' 2(DKpaT7]$, 60?, 0) %(DKpaT€S. 

Note 1. From the rule in no. 4, are excepted those which have the ac 
cent on the last syllable, e. g. noiprjv, evos, aj iroip^v, shepherd; aldrjp, epos, a> 
al8r)p ; but only substantives, not adjectives ; e. g. <w tceXaivecpes. The fol- 
lowing three accord with the general rule, only drawing back the accent, 
viz. TraTep, avep, daep, from rrarrip, dvrjp, 8ar)p brother-in-law , G. epos. 

Note 2. Words which retain the long vowel in the other cases, remain 
in the Voc. unchanged ; consequently a> likarayv (G. iovos), 3> Sevocpcbv (£>v- 
tos), a> lr)Tr}p {rjpos), at Kpdrrjs faros) . But the following three make the 
vowel short in the Vocative ; viz. 'AnoWcov wos, Hoaeidcbv covos Neptune, 
crcoTTjp -rjpos saviour; Voc. w^AttoWov, H6o-ei8ov, acbrep. Here also the draw 
ing back of the accent must not be overlooked. 

Note 3. In consequence of the shortening of the final syllable, the Voc- 
ative in paroxytones of more than one syllable has a tendency to draw back 
the tone upon the antepenult. This happens in words and proper names in 
tjs and r]p ; as KaKorjBes, Ar/poadeves, Bvyarep, ArjprjTep. Elsewhere only in 
certain words in av, cop, mostly compounds ; e. g. avroKparop, KaK.6daip.ov, ivo- 
o-ixQov, and the proper names 'Aydpepvov, Hoaeldaov Horn. "Apcpiov. But 
some of these, especially compounds in <ppa>v, do not thus throw back the 
tone 3 as yapiei/, datcppov, ActKedaipov, TlaXaipov, 'ldcrov, Mayaoi/, 'Aperaoi/. 

5. Feminines in a> and oj? form the Yocative in ol (§ 11. 3) ; 
e. g. Sa7T(p(o, co HairfyoZ' \H&)?, o> 'Hoc. 

Note 4. It is easy to conceive, that those objects which are seldom di- 
rectly addressed, should retain rather the form of the Nominative whenever 
this did occur ; as a> itovs, Z> ivokis, and the like. This often takes place 
also, especially among the Attics, in such words and names as KpeW, A'ias, 
rdXas, crcor^p, etc. 

Note 5. The word ava% king, when employed to invoke a god, has its 
own form of the Vocative, a> ova, by crasis ava ; elsewhere a> ava%, by crasis 
wag. Comp. § 41. 5, marg. note. 



60 THIRD DECLENSION. DATIVE PLURAL. §§ 46, 47 



§ 46. Decl. III.— Dative Plural. 

1. When the ending aiv, cri, of the Dative Plural, is preceded 
by a consonant, the same general rules are applicable as for the 
? of the Nominative (§ 41). See above, tcopai;, vv%, ttovs, alcov. 
So too "Apayjr 'Apafios "Apa^iv, ovv£ ow%p$ 6vv%i, r\irap rywaTO^ 
rjiracTiv, etc. 

2. When in such words the vowel of the oblique cases differs 
from that of the Nominative, it remains also in the Dat. Plural ; 
as halfMov, ovo<$ — Sal/ioai' irov^, ttoSo? — iroalv aX(*)irr)%, e#o? — 
d\a)7re^iv. But when vr has been dropped, the necessary length- 
ening (§ 25. 4) takes place ; see above, Xecov, ylyas, and also uSovs, 
6vto$ — oSovac ' rvTrefc, ivros — Tvirelaiv. If only v has been drop- 
ped, the short vowel remains; as fcrefc /crevos — /crecrlv. 

Note 1. The adjectives also (not participles) in fir, evros, have only e , 
as <f)a>vr]€is; tvros — (pcovrjeaiv. 

3. When the ending <riv, ai, is preceded by a vowel, i. e. when the 
word has o? pure in the Grenitive, this vowel remains in the Dat. 
Plur. unchanged, as in the other oblique cases ; e. g. dXrjOrjs, 609 
— akr)6eau • rectos, eo? — repeal, • Spvs, Spvos — Bpvalv. But when 
the Nom. Sing, has a diphthong, the Dat. Plur. takes it also, e. g. 

jSaaiXevs, e&>9 — fiaaLkevcn 

ypavs ypaos — ypaval. /5o0? /3oo<; — /3ovalv. 

Note 2. The ancient and epic language has -eo-0-1 (v), and more rarely 
-cat (v), instead of at (v), in all words ; and this ending, inasmuch as it be- 
gins with a vowel, is appended just as in the other cases ; e. g. IxOv-ecrcrt, 
KopaKcacri, Traibecrcri, (36e<rcn, (Sao-iXeecrariv, avaKreai. This form of the Dative, 
when it comes from monosyllables, retains the tone upon the first syllable, 
or root; e. g. rraideao-iv, Xvecri, from Trots, h. — The Dat. in dat see in § 47. 
See also the Anom. vlos and apvos, § 58. 

s s 47. Decl. III. — Syncope of some Words in rjp. 

1. Some words in rjp, G-. epo?, drop the e in the Gen. and Dat. 
Sing, and also in the Dat. Plur. and then insert a after the p in 
this Dative ; thus 

TraTijp father, Gren. (7rarepo^) irarpo^, Dat. {irarept) Trarpi, A. 
7rarepa, Y. irdrep. — Dual, N. A. irarepe, Gr. D. irarepoLV. — 
Plur. 7r<xT£|oe?, Gr. 7raTep(DV, D. irarpdat, A. nrarepas. 

2. In the same manner are declined, with some anomalies of 
accent, the following : 

fM]T7]p (/jLrjrepos) firjTpos jjLrjrpl fjurjripa fjurjrep mother, 
r) ryacrrrip (yaarepo^) yaarpo^ yacrrpl yaarepa yao-rrjp stomach, 
^vydrijp (^vyarepos) ^vyaTpos, rpl, ripa, ^vyarep daughter. 
Ar)fir)T7]p (AiyjLrjTepos) Ar)\M)Tpo<; Ar)p,7)Tpl, Accus. also sync. Arj- 

/jirjTpa, Yoc. Arjfjir)T€p, Ceres. 
For dvrjp, see Anom. Nouns k 58. 



H 48, 49. THIRD DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. 61 

Note 1. The poets sometimes neglect this syncope, and write e. g. nare- 
oos, SvyciTepeo-ari. Sometimes also they employ the syncope where it is not 
usually found, as Svyarpes, Svyarpwv, etc. Tvarpav Horn. 

Note 2. The Accent of these forms is very anomalous. 1) It stands in 
the full forms (except in the compound A^r/r^p) always upon the e, and 
therefore in the forms of ^rrjp, Svydrrip, is first shifted to that place. 2) 
After the e is dropped, the accent is thrown in the Gen. and Dat. of most 
of them, upon the ending, as p.rjrp6s, ^vyarptov, Svyarpdat ; which elsewhere 
occurs only in forms from monosyllabic Nominatives. 3) Arjp-rjTTjp on the 
contrary draws the tone hack in all the syncopated forms, as Ar)p.r)rpos, etc. 
So too Svydrrip, hut only in the Nom. and Ace. when syncopated by the 
poets, as ^vyarpa, Svyarpes, Svyarpas. 

Note 3. The word yao-rr]p has in the Dat. Plur. yaarpdo-iv and yacrrrjpaiv. 
So also da-rrjp, epos, star, has the Dat. Plur. do-rpdo-iv, but is not syncopated 
in the other cases. 

Contracted Third Declension. 
§ 48. Words with the Gen. in o? pure. 

1. Of words which have o? pure in the Grenitive (§ 42), there 
are few which are not in some of their forms contracted ; al- 
though this is far from taking place in all those forms, where the 
general rules would permit it. 

2. In some instances the mode of contraction deviates from thb 
general rules ; and one instance of this deviation lies in the fol- 
lowing special rule : 

The contracted Accusative Plural of the third declension is 
always formed like the contracted Nominative Plural. 

Note 1. Thus e. g. the Nom. Plurals dXrjdees, /3oey, are regularly con- 
tracted into dXr]6eh, fiovs ; and then the Ace. Plural, contrary to the general 
rules, assumes precisely the same form; e. g. dXrjdeas, fioas, contr. d.XqOe'is, 
fiovs ; and that too even in words which usually neglect the contraction of 
the Nom. Plur. as in /3our, § 50. The only exception to this special rule, 
(tov9 dyvids and the like), see in § 53. 2. 

Note 2. In the third declension there can be strictly no ok.oTra.6ri (§ 33. 5) ; 
because the Nominative has no case- ending of its own, like the other cases. 
But the formative ending of the Nom. can also be pure, and consequently 
subject to contraction. This however must then be regarded as taking place 
in the stem itself, and therefore as something apart from declension j as Kean 
Krjp, 5 07roetf 'Onovs ; and when we know the contracted form of the Genitiv 
{kjjp Krjpos, 'Orrovs 'Ottovvtos), all the other cases follow in the ordinarv 
manner. For this reason, this contraction has been already treated of abov- 
in § 41. n. 5-7. It is only when both the formative ending and the case 
ending are pure, and consequently a double power of contraction exists, thai 
such a word becomes oXoTradrjs- see § 53. 3. 

Examples for practice in all the following instances of contraction, see 
in Appendix E. 

§. 49. Contraction of Words in 77?, e?, o?, w, &>?. 

1. Words in 77? and e<?, Gr. eo?, (all of them properly adjectives,) 
Neuters in o?, Gr. eo?, and Feminines in co and <w?, Gr. 00s, are con- 
tracted in all the cases where two vowels come together. 



62 



THIRD DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. 



$49 



2. There are no substantives proper in 77? G-. eo? ; and even in 
rpLTjprj^ we must supply vav$. But besides adjectives there are 
many proper names in 77? G\ eo?, (e. g. AiOfirjSr}^, and those in 
KpcuT7)<s, as ZcofcpaTT]?,) the flexion of which follows rpirjpris, ex- 
cept that they often make the Ace. in rjv, like Dec. I ; see '§ 56. 
n. 4. 

3. Neuter adjectives in e? are declined, with the exception of 
this ending itself, entirely like Neuters in 09 ; thus from aXrjOfc, 
Neut. a\r)0e$, Plur. ra aXrjdea akrjOr). 



Tptrjp7]<; 
TpLrjpeo? 
Tpirjpel 
Tpirjpea 
r ply pes 



ley) 


TO 


wall) 




T€LX°S 




Tpirjpovs 


Te/yeo? 


rej/^ot/? 


rpirjpei 


rei^eC 


relxei 


Tptrjpr] 


rectos 





r) (echo) 

rrxpo? 
rrxpi 

vx° a 
vx o ? 



VXovs 
rjxol 

vx™ 



rpirjpee rptrjpr) 
rptrjpeoLV TpLrjpoiv 


retxee relxv^ 
reix^oiv reixolv 


vx™ 

as Dec. I] 


rpirjpees Tpfqpeis 
TpLTjpecDV Tptrjpcbv 
rpirjpeai (v) 
rpirjpeas rptrfpeis 
rpirjpees Tpir}pei<$ 


reuxea relxv 

T6LY6COP TGiyj&V 

reixect (v) 
reixea relvn 

T€LX ea T€ ^X 7 i 


VX 0L 

as Dec. II 



Sing. 

Norn. 

Gren. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

Dual. 
N. A. V. 
G-.D. 

Plur. 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 

Note 1. Feminines in &> and &>y are usually found only in the Singular 
When the Dual and Plural are necessary, they are formed according to Dec 
II. — The masc. fjpoas see in the anom. Nouns § 58. 

Note 2. The Dual in -q, (e. g. Aristoph. Thesm. 282 to TrepiKaXXr] Qea-fio- 
(popoo,) deviates from the general rule, as being contracted from ee (§ 28. 3). 
The Attics employ the uncontracted form; e. g. rco yo/ee, Plato Polit. 260. b. 

Note 3. The Attics never neglect the contraction in these words, except 
in the Gen. Plur. where we very commonly find dv6ea>i>, KepSeW, TpLrjpeav, 
etc. and so in"Apeor, Gen. of "Apr)? Mars. — The uncontracted forms of words 
in cb and cos occur nowhere, not even in the Ionic dialect. 

Note 4. Several paroxytone compound adjectives in rjs; remain paroxytone 
in the contracted Gen. Plur. e. g. <rvvr)dr)? (from rjOo?), ra>v o-wr)8&v (uncontr. 
o-ovrjdeav), avrapK-qs avrdpiccov, etc. Comp. adverbs in a? § 115. n. 1. — Also 
the Gen. PI. rpirjpcov, which is given above as regular, is commonly accented 
Tnirjpw, as coming from an adjective rpir)p-q? three-oared. 

Note 5. The irregular contraction of such words as have still another 
vowel before the usual contraction, see in § 53. 

Note 6. The Dorics and the epic writers contract the Gen. in eos into evs 
§ 28. n. 5) ) e. g. rov ytvev? from to yivos. 

Note 7. The accent of the Accus. of words in w (rrjv r)x<^) is contrary to 
the rule in § 28. 6. In words in cor, (of which there are but two, r)w$ and 
luScor,) the Accus. is accented regularly : rr)v r)6a> r)S>. — The Ionics often form 
the Accus. from both these terminations in ovv t e. g. 'Ico 'lovv, qcor r)ovv, 



4 50. 



THIRD DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. 



63 



§ 50. Partial Contraction. 

For all other words which have o? pure in the Gren. and are 
contracted, the rule holds true almost universally, that they ad- 
mit of contraction only in the Nominative, Accusative, and Voc- 
ative Plural ; a few likewise in the Dative Singular. "We ad- 
duce here especially those in vs (x. vos ; also those in £? when 
they have Gr. «>? in the Ionic and Doric manner ; and with them 
we connect the declension of the single words /3o0? and ypavs, in 
order to exhibit to the eye their general accordance with those in 
v? and £?. 

V {city) 



6 (fish) 



6, r) (ox, cow) r) (old woman) 



lyQvs 


7T0Xt? 


ftovs 


ypavs 


iyQvo^ 


irokios 


(Boo? 


ypdos 


IxOvi 


irokii iraki 


(Boi 


ypat 


Ipiy 


ttoKiv 


ftovv 


ypavv 


ixOv 


itoXl 


/3ov 


ypav 


IxOve 


TToXte 


/30€ 


ypae 


iyQvoiv 


nrdkloiv 


ftoolv 


ypaolv 


l%6ve<; ^#0? 


•irokies iroXLs 


/3oe? (ftovs) 


ypaes (ypavs) 


lyBvav 


7r6\,LQ)V 


fiocov 


ypawv 


lyQvcn (v) 


7t6Xc(tl (v) 


ftoVCTL (v) 


ypavai (v) 


iyQvasi l^Ovs 


iroXias 7T0Xt? 


/9o<x? 0ovs 


ypaas ypav? 


iyQves iyQvs 


7T0Xt6? 7r6?U? 


floes fiovs 


ypaes ypavs 



Sing. 

Nom. 

Gren. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

Dual. 

N.A. 

Gr.D. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

G-en. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

In this last word, the unusual contraction of ypaes and ypaas 
into ypavs is to be noted. The Ionics have yprjvs, yprjos, etc. 
without contraction. — For vavs see Anom. Nouns $ 58. 

Note 1. The epic language contracts also the Dat. in v'i; as Ixdvl, (veicvs 
veKv'i) veKVL. 

Note 2. The Dorics spoke and wrote /3a>y, /3<Sz/; and the word has this 
Ace. in Homer (II. ij, 238) where it stands as fem. for cow-hide, shield of 
hide; comp. II. p, 105 (36eaaiv. 

Note 3. In all the ahove words the contraction is often neglected by Attic 
writers ; most frequently in the Nom. Plur. and especially in forms from 
monosyllables, as Ki'ey, five?, Spvey, ypaes, (36es ; often also l^Oves, etc. 

Note 4. It is worthy of remark, that by this contraction the Plural 
becomes again like the Nom. Sing. Even where the quantity is different, 
this is not always apparent from the accent, e. g. in 6 fiorpvs and rovs 
fiorpvs. 

Note 5. In the common language, the flexion in ty, G. toy, is exhibited 
(besides in k'is) only by single forms from t] 6 riypis tiger, nopri? heifer, ttq- 
a-is husband, 77 prjvis wrath, tj rpoViy keel, (some of which however take also 
6 s in the Gen. § 56. n. 5) ; and further by some proper names, as Icpty, and 
by adjectives in iy, 1, § 63. 1. The multitude of other words in ty, which 
assume no consonant in the Genitive, follow the model in the next section. 
—For the shortening of the I in the Dat. Sing, see § 28. n. 10. 

Note 6. The word ois sheep conforms to the above mode of declension 



fi4 



THIRD DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. 



*51 



(Parad. TrdXiy) ; and has Gen. oi'oy, Nom. and Ace. Plur. ois (long i). Jom 
rnonly however the Nom. Sing, is contracted (ah), and the word is thejj 



thus declined : N. 17 oh, G. oio'y, D. 



on, 



oiv, 



Plur. 



oiey, oiay, both contr 



oi'y, consequently 77, at, ray oi'y. — But in the Dat. Plur. Homer has oeo-aiv, 
according to the next section. 

Note 7. Most words in ouy belong to the contracted Dec II ; as irkov?, 
oovr, vovs. Like /3oi)y are declined only ^ovy (§ 58) and povs when it signi 
lies sumac ; but these are never contracted. 

§ 51. Contraction of Words in v$, v<$ {Gr. ecos), i, v. 

1. Most words in t? and 1, and some few in v? and v, retain in 
the common language, the vowel of the Nominative only in the 
Nom. Ace. and Voc. Singular. In all the other endings they 
change it into e, and then contract the Dat. el into ei, the Plur. 
ee? and e<z? into ei$, and Neut. ea into 77. Other endings are not 
contracted. 

2. Substantives in t? and u? then assume also what is called the 

Attic G-enitive, 
i. e. they form the Gren. Sing, in <»? instead of 0?, and the Gren. 
Dual in wv instead of oiv (see n. 6) ; but they accent all three 
Grenitives as if the last syllable were short, h 11. 8. 

3. Neuters in v and 1 have the common G-enitive ; e. g. dcrrv, 
acrreos, acrreoiv ireirepi, ireirepeo<;. 

4. Hence arises for substantives the following usual mode of 
declension : 

to {city 

acrrv 

acrreos 

dcrret 

acrrv 

acrrv 

7r0A.ee 
iroXecoi 

5. Adjectives in f?, Neut. v, have the common Grenitive, 
do not contract the neuter Plural (§ 62) ; e.g. 

r)Bv$ Neut. r)hv Gren. r) & i ? Dat. rjBet 
Plur. ^Set? Neut. r) 8 e a Gr. r)hewv. 

Note 1. The greater part of words in uy are declined according to the 
preceding section. Like irr}x vs are declined only 7re'AeYvy, and in part eyx e ~ 
\v? and Trpeafivs, see § 58. Like aarv are declined (besides ttcov which does 
not occur contracted) a number of names of plants and minerals in t, as 
alvam, Kivvafiapi, etc. 

Note 2. The Attic poets have the Gen. aVreooy, which later writers use 
also in pro^e; Plut. Sull. 13 nenepeed?. 

Note 3. The Ionics always decline words in iy Gen. toy (as 7roXioy, etc.) 
according to $ 50. There exists also a Genitive in eoy, but only among the 
Attics, when they shorten that in ecoy on account of the metre, e. g. ttoXcos; 
{•/3/jeoy, etc. — The epic poets have the Ionic flexion ; except that in the Dat. 



Sing-. 


r) {state) 


6 {ell) 


Nom. 


7T0Xt? 


7 r VX v< ? 


Gen. 


rroXecos 


7r^eo)? 


Dat. 


irokei 


7T7JX61 


Ace. 


TToXlV 


irrfyvv 


Voc. 


rroXi 


Trrjxv 




Dual. N.A. 






G-.D. 





Plur. 




7roXet? 


irrj^ei^ 


acrrr) 


nroXewv 


nrrj^ewv 


acrrecov 


iroXecn {v) 


wfyeei (v) 


dcrrecri {v) 


rroXeis 


irrpiei,? 


acrrr) 


iroXets 


7r? ?% et ? 


acrrr) 


Trrjpcee 


aorree 




Trrj^ewv 


acrreoiv 





and 



tt 52, 53. 



THIRD DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. 



65 



they make e'i in order to avoid the cacophony of u ; e. g. noons, noaios; nove'i. 
Hence, when they contract this Dative, they often make it in et (nokei), in- 
stead of I (ttoXi), which is peculiar to Ionic and Doric prose. — On the other 
hand, of the words in v? which belong here (except eyxeAuf), the Ionic form 
is eo?, e'i, as irr)xys, 7r^eor, 7rr)X 6 h e ^ c - 

Note 4. The word ttoXi? alone has in the epic language a Gen. noXrjos; 
and then the Accus. is 7r6Xrja. 

Note 5. Contractions like irrjx^v, and G. jy/ito-our, Plur. ra J7/U0-77, from 
the Neut. adject, fjfiio-v, belong to the later and less pure Attic dialect. 

Note 6. The Gen. Dual in eav is inserted above for the sake of the anal- 
ogy, and because the Grammarians cite this form as Attic. But in our 
Attic texts we find every where only yeveo-eoiv, Kivrjaeoiv, iroXeoiv, etc. This 
is certainly not accidental, since probably the i in this ending made the 
feeling of length more prominent than in the Sing, and Plural. Comp. 
fiaaiXeotv in the next section. 



§ 52. Contraction of Words in eu?. 

Words in eu? have likewise the Attic Genitive, but only that 
of the Sing, in oj?, and without any peculiarity in the Accent ; 
inasmuch as the tone in the Nom. is always on evs, and there- 
fore remains in the other cases on the penult (§ 43. 2. 1). In 
these words also, only the Dat. Sing, and Nom. Voc. and Accus. 
Plur. are contracted ; but in the last case the uncontracted ea? 
is the more usual form. The long a in the Accusative-endings 
a and a? is an Attic peculiarity. 



Sing. 


6 (king) 


Dual. 


Plur. 


Nom. 


/3ao-tXeu? 


ftacrCkee 


(3acrCkeZ<; 


G-en. 


fiacriXecDs 


fBacrCkeoiv 


fiacriXicov 


Dat. 


fiaanXel 




ftacrCkevcri (y) 


Ace. 


f3a<TL\ea, 




(SacriXeas and ftacrtXeis 


Voc. 


fiacrCkev 




(SacrtXefc 



Note 1. The Accus. in els is used by writers not Attic, i. e. those called 
ol kolvoI (§ 1. 9). The Accus. Sing, in ea is sometimes contracted into rj by 
the Attic as well as other poets : II. o. 339. Aristoph. Acharn. 1151 (1116). 

Note 2. The earlier Attic writers, e. g. Thucydides, Aristophanes, con- 
tract the Nom. Plur. into rj?, e. g. ol 'nnrrj?, ol MavTivrjs. This contraction is 
sometimes marked with c subscript, but incorrectly, because it comes from 
the ancient rjes ; see the. next note. 

Note 3. The Ionics decline throughout fiao~Ckr)os, fiao-iXrfi, r)a, rje?, r)a$, etc. 
— The form in eos, e'i, on the contrary, is here very rare, and peculiar to 
the poets. — For the Dat. Plur. (3ao-t\eecrcri and Imrrjeo-crt from lirirevs, see 
$ 46. n. 2. 



§ 53. Varying and Double Contraction. 

1. Some deviations in the contractions of Dec. Ill, occur occa- 
sionally through the influence of the Attic dialect; especially 
when e is both preceded and followed by a vowel. In such in- 
stances the ending ea is contracted not into rj, but into a. This 

E 



66 THIRD DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. § 54. 

occurs in words in ^? (e?) and o? ($ 49) ; e. g. £7^? healthy, Ace. 
Sing, and Neut. Plur. vyiea contr. i/yta. So evepva, ivBea, from 
€v<fiv7Js, iv$er]s ; also %peo? 6fe6£, Plur. %/aeea contr. %f>ed. But in 
the Ace. Plur. we find vytels, ivSeets, like the Nominative. 

2. Even those endings of words in eu? which are not usually 
contracted, absorb in some words in like manner the e before a, 
a?, and o>?; thus %oei/? a measure (see %ou? § 58), Gren. %oeoj? 
%oco?, Ace. %oea %oa, Ace. Plur. ^oea? %oa?. So Uetpaiev^ Gr. ITet- 
patoj? A. Heipaia ; also clyvievs altar before the door, rov? ayvias, 
and some others. So that in this single instance the contracted 
Ace. Plur. is not like the contracted Nominative Plur. 

3. In proper names in -icXerjs contr. kXyjs, there arises a double 
contraction, which however is usual only in the Dative, e. g. 

Nom. UepacXer)*; — IlepitcXrjs 

Gren. IlepLfcXeeos contr. HepucXeovs 
Dat. UepitcXeei — IlepcfcXeei — UepiicXeZ 
Ace. UepiKXeea — TlepticXea 
Voc. UepiicXees — ITept/cXet?. 

So also e HpafcX?i<; Hercules, and some others. 

Note 1. The doubly contracted Accusative is rarely found, e. g. 'Hpa/eX?), 
Plat. Phsedo p. 89. c. — The form 'HpctKkrjv in later writers is explained from 
§ 56. n. 4. 

Note 2. Sometimes instead of contraction, there was an elision of one of 
the vowels ; e. g. Voc. r/ Hpa/<Xer, as an exclamation in the later prose ) and 
in the poets, Gen. SocpoKkeos, D. 'Upa/cXe'i ; Horn, imepdea (instead of -ea) for 
virepDeea from -er}$ ; enrecrert for cnreecrcri. 

Note 3. By means of this elision we can explain the instances, where 
the unaccented ending a, e. g. in ra jcXea (from kAcos 1 ), which from the con- 
traction should he long, is nevertheless in epic writers short. Comp. § 28. 
n. 10. 

Note 4. The word akiev? fisher, has always the common forms : dXteW, 
aXiea, akuas: See more in Ausf. Sprachl. § 53. n. 1. 

Note 5. The Ionics always have vyiea, 'Hpa/cXeea, ivdeees, etc. The 
early poets contract the first ee into et or 77 ; e. g. from kXco?, crrreos, we find 
G. *Xaor, Plur. /cXeta; D. emeu and cnrrj'i, and even Dat. Plur. (mrjecro-i ; also 
'HpanXrios, ?)i, ?)a. 

$ 54. Contraction of Neuters in a?. 

1. Of Neuters in a? these two, Kepas horn and repas wonder, 
have the Gren. in aros, from which the Ionics drop the t : 

/ceparos /cepaos, re-paro? repaos, 

and the following three, yr/pas age, yepas honour, and /cpeas meat, 
have every where only ao?. 

2. Hence arises the following contraction : 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 

rcepae Kepa 
Kepdotv K€ptpV 



N. A. V. Kepas 

Gr. Kepaos Kepcos 

D. Kepal Kepa 



Kepaa Kepa 
Kepdcov Kepiov 
Kepacri (y) 



H 55, 56. CONTRACTION. ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. 67 



Note 1. The word re'par admits the contraction only in the Plural, as 
repa rcp&v; in the Sing, riparo? alone is usual among the Attics. So too 
in Kepa?, the form in aro? remained current along with the contracted one. 
The three other words commonly occur only in the contracted form. The 
form in aos is consequently, in all these words, merely Ionic. 

3. Other neuters in a?, aos, take only the contracted forms in 
a and a ; e. g. aekas lights Senas goblet, tw creka, hiira, Plur. ra 
ae\a, heira. So also Sepas, orcpeXas, etc. 

Note 2. The middle syllable pa in the forms from ntpa? is originally 
long; as Kepara Anacr. 2. Eurip. Bacch. 919. Hence, in the later epic 
writers, comes the resolution of the long vowel, as Kepdara, and in like 
manner also repdara. 

Note 3. On the other hand, the final syllable, e. g. in ra. yepa, /cpea, is 
sometimes used as short; see § 28. n. 10, and more in Ausf. Sprachl. 

Note 4. The Ionics in flexion often change the a of these words into e, 
and decline them as if from a Nom. in os ; e. g. /cepeor, ra yepea, Kpeecraw, 
etc. Some old words have only this form ; see the Anom. (Bperas, ovdas, 
K«oar, and in part Kvecpas, § 58. 

§ 55. Contracted Form of Comparatives in cov, ov. 

1. Comparatives in wv, Neut. ov, Gr. ovo$, (M 67, 68,) drop the 
v in the Accusative Singular, and in the Nom. Accus. and Voc. 
Plural, and then contract the vowels. But unless this contrac- 
tion takes place, the v is never dropped, even by the Ionics. E. g. 
Sing. " Plur. 



Nom. pa'£W greater, N. pei^ov 

Gen. pei£ovos 

Dat. pei^ovt 

Ace. ptifrva contr. pei£a>, N. pei^ov 

Voc. pei^ov 



pei£ove9 contr. pei£ovs, N. pelfava pelfa 

pei£6i>a>v 

pei£oo-i{v) 

pel^ova? contr. pei£ovs, N. pei£ova peifa 

Like the Nom. 



Dual uncontr. N. pei£ove, G. pei^ovoiv. 
The Attics employ the forms fiel&va and fiel^ovas not less readily 
than they do the contracted ones ; but fiei&ves seldom occurs. 

2. Similar is the usual Attic contraction of the Accusative in 
the two proper names 'AttoWwv, oovos, and IIo(T€lS(ov, covos, Nep- 
tune ; e. g. Ace. ^AnroXkwva ^AiroXKw, Uoo-eih&va Tloo-ethS). Both 
forms are in use together. 

Note. So also in the poets Kvnecov a mixed drink, Ace. KVKeava — xviceS), 
epic KVK.et.a>. — Compare on this contraction and some similar ones from elKoov, 
nr)8a>v, etc. § 56. n. 6. d, and n. 7. 

§ 56. Anomalous Declension. 

1. What is properly called Anomaly in declension, is, when 
from any Nominative one or more of the oblique cases are actu- 
ally formed in an irregular and peculiar manner, i. e. not accord- 
ing to the above general rules ; see in the list of Anomalous 
Nouns (§ 58) e. g. avrjp, revcov, <yd\a. 

Note 1. To these mere deviations in flexion, may be referred the sim- 



68 ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. § 56. 

pier declension of some foreign and later proper names in s\ with a long 

vowel, e. g. 

$i\rjs- G. <&i\ri D. <fri\j} A. $i\rjv V. $ikrj 
'iwcrovs G. 'I770-OV D. 'irjaov A. 'ivcrovv V. 'I770-OV. 

2. But the greater part of the actual deviations from regular 
declension, consist in what may be called the commutation 01 
interchange of forms. In Greek it was very often the case, es- 
pecially in the more ancient language, that a word had two or 
more endings and modes of flexion, with only one and the same 
signification. As the language became more cultivated, only one 
of these forms was for the most part retained as the current form ; 
but still the other often maintained its place, sometimes for the 
sake of well sounding alternation, sometimes accidentally, and 
most frequently in the poets. E.g. A^fjbTqrrjp, more seldom Ar)- 
[irjTpa, Ceres ; Sd/cpvov, older form Sdfcpv, uo?, a tear. 

Note 2. Here belong the instances where a Masc. in os of Dec. II, is at 
the same time a Neut. in oy of Dec. Ill ; like 6 and to a kotos darkness, o-kv- 
(f)os cup, $xo? chariot. Further, some prolongations of the feminine endings 
of Dec. I, e. g. o-eXrjvt], ava.yK.-q, Ion. o-eX-qvairj, dvayKairj ; Adijva Minerva, epic 
'Adf}vv, Ion. 'AOrjvain ; and many female names in 77 with the epic secondary 
form in eia, as UwveXoTrr) and Il77z/eAd7ma, Uepcre(p6v€ia, Tep^t^dpfia. And in 
general, many proper names have even in the Nom. a double form; e. g. 
-kXtjs and -kXo?, 'I^ikXtjs and"l<fiiK\os; and the poets therefore, according to 
the necessities of the metre, could follow sometimes one form, sometimes 
the other. Thus Homer has always in the Nom. Harpo/cXo?, but in the Ace. 
both HarpoKAoi/ and narpoAcX^a, Voc. HaTpoKke and Ilarpd/cXetr, without its 
being necessary to consider this as a case of Metaplasm; see no. 5 below. 

3. Of two modes of flexion in a word, when one became usual 
in one oblique case, and the other in another, the word thus be- 
came truly anomalous. E.g. yvvrj would regularly follow Dec 
I ; but actually has the G-en. yvvcutcos, from the obsolete Nom. 
TTNAI&. See the words Zevs, vBcop, yovv, SevEpov, irvp, vavs> 
in § 58. 

4. Not unfrequently both forms remained more or less in com- 
mon use side by side, in the same case ; e. g. vlos, Gr. vlov and 
also vleos from a Nom. of Dec. III. See too S-e/xt9, koivcovos, op- 
vis, %ou?> in § 58. A word of this sort is called Abundans. 

5. When both forms presuppose one and the same Nominative, 
from which they are only declined, in a different manner, the 
word is called a Hetero elite ; e.g. OISlttovs, Gren. OlBliroSos and 
Olhiirov after the contracted Dec. II. "When however one of the 
forms presupposes an unusual or obsolete Nominative, this is call- 
ed a Metaplasm ; e.g. hevhpov, ov, Dat. Plus* SevSpots and also 
oevSpecriv from the Ion. Nom. to SevSpos. 

6. It is also an instance of Metaplasm, when from a mascu- 
line in o? is formed a Neut. Plur. in a ; this occurs in prose par 
ticularly with 

tc\ Becr/xd, araOfxa, crlra, 

from 6 heapbos fetter, crraOpLos a balance (stall), ctZtos grain. 



§ 56. ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. b9 

Note 2 a. When o-Tadpos signifies stall, it lias usually Plur. ~oi, larely 
-a; but in the signif. balance, always -a. In the poets, from the Nom. in 
os- (masc. or fern.) there come very often the Plurals ra 8pvpd, KekfvOa, KvicXa. 
Xv^va, firjpd thighs for sacrifice, pvira, rapcrd, rdprapa ; and sometimes as in 
later writers also ra affka from 6 a6\os contest, to. jSoorpu^a, ra Id arrows, to. 
yakiva, etc. — Some words have the double form even in the Nominative ; 
e. g. 6 vcotos and to vcotov the back, 6 {vyo? and to £vyov yoke, 6 epeTpos and 
to eptTpov oar; all which in the Plur. prefer the neuter form. 

Note 3. Most of the common and poetical anomalies of declension con- 
sist of Heteroclites and Metaplasms, or a mixture of both. We here bring 
into one view several classes of anomalous nouns. 

Heteroclites. . 

Note 4. To the Heteroclites belong those words in ns which are declined 
after both Dec. I, and IIL Some throughout; e. g. pvicrjs mushroom, G. ov 
and tjtos ; especially proper names like Adprjs, G. ov and vtos ; see the A nom. 
QaXrjs, § 58. Others in part; thus all contracted proper names in rjs which 
have Gen. eoy, form the Ace. both in rj and rjv ; e. g. 2coKpaTr]S G. (eos) ovs, 
Ace. SaacpaTT) Plat, and ScoKpdTrjv Xenoph. — The Ionics on the other hand, 
in words in rjs which are usually declined after Dec. I, form the Ace. Sing. 
and Plur. after Dec. Ill; e. g. 

tov deanorea, Plur. tovs deo-noTeas, from 8ecnr6TTjs, ov 
MtATidSea from MiXTiddrjs, ov.* 

Note 5. Another class of Heteroclites consists of some nouns in ty, which 
in flexion sometimes assume a 8, and sometimes not : e. g. prjvis wrath, G. pr]- 
vios and pj]vi8os ; and several proper names, as 'Amyapo-iy, i8os Aristot. and 
ecos Plutarch. So also feminines in is, 180s, e. g. Travr\yvpis, pjryns, *lcris, 
©ertr, etc. are declined by the Ionics and Dorics very commonly with G. toy. 
Comp. the epic 8at (?) for 8at8i, § 28. n. 10. 

Note 6. The Nominative endings in coy, cov, cop, give occasion also to very 
many anomalies. Here belong as Heteroclites : 

a. Nom. coy, G. co and coos-. So Mlvcos, TraTpcos, p,r)Tpcos ; but still in Plur. 
more commonly naTpcoes, etc. See also the Anom. koKcos, and comp. 
rjpeos, § 58. 

b. Nom. cos, G. cotos. These words sometimes drop their r. The word 
6 ibpeos sweat, \8pcoTi, l8pcoTa, has also an Attic secondary form tco l8pco, 
tov l8pco, which indeed is usually considered as contraction (like nepaTi, 
<epa), but which also coincides with the forms of the Attic Dec. II ; as 
does also xP taTl -> XP<?-> from the Anom. xP^ s - A more evident transition 
to the Att. Dec. II, see in Anom. yiXcos (§ 58) and in some adjectives, 
as evpvKepcos, etc. § 63. n. 5. 

Such as have already in the Nom. two forms in use, can properly be reck- 
oned neither to the Heteroclites nor to the Metaplasms. Such are : 

c. Nom. coy and os. Even epcoy, coroy, desire, love, which most clearly be- 
longs to Dec. Ill, has also a secondary poetic form epos, Ace. epov. It 
is therefore less surprising, when in some words which belong to the 
Attic Dec. II, there occur single forms from the common Dec. II ; e. g. 
Tacos, Nom. Plur. tcico and tcloL. See also the Anom. mXcos and ye'Xcoy, 
§ 58. 

d. Nom. coy and mv. Here the anomaly sometimes occurs even in the 
Nominative; e. g. 6 racoy G. co, and 6 tclcov G. covos, peacock; 6 Tv(pcos 

* All proper names which are formed like patronymics, as MiXTiddys, Evpnrid7]s, 
etc. and most of those which are not (like 2w/cpaT7jy) compounded, e. g. Alcrxi- 
vys, Eep|7js, Tvjtjs, etc. are declined in Greek, with the exception of this Ionic 
anomaly, entirely after Dec. I ; while the Latins form them whelly after Dec. Ill, 
as Gen. Miltiadis, Xcrxis, etc. 



70 ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. § 56. 

G. d>, and tvcjhav G. wvos, whirlwind; f] akws G. a> and too?, and ^ fikoov 
G. covor, threshing floor. In the Plur. of all these words, the forms of 
Dec. Til, are the most usual. — With these may also be compared the 
Accusatives 'A7rdXXco, TLoaeidco, kvk€g>, § 55. 2. 
e. Some Feminines in cap have a secondary form in co, G. ovs; as yK-qx&v 
coi/oy, and y\r)x<*> ovs, penny-royal; also Topyco?/, oVor, earlier Topyco, ovs, 

Metaplasms. 
Note 7. Here belong : 1) Feminines m oov, whose secondary form m w 
has not been preserved in the Nom. like those in n. 6. c. E. g. 

from eiKcoj/, ovos, image, we find also G. elicovs A. ei*ca> Ace. Plur. 

from dr)8o)v, ovos, nightingale — G. drjSov? Voc. ar;Soi. 
from ^eXiScoi/, dVoy, swallow — Voc. x^ l ^o7. 
In some of these examples however a contraction like that of peifav, etc. can 
be assumed. § 55. 1. 

2) One Subst. in a>p, which presupposes an obsolete Nom. in as ; e. g. 
from Ix^Pt £>pos, lymph, Homer has Ace. i^w instead of Ix&paJ* 

Note 8. Finally, in the epic and lyric poets, instead of the ordinary forms 
of certain words, there are found single cases of a shorter or more simple 
form, of which however the analogous Nominative does not occur. So 
especially forms in Dec. Ill, with the case-endings os, i, a, es, eai, instead 
of the usual ones in Dec. I and II. 

E. g. for clXkt) from oXktj strength — dX/a from AAS, Horn. 

for Kponrjv from kookt] woof — Kpona from KPOE, Hesiod. 

for dtdov, atdrj, di'drjv from 6 dtorjs Hades — ci'idos; aidi, ai'Sa, from Ai'2. 

for KkdScj) from 6 /cXaSor bough — xXaSi and in Plur. KXdoVcri, from 

KAAS/ 
for dvdpoTTodois from to avftpdnobov slave — dvbpanodeaai as if from 

ANAPAIIOY2, Horn, 
for vaplvrj from 77 vcrpivrj battle — vo-pivi from 'Y2MI2. 
And so of some others. Here belong also 
ai o~rdyes for orayoves drops 
Sepaira, Sepaires, for Sepd-rrovTa, es, servant 
pdcrrl, pdanv, for pdcrrlyi, a, from rj pdem^ scourge. 
Some such forms can hardly be considered as Metaplasms ; since their pre- 
supposed Nom. is for us entirely obsolete. So 

rrjv vlcpa snow, from NIM% 
since the common word for snow is x L ™ v -> an( ^ vicpds has only a derived sig- 
nification, snow-flake. Further, the cases 

ttjs o-Tixds, PI. o-Tixes, as, from 2TIS 
cannot be referred to the prosaic 6 arixos row, on account of the difference 
of gender. 

Note 9. A very peculiar anomaly in declension is occasioned by the 
paragogic ending 

cpiv or cpi 
which is so very common in epic poetry, and is used instead of the Dative 
or Genitive Sing, and Plur. being appended to words for the most part after 
the following analogy : 

* All these appearances become perfectly plain, so soon as we have a correct 
idea of the original oneness of all the declensions, and perceive that the first and 
second, with their subordinate forms, are only ancient contractions and abridge- 
ments from the third. In this way, the Ace. in w of the Attic Dec. II, stands in 
connection with the contr. Ace. in w of Dec. Ill; the Ace. in v of Dec. Ill, with 
those of D3C. I and II: the Ionic 8e<rir6Tea appears less irregular; and so of all the 
rest. See Ausfuhrl. Sprachl. § 33. n 3 



fr 57. NOUNS INDECLINABLE. 71 

-o<piv in words of Dec. II, e. g. o-rparos arparocpiv. 
-rjcpiv in words of Dec. I, e. g. Kecpakrj K€(pa\rj(pi, /3ta j3ir}(piv.* ^ 
-eo-cptv in neuters in os G. eos, e. g. oxos, crrrjBof — ox^a-cpt, arrjOeo-cpiv. 
The few peculiarities and deviations which occur, like Kpdreacpi from KPA2 
Kparos, vaxxpiv from vavs, and the isolated c£ epeftevarcpi (see Jws/. Sprachl.), 
may he left to the learner's ohservation. — But thus much, it would seem, 
we may assume with certainty, viz. 1) That this form had originally 
merely an adverbial and for the most part local signification ; precisely like 
the similar syllables Si, Sev ; hence opeacpiv in the mountains, Ke(pakr)<pi 
(\aj3elv) by the head, Svpr)(pi before the door; 2) That this signification how- 
ever was often rendered more definite by the aid of a preposition, e. g. etr 
licpiocpiv upon the deck, Sia o-rrjOeo-cpi through the breast. The instances are 
few where this form stands for a case, without a preposition ; e. g. dyXatrjcpi 
7re7roi8ojs confiding in valour, fttycpi with force; most rarely of all for the 
simple Genitive alone, as da-reocpiv Sis a heap of bones. Still this form ap- 
proaches to the nature of a true case in this, that it is often grammatically 
connected with regular cases, e. g. airb Trkareos irTvocpiv, x €l P L ^^eprjcpi ; 
and even stands double, being repeated in the substantive and adjective, as 
Kpareprjcpi (3ir)(pi. This however occurs also with the undisputed local end- 
ing de, in ovde 



§ 57. Nouns Defective and Indeclinable. 

1. Defective nouns are such as from their very nature cannot 
occur in more than one number ; e. g. either in the Sing, as at- 
6rjp ether; or only in the Plural, as to, ey/cara (Dec. Ill) bowels, 
oi irTjo-lai trade-winds, at hva^ai the Occident, west, and the 
names of festivals, as ra Atovvaia, etc. 

2. Further, some words which are commonly used only in cer- 
tain connections ; mostly the following, viz. 

to ovap dream, To-virap waking vision, only as Nom. and Ace. 

to ocj>e\o$ and to 97S0?, advantage, only as Nom. e. g. tL ojv tj/jllv 
o<pe\os eirjs ; what wouldst thou profit us ? 

ImolXt] (old form for fiacr^aXri shoulder) only in the phrase viro 
[xakris under the arm. 
See also 3) pike and &> tclv in the list h 58. Here belong also 
many, which from being originally nouns, have become adverbs ; 
as the Ace. iiriickTjv, and e^aityttr)? properly ef di<f>vr$, etc. (§ 115. 
n. 3, 5.) Finally, all those in which certain cases are wanting ; 
see the Anom. apvos, irpeo-fivs, ocrae, § 58. 

3. Indeclinable nouns in Greek are mostly some foreign words, 
as to irao-ya passover; and among these the names of the let- 
ters, aXcj)a, fiv, etc.t Of genuine Greek words, the only ones in- 
declinable are the cardinal numbers, $ 70. 

Note 1. In a certain sense we may also reckon as indeclinable the neut. 

* The Grammarians assume, that this syllable is in all instances a mere ap- 
pendage to that actual case, which under the circumstances is required. Hence, 
when it stands for the Dative of Dec. I, they put i subscript under the 77, in order 
to distinguish it from the Genitive. This is manifestly incorrect ; see Ausfuhrl 
Sprachl. § 50. n. 2. 

t From aly/xa is found ra ai-ynma ; but the reading is doubtful. 



72 ANOMALOUS NOUNS. CATALOGUE. $ 58 

Participle to xpeow necessity, usual only in Nom. and A;e. from Impers. 
Xpr) (§ 114) ; on account of the Gen. tov xP e< *> v > e - S- Eurip. Hipp. 1256 ovk 
icrTi fioipas tov xpeajy r aTraKkayr]. Comp. $ep.i$ § 58. 

Note 2. It is not entirely correct, when Grammarians reckon among the 
defective nouns many old and poetic words, which occur very seldom, and 
have accidentally therefore been preserved only in this or that case ; as 
e. g. vicpa, already mentioned in § 56. n. 8 ; see also the Anom. \irl, Xina, 
rjke, § 58. So too when they reckon, as indeclinable, words of a similar 
kind, which accidentally have been preserved only in the Nominative • or 
if neuters, in the Nom. and Accusative; e. g. j 8cos- gift, to depas shape. 
Among these last there may indeed "be many, which the Greeks really never 
used in the Genitive or Dative, as e. g. 8ep.as; "but then they are defective. 
They could be indeclinable only when they actually occurred e. g. in the 
Genitive without changing the form, like tov 77acr^a. 

Note 3. Some such short secondary forms of usual words, which we may 
regard as remnants of the ancient language, have in this manner been pre 
served,- but only in the Nominative. Such are : 

to deb house; fuller form to 8S>p.a. The Plur. xpvo-ea Sa> in Hesiod may 
be considered as a contraction ; see the Anom. icapa § 58. 

to Kpi barley; fuller form rj KptOf), with different gender. 

to akcpi meal; fuller form ak(piTov. The short form was probably declined 
like fieki, ltos. 

to y\d<fiv cave; manifestly Neut. of an adject. rAA<£Y2, for which yXacpv- 
pos excavated was afterwards used. 
See also the Anom. <dpa, mpr), § 58 ; also some adjectives in § 64. 3, 4. 



§ 58. Catalogue of Anomalous Nouns. 

Note. All that belongs to ordinary prose is here printed large, either 
wholly or in part j that which is poetical or rare, small. The obsolete 
Nominatives are in capitals. 

drjboiv § 56. n. 7. || SXas and aXuv $ 56. n. 6. d. 

avrjp man, belongs to the same class of words as iraTrjp ($ 47), 
but admits the syncope in all the cases which increase, and 
then inserts 8 (§ 19. n. 1). Thus : dvSpos, dvBpt, avSpa, w dvep. 
Plur. avhpes, avhp&v, avSpdacv, avhpas. 

In the epic language also regularly, dvepos etc. but with long d ; and 
in Dat. Plur. avbpea-cnv. 
'AnoXXcov, Acc. § 55. 2. Voc. § 45. n. 2. 

dpytTos, -ti, epic instead of Gen. dpyrJTos Dat. ryri from dpyr t s white. 
"Apr)? Mars, Gc.^Apeos, does not contract the Gren. but contracts 
the Dat.Mpet. — Acc." Apr] an&"Apr}v, § 56. n. 4. 

In the epic language "Kp-qos, "Aprj'i, "Kp-qa. A Gen. "Kpe&s often occurs, 
which however is doubtful; see Ausf. Sprachl. § 58. 
dpvos tov, 7775, the lamb's, dpvl, apva, Plur. iipves, dpvoov, apvaai, 
apvas. As Nom. Sing, the form d\xvos is used. 

These are cases from an obsolete Nom. APHN or APPHN, G. epos 
whence dpvos etc. by Syncope, as in dvrjp. 
BaTTos has the metaplastic Gen. Barreco of Dec. I, in Herodotus. 
PpeTas to, image, G. fipeTeos, Plur. ^petrrj, see § 54. n. 4. 
yaXa to, milk, has Gh yaka/cro? Dat. ydXatcn ; com]). § 41. 5 and 

the marginal note. 
yaXcor sister-in-law, G. yaXco ; Ion. Nom. yaXoccs G. yaXoco. 



$ 58. ANOMALOUS NOUNS. CATALOGUE. 73 

yeXoj? 6, laughter, Gr. wtos, Acc. yeXcora and yeXcov after the Att. 

Dec. II. § 56. n. 6. b. 
Homer has also the Dat. yeAcu, and in Od. v. 346 stands the Acc. ye\ov, 

but with the various reading ye'Xco. § 37. n. 2. $ 56. n. 6. c. 
yovv to, knee, Gr. ryovaros etc. Dat. Plur. <y6va<nv, as from TO- 

NA%. Comp. hopv, Soparos. 

Ionic yovvaros etc. and in the poets yovvos, yowl, Plur. yovva, yovv&v. 
Comp. 86 pv. 
Topydiv and Topyco, § 56. n. 6. e. 

7W?7 woman, <yvvcu/c6s, ^vvolikI, <yvvatKa, w yvvai. Plur. yvvalices, 
ywcufccbv, yvvai^iv, <yvvalfcas, all from TTNAIa. 

For the Voc. yvvai, comp. ova \ 45. n. 5, and § 41. 5. marg. — The ac- 
cent of yvva.iK.6s etc. forms- an exception to § 43. 2. 
hevhpov to, tree, in Dat. Plur. commonly hevhpecri from to SevSpos, 
which occurs in Ionic. Comp. icpivov. 

From another Ionic form hevhpeov came the Plur. 8ev8pa, devdpeois, 
which are also not unknown in the common prose. 
Aios, Ad, see Zevs. 

hopv to, spear, Gr. SopaTos etc. Dat. Plur. Bopaao from AOPA%. 

Comp. yovv, <yovaTO$. 
Ionic bovparos etc. From another still more simple form came the 

(more poetic) cases dopos, dopi, Ion. dovpos, dovpl, Plur. dovpa, dovp&v, 

dovpeao-iv. Comp. yoi/u. 
eap, rjpo?, see § 41. n. 7. || e'acoi; see ivs. 

ey%e\v? r), eel, Gr. vos, has in the Plur. Ion. e^^eX^e? etc. Att. ey%e- 

A«y, iy^ekeonv, § 51. n. 1. 
eiKoav § 56. n. 7. II epcor, epor, § 56. n. 6. c. 

evs good, an epic word, from which come Gen. e^os* Acc. ivv. — Also rjvs, 

Acc. rjiv, Neut. 7]v. — From another form EOS, a, ov, and its Neut. Plur 
ra EA, comes the epic Gen. PI. iaav, goods, § 35. n. 4. c. 
eW § 37. n. 2. 

Zeu? Jupiter, Gr. Am, D. J a, A. J la, as if from JI^ ; and also a 
less common form Zr]v6s, Zrjvi, Zr)va, from ZHN. — Voc. Zed. 

rjXe, II. o. 128 (ppevas rfke, madman ! a Vocative formed hy apocope from the 
infrequent rjkeos ; Od. /3. 243 cppevas rjXee. 

rjpa a defective Accus. in the epic writers : rjpa <pepeiv, gratify, help. 

tfpm, hero, Gr. gjo?, contracts among the Attics the Accusatives 

rfpcoa, ijpcoas, into rjpcn, ripens. 
For the sake of the metre, the other endings are sometimes contracted 

and the short vowel absorbed ; as Dat. rjpco for fjpo'i, Nom. Plur. fjpeos for 

rjpeoes. Comp. § 56. n. 6. a. 
17US, r)<tis, see euy, ecos. 
@a\r)s, Gr. Qakew D. 0aX?7 A. Qa\r)v. With this accent, drawn 

* From this Genitive there has usually been distinguished in Homer a Gen. irjos, 
with the rough breathing, where the sense seemed to require the possessive thine. 
e. g. ircuSbs ir)os of thy son. This was considered as the Gen. of an old form 'ET2 
for £6s his, which, like other forms of the third person, stood for the second person 
(Synt. § 127. n. 5). But the form irjos only is correct. The pronoun is not ex- 
pressed, and the adjective iiis takes in some measure its place ; just as the com- 
mendatory ia6\6s sometimes stands with a stronger meaning, where otherwise the 
possessive could stand ; e. g. II. e. 469. ir. 573 ; comp. particularly Od. 7. 379 
with II. a>. 422. See Lexil. I. 23. 



74 ANOMALOUS NOUNS. CATALOGUE. $ 58. 

oack only in the Genitive, and with this Ionic Genitive (§ 34. n. IV. 5), 
this name is found in the earliest and "best writers, as Herodotus, Plato, 
etc. The Gen. QaXov and the forms QdXrjTos; tjti, -qra, are later. Forms 
after Dec. I, with the accent on the penult, (except QaXea>>) are to be 
rejected. 

*^e/u? r), Themis, laiv, has tlie old epic form Gr. ^e/uo-ros etc. Dor. 
^e/iLTos (Plato also has Ge/Mros for the goddess) ; commonly 
Qe/jLi8os, Ion. ®e/uo?. 

In the phrase $ep.i? eari, fas est, the word $ep.i? has in a measure be- 
come indeclinable or neuter ; hence as Ace. cpaal Se/xt? ehai, Plato Gorg. 
505. Soph. OC. 1191. 

^pl% r), hair, Gr. rp^o? etc. Dat. Plur. ^pttjl, according to § 18. 

iSpcor § 56. n. 6. b. || 'Irjaov? \ 56. n. 1. 

tcdXcos 6, cable, Gr. co, Ace. cov. Plur. fdiXcoes and koKol, Acc. /cri- 
\ovs, all from KAA02 ; see § 56. n. 6. a, c. 

Kupa Att. Kap-q Ion. to, /iead. From the first form, although it occurs often 
in the Attic writers, there is found no other case, except Dat. Kapa. To 
icdpi] we have above assigned the cases KaprjTos, rjri (§ 41. 8) ; along with 
which there exists in the epic writers a fuller form Kaprjaros from the less 
frequent Nom. Kaprjap. Comp. § 41. n. 7. — In Horn. Hymn. Cer. 12, oc 
curs the Plur. Kapa, for -aa or -rja. 

Herewith are to be connected the forms of KPAA2 and KPA2, likewise 
poetic ; but the Nom. Sing, does not occur. The first is epic and neuter. 
Plur. to. Kpdara ; the other, Kparos, Kpari, is common to all the poets and 
is usually masculine; Acc. Sing, tov Kpdra Horn. — Peculiar to Sophocles 
is a third form, Nom. and Acc. Sing, to Kpdra, Philoct. 1457. 

/c\et? rj, key, Gr. /cAetSo?, has in Acc. /c\el8a, oftener /cXeiv, and in 
Plur. /cXelEes, /ckelSas contr. ArXefc. 

Kve(pas, darkness, prefers in the Gen. the form -our, (Kvecpovs Aristoph. Eccl. 
290.) and in the Dative the form a, § 54. n. 4 ; epic -aos, -a'i. 

kolvcovos, partaker; instead of the regular plural, Xenophon employs Koivaves 
and -as. Comp. § 56. n. 8. 

KPAA2, KPA2, see Kapa. 

Kp'ivov to, lily, has a secondary form in the Plur. to. Kpivea (Hdot.) and KpL- 
veai (Aristoph.) as from KPIN02. Comp. hevbpov. 

KVCDV 6, 7], dog, KVVOS, KVVL, KVVCL, 0) KVOV, PlWT. KVV€S, KWCDV, fCVCTl, 

kvvcls. 
Kcaas to, fleece, G. Kcoeo?, Plur. Ka>ea. § 54. n. 4. 
Aaa? contr. Xds, 6, stone, G. Aaor D. Xd'i (§ 43. n. 4), Acc. Xdav Xdv (§ 44. n. 

1), D. Plur. Aaeo-o-ii/. An Acc. Xda is also found; likewise a Gen. Xdov, 

as if from Xda? of Dec. I. 
XiVa an old Subst. neut. (oil, fat, Hippocr.) for which also we find AiVar. 

The Dat. \17rai, Xiira, was shortened in pronunciation and sounded like 

A iVa, especially in the phrase AiVa d\eicpeo-0ai to anoint oneself with oil. 

Here belongs also the Homeric AtV iXala, which may be considered as 

the Dat. of X'nra eXaiov olive-oil. 
Air 6, lion, Acc. Xlv. No pther form occurs in the earlier writers. 
Xlti, Aira, linen, Dat. and Accus. The Nom. is wanting. 
fidpTvs witness, forms fidprvpos, fidprvpi, Acc. fidprvpa and judo 

TVV, D. Plur. fJbdpTVO-LV. 

/xeir is the Ion. Nom. instead of 6 p.r)v month, G. p.nvos, etc. 
/LteXe, a Vocative found only in the familiar phrase w fieXe, in both 
genders. # 

* This has been regarded as formed by apostrophe for jtieA.ee from jue'Aeos wn- 



§ 58. ANOMALOUS NOUNS. CATALOGUE. It 

H^rpm? § 56. n. 6. a. II Mivcos ibid. 

vavs 77, s/«j9. The Attic mode of declension is the following : 
Sing. N. m£? Gr. vecb<? D. vrjt A. vavv 

Plur. N. z^i}e9 G-. vecov D. vavcri A. pat)?. 

Dual. N. A. not found ; G-. D. z/eo£i> Thuc. 
The old and Doric form is G. vaos (whence vea>s § 27. n. 10) etc. Ionic, 
vqvs, vt]09, etc. Ace. vrja and vqvv. From this comes a second Ionic form, 
G. vcos A. vea, Plur. yecs, vias. 

OlShrovs, Gr. OIBlttoSos and Olhlirov, D. oSc, A. oSa. and ow, Y. oia 
An epic and lyric secondary form (as if from Nom. OlSmodrjs) is G. 

Oldnrodao, Dor. -a, Ion. eco, D. 77, A. rjv, V. Oldnroda. 
oi'r, o?y, $ 50. n. 6. 
ovetpoi) 'dream, forms as Neut. ovelparos, etc. P/^r. ovelpara ; comp. 

TTpoacDirov. But it is also found as Masc. 6 oveipos, ov. 
opvis 6, tj, bird, Gr. opviOos, etc. It has in the Plur. a secondary 

form (declined like tto\l<;), opveis, opvecov ; comp. § 56. n. 5. 
In the Attic poets occurs also the Ace. Plur. opvls ($ 50, iroXis). The 

Dorics wrote opvZxo?, opvlxa, etc. (§ 16. n. 1. a.) without however forming 

the Nom. in £. 
6We N. and A. Dual, eyes, forms the Gen. and Dat. only in the Plur, and 

after Dec. II, a&acoy, ocrcroir, oct<joi<tiv. 
ovda? to, floor, ovdeos; ovde'i, § 54. 11. 4. 

oS? to, ear, Gr. wtos, etc. Gren. Plur. corcov (§ 43. n. 4. d), D. Plur 

wcriv. Contr. from oua?, cltos ; Dor. Nom. w. 
ttcu?, child, boy, 7raiSdr, has in the dissyllabic epic form rrais, the Ace. rraiv. 
7rdrpa)9 § 56. 11, 6. a. II Tleipauvs § 53. 2. 

•row? 17, /myx (a place of meeting in Athens), has in the earliei 
writers ttvkvo^, ttvkvl, ttvkvcl ; later ttvvkos, etc. h 19. n. 2. 

Tloaeihodv, covos, Ace. Uocreihuiva and Hocreiho), Voc. Uoae&ov, k 45. 
11. 2. § 55. 2. 

Ancient form, Tloo-eiddcov, ovos and coj/oy. Dor. Hocreiddv or IIoTftoaz/, 
ai/or. Ion. IIoo-eioYa>i>, 01/or. 

irpecrfivs 6, in the signif. o/t/ m<m, elder, has further only Ace. 
irpeafivv, V. irpeaftv. The Plur. ot irpeo-fteLs etc. belongs to 
the signif. ambassador. The other cases were supplied from 
7r/oecr/3uT77? e/^er, and irpecrfievTris ambassador. Thus 

irptcrfivs elder, G. 7rpeo~(3vTov, D. TrpeafivTrj, A. npzcrfivv, V. 7rpeaj3v, 

Plur. 7Tpeaj3vTat, etc. 
7rpecr(B€VTr}9 ambassador, ov, fj, r\v. Plur. iv p e or /3 e t r, 7r p e cr /3 e co z/, npeo-- 

/3ecrt, 7rpeo-/3etr. 
Single poetic examples like G. 7rpe'cr/3ec0? 0/ mi ambassador, Aristoph. 
Acharn. 93, and npeo-fi-qts elders, Scut. Here. 245, prove nothing against 
the common usage. 
npoaamov to, countenance, Plur. epic npoo-anraTa, Tvpoainvacriv. Comp. oveipov, 

irp6j(po^ 97, ivater-pot, Att. 7rpo%oi;?, Gen. 7r/o6%ou, comp. $ 60. 5. 
It passes over in the Plur. into Dec. Ill ; as Dat. Plur. 7rp6xovatv y Aris- 
toph. Nub. 272. Eurip. Ion. 434; like fiovs, fiovo-iv. 

irvp to, fire, forms its Plural (e. g. watch-fires) after Dec. II, tcl 
Tivpdy Dat. Ttvpols, Xen. Anab. 7. 2. Comp. § 7. n. 8. marg. 

happy, hke r/Ae above. But it often occurs in an entirely good and even com- 
mendatory sense, as Plat. Theaet. 90, comp. Sehol. Consequently, like the ex- 
pression "my good friend," it is to be taken as a mode of address in either sense. 



76 ANOMALOUS NOUNS. CATALOGUE. § 58. 

Q7)S 6, moth, Gr. creo?, Plur. crees, crea?, Grenit. aecov, § 43. n. 4. In 

later writers o-t]t6<;, etc. 
a/coop to, filth, Gr. o-fcaros. See vScop. 
(r/xcoSt^ 37, induration, weal, forms cr/zcoStyyor, etc. 
areap, o~rr}p, G. or^rdr, § 41. n. 7. 

rai>, only as Yoc. &> Taz^, a mode of address in common life, O thou ! 
more seldom O ye /* 

raws 1 § 56. n. 6. c, d. || rvcpcos \ 56. n. 6. d. 

i;Sa>p to, water, Gr. i;Saro?, etc. D. Plur. vZacriv. 

Comp. a-Kcop, ctkcito?. The old Nom. is 'YAA2, from tlie confounding 
of which with vbos (comp. § 54. n. 4) the epic Dat. vdei can he explained 

fto? 6, son, is declined regularly ; but we also find very often, es- 
pecially among the Attics, the following forms after Dec. Ill ; 
Gr. v teo? D. vlel (A. vlea). Dual vlie, vlkow. Plur. vlels, vlecov, 
viecriv, vlea? and vlels Plato Legg. p. 695. 

Of these last, the most usual are the Gen. Sing, and all the Plurai 
cases, and these are even preferred to the regular forms. The Ace. viic 
is rejected "by the Atticists, as also the form of the Gen. viems. The Ionics 
form G. vlrjos, etc. All these are prolongations of the cases derived by 
epic writers from the simplest ancient form C YI2, in which the accent of 
the Gen. and Dat. Sing, seems to indicate a contraction from vi- ; G. vior, 
D. vu, A. via, Plur. vies, vfar, D. vldcn with a inserted (as in Trarpdaiv, 
dpvdai), "because the diphthong vi does not usually stand before a con- 
sonant. 

ipdpvyt- f), gullet, G. (pdpvyyo?, poetic (pdpvyo?, etc. 

(fipeap, Gen. (ppearos and dros contr. fypvTos, etc. see $ 41. n. 7. 

Xelp 7], hand, Gr. x €l P^> nas m G~en. and Dat. Dual %epoZv, and in 
Dat. Plur. x^-po-i For tco %elpe see $ 123. 2. 

In the poets also G. x e Po y ' X e P^ X*P a > Dual %eipolv, epic ^elpecri, j£«- 

p€(T(TLV. 

^eXiScoi/, § 56. n. 7. 

Xovs 6 (a measure, congius,) is in part declined regularly (like 
fiovs), x°o y > x°h X°v v > Plur. x°' ey 5 x 0V(T ^ x° ar - But since it is strictly con- 
tracted, from xoevs- (Hippocrat.) it therefore has also (§ 53. 2) the hetter 
Attic forms G. ^oSr, A. x°^> A. PI. xoar.f — But 6 ^ovr ^eap o/ earth, 
has only G. xoo'r, A. x°^ v > e * c - 

Xpecoz/ § 57. n. 1. 

Xpecos to, debt, Gren. also %/3e<y?, Ionic- Attic form for the common 
and less approved %peo?, Gr. ^eou?. P/z«\ %/oed, § 53. n. 2. 

The Dat. is wanting in hoth numbers. — The epic writers have also 
Nom. xP^- 0S an( i xP ei(£>s -X 

Xpco<; 6, skin, Gr. ^/3&>to?, etc. Ionic XP°^> XP ^ XP° a - The Attic 
Dat. xp<? occurs only in the phrase iv xp<?> § 56. n. 6. b. 

a> rdv, see rdv. 1 1 coros-, see ovs. 

* The mode of writing this phrase d> Vaz/, rests on the incorrect derivation from 
ettjs friend, 3> era; see Jlusf. Sprachl. § 57. 

t Not to be confounded with %oas, from al xoai libation. 

% The form xpecos occurs often in earlier editions as Nom. and Accusative ; more 
recently it has been restored from the manuscripts as Genitive also ; e. g. Demosth. 
u. Timoth. p. 1189, 25. 1203, 16. — The form is to be explained from the verb 
Xpdw. The oldest form of the noun was XPAOS, Gen. XPAOT2, and hence arose 
Nom. and Gen. xpiws; just as Aecos from Xa6s and Aaovs. Xpeos was afterwards 
formed by shortening the «. 



1$ 59, 60. ADJECTIVES. 77 



ADJECTIVES. 



$ 59. Endings. 



1. The Greek Adjectives, in consequence of the distinction of 
genders (motio), may be mainly divided into two classes : 1) 
Those of three endings, of which the first is masculine, the sec- 
ond feminine, and the third neuter. 2) Those of tivo endings, 
in which, as in Latin, the Masc. and Fern, have a common form, 
i. e. they are generis communis.— K third class, those of one end- 
ing, does not strictly exist ; since the few which might seem to 
be of this kind, are not generis omnis, as in Latin ; but only of 
common gender without a neuter form. See § 63. 3-5, and the 
apparent exceptions ib. n. 2. 

2. The Feminine of adjectives of three endings always follows 
Dec. I. 

3. The Neuter has always in the Nominative, and consequent- 
ly in the three like cases, a form of its own ; in all the other cases 
it is like the masculine. 

4. The Neuters of Adjectives of Dec. Ill, with the exception 
of the monosyllable 7ra? (^ 62) and the compounds of irovs (§ 63. 
n. 4), always have a short vowel in the last syllable. But no 
Neuter is ever formed, unless the masculine stem has already a 
short final vowel. Adjectives with a long stem- vowel have no 
neuter form ; § 63. 3, 4, and n. 5. 

Note. In order therefore to decline adjectives correctly, it is only neces- 
sary to know the nominative of each gender, and the Genitive of the mas- 
culine. 

$ 60. Adjectives in o?. 

1. The largest class of adjectives are those in o?, of Dec. II, 
corresponding to the Latin in us, and either (like these) of thre? 
endings, 

Masc. o?,. Fern, r) or a, Neut. ov, 
or of two endings, 

Comm. o?, Neut. ov. 

For the few Pronouns which have the Neut. o, see § 74. 

2. Those of three endings are the most numerous, and have 
the Fern, always in rj ; except when preceded by a vowel or by 
p, where the Fern, has a, G-en. <z?. E. g. 

fcovcf)os, Kovtyq, /covcpov, light 
fyikos, cptXrj, <f>i\ov, dear, a friend 
heivos, §>eivr), Setvov, frightful 
veo<$, vka, veov, young 
<f)i\ios, (piXia, fyikiov, friendly 



78 ADJECTIVES. $ 60 

iXevOepos, ipa, epov, free 

Trvppos, d, ov, fiery-red. 
Note 1. But those in oos have the Fern, in ?;; c. g. oyboos 6y86r], Soov 
$or) ; yet when p precedes, these also have a, as dOpoos, dOpoa. — The Fem. 
in a of adjectives in or, is always long; except in dlos; dla, diov, divine, and 
some few adjectives in etoy. Comp. ttotvicl § 64. n. 3 ; also fxia § 70. — For 
the accent of feminines in the Nom. and Gen. Plur. see § 34. III. 1. 2. 

3. Of Adjectives of two endings, or common, there are few 
among primitives or those uncontracted. Such are 6, y (3dp(3a- 
po$ not Greek, hdiravos lavish, r/piepos tame, 7/0-1/^09 quiet, \ol8o- 
po? railing-, XdfBpos furious, \d\os talkative, rcdao-os tame, %ep- 
cro9 barren, yavvos flabby. — Others are variable in the poets and, 
even among the Attics ; who in adjectives of three endings often 
prefer the form in 09 for the feminine ; as rj eXevdepos, f) dvay/caios, 
v) epepios, rj erotpios, etc. See on the Comparative $ 65. n. 6. 

4. More especially, compound adjectives are of the common 
gender, i. e. have only two endings ; as 6, rj (Sa6vKo\7ros, evfywvos, 
ci$r/\o<;, a/3709 (for aepyos), a7r6icXr)po<;, iyfcv/ckcos, SidXev/cos (al- 
though the simple Adj. is \e1w09, r\, ov), 7ro\vypd(po<;, and also 
those derived from compound verbs, as Btdcfropos, virrj/coos, i^aipe- 
T09. But those which are derived b>y appending the syllable kos, 
have always three endings, even in compounds ; as circSec/cn/cos, 
q, ov (from einheiKvvpbi), evhaipbovLKos, rj, ov (from evhalpbwv) ; and 
often also those in £09 (0^09, etc.) when compounded with d priv- 
ative ; as dvd^coi, la, iov. 

Note 2. Adjectives which are clearly derived from other words by ap 
pending the terminations 

ko9, Xor, vos, por, ros, eos*, 
as ixavTiKos, oViXo'r, beivos, (fiavepos; 7rXeKTor, xpvaeos, have always, in prose 
at least, the three endings. On the contrary, those with the endings 

por, tor, €ios; clio?, 
are more or less of the common gender. But the poets sometimes allow 
themselves, for the sake of the verse, to write 77 Aap7rpor, <pai/epor, kXvtos; etc. 

Note 3. Another tolerably certain rule is, that those adjectives, which 
in forming a feminine in 77 or a would make it like the kindred abstract 
substantive, have the feminine in or; some always, others often ; e. g. 77 
acorrjpios, ikevdepio?, j3ao-i\eios, because of the substantives 77 orcorvpia, eXev- 
Qepia, fiaaiktia. So cpikios with the fem. (piXia, has also fj cpiXios, because 
of the substantive 77 <pi\ia. 

Note 4. As exceptions from the rule in no. 4 above, we find also those 
adjectives that are only strengthened by nav- ; as irayKakr) Plato, 7rap7rdXX?j 
Xeii. The poets use also, with a feminine form, such compounds as are 
usually of common gender ; e. g. ddavdrrj, dp,cpt\vKrj Horn. ddp.rjrrj Soph. Also 
several in 109, as napa/crta, irapaOakacro~la Plato. 

Examples of Adjectives in os for practice, see in App. E. 

5. Some adjectives in 009 are contracted ; viz. 

a) Those of common gender, which are compounded ivith con- 
tracts of Dec. II, as nfkovs, vovs, etc. e. g. evvovs, evvovv, well- 
disposed. Being thus formed in part of words already con- 
tracted, their flexion is not subject to the usual rules Ox no- 



Sing, evvovs evvovv 
evvov 

evvovv evvovv 



$ 60. ADJECTIVES. 79 

cent for contraction ; that is, in all the cases where the uncon- 
tracted form would move the accent forward, they retain it 
on the syllable where the Nom. has it ; e. g. G\ evvov, un- 
contr. evvoov. Hence they may be best declined as already 
contracted. They even take the circumflex on the penult, 
when it is long by nature, before the contracted ot of the 
Nom. Plural, as evvoi ; but the accent can never be thrown 
back upon the antepenult ; hence irepiifKoi, kclkovoi from kcl- 
kovovs ill-disposed.* The Neut. Plur. in oa remains un- 
changed, as rd dvoa. — Thus 

Plur. evvoi evvoa 
evv(£>v 
evvots 
evvovs evvoa. 

b) The multiple numerals of three endings, airXoos, rj, ov, sin- 
gle, Bitt\6o<; double, etc. They have this peculiarity, that 
they every where contract orj into rj, and oa into a. Thus 

Sing. cWXdoy dnrXovs, dnrXorj 6WX77, cWXdov dnrXovv 

cWXdou dnrXov, dnrKorjs 8l7tKtjs; etc. 
Plur. 8nr\6oi dnrXol, Si7rXdai St7rXai, Snrkoa cWXa 
dnrXocov dnrkav, etc.f 
Note 5. The Adj. ad poos, a, ov, all together, is not contracted in good 
prose, in order to distinguish it from adpovs noiseless. Also avri^oos op- 
posing, BiKpoos butpovs forked, evnvoos ic ell-breathing, evxpoos fresh-looking, 
are contracted only in single forms : ra diicpa, rov evirvovv, etc. 

6. Some adjectives in eo?, denoting a material, are contracted 
and the accent shifted ; viz. when the ending 609 is preceded by 
a consonant (as %/weo? golden), there is in the Singular a con- 
traction of ea into r\ ; but when preceded by p or a vowel (as dp- 
yvpeos silver, epeeo? woollen), the contraction is into a. In the 
Plural and Dual the e is every where absorbed by the following 
diphthong or vowel ; like the o in no. 5. b, above. So Plur, 
Neut. ra yjpvcra, Ace. fern, yjpvads, etc. E. g. 

Sing. xpvo~eo? aovs -^pvcrea arj xp V0 ~ €0V aovv 

Xpvaeov aov XP V(T * US ^V 9 xpucreov aov 

Xpvaeco era ^pucrea arj xpvo-eu> aa 

Xpvcreov aovv xP vcr * av v*i v XP vaeov crovv 

Plur. xpvaeoi aol xP V(T€ai °" a * xP vcrea °~"> G ^ jC - 
On the other hand, from dpyvpeos, ea, eov, we have dpyvpovs, 

pa, povv, Gr. dpyvpov, pas, etc. and so epsovs, iped, ipeovv, Gr. epeov, 
a?, etc. 

* As in those long by position ; § 11. 4, 6. In common speaking these contrac- 
tions in ovs passed over into shortened forms in os. Hence proper names in voos 
have secondary forms in vos ; which however then always lengthen the preceding 
syllable ; e. g. EvOvvovs and EvQvvos, 'Apx'ivovs and 'ApxJvos, KaXXhos for KaKklvoos. 

t With these numeral forms must not be confounded the compounds with ir\ovs 
sailing, which are of common gender ; as 6, rj airXovs, evirXovs, etc. Neut. ovv, Neut- 
Plur. oa. — Herodotus resolves the form SnrXrj into SiirXerj, 3. 42. 



80 



ADJECTIVES. 



* 61. 62. 



§ 61. Adjectives in «?. 

1. Adjectives in w? of the Attic Dec. II, ($ 37,) are mostly of 
common gender ; e. g. 6, rj iXew?, to r Ckewv, gracious. Some of 
them form the Neut. in co ; e. g. aryrfpa)?, Neut. cuyrjpcov and ^777- 
pco. s s 37. n. 2. 

2. Of three endings is only the simple 7r\ea>s /w/Z, 7rA,e<z, 7rX^- 
caz/, Neut. Pirn*, ifXea. But its compounds conform throughout 
to the above rule ; e. g. avdifXecos, dvdifkecov ; Neut. Plur. e/e- 
ifkeco, etc. 

Note. Secondary forms in or are not unfrequent; as Ion. Tkaos, dyrjpaos', 
and so too even in Attic prose, irkeo?, epnrkeoi, e/wrAea. — For those in -yeka>s 
and -Kepa>?, see § 63 ; for o-a>? see § 64. 

5 62. Other Adjectives of three Endings. 

In all other Adjectives of three endings, the Masc. and Neut. 
follow Dec. III. The a of the Fem. is here always short. The 
Neuter takes regularly the short stem- vowel of the word (as in 
%apiei<$ -lev, o-a<j>r)$ -69), and thus in flexion often accords with 
the stem, as in fiekas, crcocppcov. Only those in u? Gr. eo? retain v ; 
as yXv/cvs -v. See § 59. 4. 

Gr. eos; § 51. 5. E.g. y\v/cv<; sweet. 



1. In U9, eta, v, 

Sing. ykvKv? 
ykvKeo? 
yXvKel 
yKvKvv 
(y\vKv) 



eia 

eias 

eiq. 

elav 

eia 



v 

€0$ 

ei 
v 

v 



Plur. 



ykvKels 


etai 


ea 


ykvketov 


eia>v 


e<ov 


ykvKeai 


eiais 


€(Tl 


yXvKel.? 


eias 


ea 


yXvaels 


elai 


ea 



Dual ykvicee eia ee 
yXvKeoiv eiaiv eoiv 
Examples, mostly oxytone : fiapvs heavy, fipabvs slow, fipaxv? short, evpvs 
broad, ^Svy pleasant, 6£vs sharp, ra^vs and wkvs swift. But also SrjXvs, 
$T)\ei.a, SrjXv, female. 

2. In et?, eoraa, ev, Gr. evros ; § 46. n. 1. E.g. j(apLeis graceful. 
Sing, xapieis ieua-a lev Plur. 

XapLZVTOS 1€<T(TT]S UvTOS 

jfapiej/Ti teacrrj Levn 
-^apievra leaaav iev 
Xapiep ieaaa iev 

Dual ^apievTe learcra 
yapievroiv leaaaiv 
Examples : aiparoeis bloody, vkrjeis woody, (pcovqeis resounding. 

3. In as, awa, av, Gren. dVo9,* like Salp^cov. E.g. p,e\a$, jxi- 
\aiva, fiekav, black, Gen. pbekavos. 

The only other example is rakas unfortunate. 

4. The following single examples : 

repTjv repecva repev, Gr. repevos repelv^s, etc. tender, 
etc gov eKovcra eicov, Gr. efcovros i/covcrT)?, etc. willing. 
7ra9 71 aaa irdv, Gr. iravrb^ itclq-t]^, etc. all, every ; see h 43. 
11. 4 b 



Xapievres 


Leaaai 


tevra 


yapievT<x>v 


ieo-<rS>v 


UVTiHV 


yapieui 


lecrcrais 


Levi 


^apievras 


teacras 


levra 


XapievTes 


ieaaai 


lepra 


ievre 






UVTOLV 







$ 63. ADJECTIVES. 81 

To tne above classes are to be added all Participles of the Act- 
ive form; §88.8, and §103. 

Note 1. The Voc. masc. of yXvicvs is formed by Sophocles (Trach. 1042) 
according to § 45. 1, a> ykvuvs \Aifiay. — The poets use those in vs also in the 
common gender ; as fjdvs avrp-r] Horn. QrjXvs veoXala Theocr. — The Ionics, 
instead of the Fern, eia, have ea and erj ; as a>Kea, fiaderjv Horn. Instead of 
fifuaeiaj from tJjxktvs half, the old Attic also had faicrea; see the note on 
Plat. Meno 17, and Ausf. Sprachl. § 62. n. 3. 

Note 2. From €<a>v comes the compound deicav, contr. a/ccoi/, ovcra, clkov, 
unwilling. — The Neut. nav is long only as a monosyllable (§ 59) ; in com- 
position it is made short, according to the general analogy ; as anas, anaa-a, 
airav, all together, the whole. 

Note 3. Some adjectives in eis are contracted; viz. the endings tjcis, 
7)€crcra, r\ev, into fjs, jjaaa, r\v ; also oeis, oecraa, oev, into ovs, ovaraa, ovv ; e. g. 
TifJLrjeis -qeaaa rjev, contr. riufjs rjcraa rjv 

TifxrjevTos rjecrcrrjS rjevros, contr. ti/jltjutos, tjctcttjs, tjvtos, etc. 
fjieXiToeis oeaaa oev, contr. fieXirovs ovcrcra ovv 
fieXiroevTos oeo-arjs oevros, contr. fxikiTovvros ovaans ovvtos, etc. 
So too 'O-jrovs 'Ottovvtos. — The learner should not neglect to write out full 
paradigms of these adjectives through all the cases, according to the rules of 
accent and quantity; see § 41. n. 5. 

§ 63. Adjectives of tivo Endings, and of one Ending. 

1. Other adjectives of two endings are the following ; all be- 
longing to Dec. III. 

1) M. and F. 77?, Neut. e?, Gr. eo? contr. ou? ; like rpc^p^ and 
rel^ps. 

E. g. Sing. cra(j)rjs o-acpes evident. Plur. a-acpels aacprj 

o-aobovs aaqbav 

vacpel o-a(peo-i 

cracprj aacpes cra<pe7s aacprj 

Dual N. cracprj, G. cracpolv 

Examples : dXrjdrjs true, ayevvr)s degenerate, aKpLfirjs exact, avOdBrjs (long a) 
proud, avrdpKT]S sufficient, evTrpenrjs comely, $r)pia>c)r)S brutal, 7v\r)pr)S full, 
Tvpr\vr\s inclining forwards, tyevdrjs false, aXr)s collected. For vyir\s see in 
$ 53. 1.— Gen. Plur. § 49. 

2) M. and F. cov, N. ov, Gren. ovos. E. g. ireircovy ireirov, ripe, 
G-en. Treirovos ; like Salpbcov. 

Examples : auvpoav (long v) blameless, a7rpdyp.<ov unoccupied, evyvapLoav well 
meaning, evbaip-cov happy. Here belong also Comparatives in mv and Icov 
(§§ 67, 68) ; which however admit of contraction in the cases specified 
in § 55. 

3) M. and F. t?, N. t, Gren. to?. So tBpi? iBpc knowing, G-en. 
tSpios, etc. like 7roXt9 § 50. 

The only other examples are vrjcms fasting, rpocpis well-fed. The Attic 
poets form the Gen. also in 180s; e. g. 'tdptdos. 

4) The following single adjective : 

appr\v or dp<jr]v, Neut. appev, apcrev, male, Gr. appevos, apae- 
vo<$, etc. 

2. Besides all these classes of adjectives, others are often form- 

F 



82 ADJECTIVES. § 63. 

ed by composition from a substantive, retaining as much as pos- 
sible the ending and declension of the substantive ; as may be 
best seen in the examples. All such adjectives are of common 
gender ; and have a neuter, when it can be formed after the same 
analogy, $59. E. g. 

evyap^ e ^X a P L graceful, Gr. itos, from y %dpis, itos. 

6v€\ttls eveXnri hopeful, Gr. iBos, from rj ik/rrh, /So?. 
Also those compounded with rj irarpis and 77 fypovrfc. 

/jlovoSovs fjiovoBov one-toothed, Gr. ovros, from 6 o8ov$, cvros, 

ahafcpvs a&afcpv tearless, Gr. -w?, from to Sdtcpv, -uo?. 
This last word usually borrows its cases from the lengthened 
form aSdfcpvros -ov. — Sometimes in the ending, 77 is changed into 
co, and e into o ; e.g. , 

from ircLTTqp, epos, comes dirdrcop, op, fatherless, Gr. opos. 

from (j>prjv, (ppevGs, comes o-cocfrpcov, ov, intelligent, Gr. ovos. 

3. Adjectives of one ending-, but which are only of common 
gender and not generis omnis, are all those from which no anal- 
ogous Neuter can be formed (§ 59. 1, 4) ; e. g. 6, v) airais Gr. So? 
childless ; 6, 77 pLaKpo^etp longimanus, long-armed. 

4. Of one ending and common gender are also those in 

77? G\ 777-0?, t»? G\ &)to?, and those in £ and -fy, 
as likewise the single dirTrjv Gr. aTTTrjvos unfledged. 

Examples : In rjs, e. g. yvpvrjs light-armed, dpyr)s white, and all ending in 
Svrjs, fy^?, (3Xr]s, KjirjS ; as rjpidvrjS' half dead, etc. — In coy, e. g. dyvcos G. 
£>tos unknown; also several compounds in XP^ S an< ^ /3pa>y. — In £ and \^, 
e. g. rjkii; G. lkos of like age, irapaiikr]^ G. riyos insane, pawt- G. x oS 
solid hoofed, aiyikity G. 73-0? steep, etc. 

5. Of one ending are further those in 

a? Gr. dSos, t? Gr. cSos, f ? Gr. vBos. 

Examples : Xoyar selected, (pvyds fugitive, vopds nomadic, airopas scattered > 
civoKkl? weak, tTrqkvs immigrant, avyKkvs brought together. 

More commonly, however, those in a? and t? are only feminine ; 
and through the omission of a substantive become themselves 
substantives ; e. g. 77 puaLvas (yvvrj) Bacchante, 77 fiarpk (yfj) fa- 
ther-land; and so fern, gentile names, as 77 'Ids the Ionian wo- 
man, 77 'EWtjvis the Greek woman. 

6. Many adjectives are only masculine ; so especially yepoov 
G\ oz^ro? old, irpeaftvs old, dfcdp,a<; Gr. avTos unwearied, Treves, 
777-0?, poor ; and of Dec. I, iOeXovrr^ voluntary, <yevvd8as well- 
born, and many in /a?, as rpoirlas, fxovlas. See note 7. 

Note 1. In some adjectives of common gender there are also secondary 
feminine forms, but for the most part only poetic ; so especially Masc. in 
rjs has a Fem. in eta, e. g. povvoyeveia, rjbveweia, from p,ovvoyevf)s; rjdve- 
nr]?. Here the shifting of the accent is to be noted; § 64. n. 3. 

Note 2. Since according to § 59. 3, the Neut. is always declined like the 
masculine, the Gen. and Dat. of such words as have no neuter in the Nom. 
are sometimes employed as neuter, and then these cases are actually generis 
omnis. Still, this is done only by the poets; e. g. Eurip. Or. 834 dpopdcn 
fi\e(pdpoi?. Nicand. Ther. 631 dpyrjTi avOet. 



* 64. ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES. 83 

Note 3. In other instance?, where the neuter is wanting, it is supplied 
by a derived form in ov ; e. g. fiXa/anou, aprraKTiKov., pcovv^ou, as Neut. of 
/3Xa|, apira£ y pavv^. 

Note 4. Compounds with nov?, 7ro§o'y, foot, are declined regularly after 
the analogy of this substantive ; e. g. diTrovr, oSoy, etc. In the Neut. they 
have ovv, (as cvvovs; evvovv, like the contracted Dec. II.) but decline it. never- 
theless according to the general rule (§ 59. 3) like the Masc. as to hinovv, 
tov SiVoSor, etc. 

Note 5. Compounds of yeXcoy, coror, laughter, forsake commonly the de- 
clension of their substantive and follow the Att. Dec. II. (§ 61.) So too 
those compounded with /cepay, aroy, horn, which likewise change the a into 
co. But both kinds have also the Gen. coroy; and the Neut. in cov has the 
same anomaly as in the compounds of irovs ; e. g. cpiXoyeXcoy, SiKepcoy, Neut. 
coy, G. co and coror. The compounds of epcoy conform to the Att. Dec. II. 
only in the accent of the Nom. e. g. dvcrepcoy G. coroy. 

Note 6. The compounds of noKis assume S in declension \ e. g. cpiXonoXis, 
i, G. tSoy. The Ionics and Dorics have regularly G. toy. 

Note 7. Finally, the Greek adjectives and substantives stand in such 
intimate relation to each other, both in form and syntax, and so readily 
pass over one into the other, that not only many of the above adjectives 
(as Trpeo-fivs, ireprjs) may equally well be regarded as substantives; but also 
acknowledged substantive forms (in rqy, rcop, evs) can often be considered as 
adjectives (e. g. pvkirr)? Xi'tfoy mill-stone, Ittvlt^s aproy) ; and when masculine, 
they are even made of common gender by the poets ; see § 123. n. 1. 



§ 64. Anomalous and Defective Adjectives. 

1. The two adjectives, {leyas great and irdXvs much, have from 
these simple forms only the Sing: Nom. and Ace. Masc. fieya^, 
aeyav, ttoXvs, irokvv ; Neut. fieya, iroXv. All the other cases, 
as well as the whole of the feminine, come from the unusual 
forms META'AOZ, y, ON, and ttoWos, rj, ov ; thus : 

Nom. fjueyas [jbeyakr] fieya 

Gren. fieyaXov fjueyakris peyaXov 

Dat. fieyakw fieyakr) fieyaXcp 

Ace. fjuiyav fieyaXrjv fjueya 

The Dual and Plural are declined regularly like adjectives in 

o? ; ,£. g. fieyaXo), a, co • fjbeydXoi, at, a • 7roX\oi, al, d, etc. 

Note 1. As the Voc. of peyay iEschylus has peycike Zev Sept. 807 ; Sopho- 
cles peya? &> fiacrikev Rhes. 380. — The forms 7roXXoy, 7roXXoV belong to the 
Ionics ■ and the regular forms from 7roXuy are found in the epic language ; 
e. g. 7roXeoy, 7roXeey, -ay, etc. The epic writers have also 7roi;Xvy, novkv ; 
and use the masc. form also as fern, e, g. II. k. 27. 

2. The adjective wpaos gentle, meek, is usual in this form only 
in the Sing. Masc. and Neut. The whole Fern, and most of the 
Plural forms are borrowed from the form irpavs without i sub- 
script (Ion. Trprjvs), found in the dialects. Thus 

Sing, irpaos Tjpaeia Trpaov G. npaov, etc. 

Plur. rrpqoi and irpaa.s npaelai npaea 

77-paecoi/ npaeicov 7rpae'coi/ 

7rpaoty and Trpatcriv 7rpa.e1a.1s Trpqois and Trpaecriv 

irpqovs and 7rpaeiy Trpaeias 7rpaea 



ITOXVS 


TroXXrj 


TToXl) 


TTOWOV 


7roXXr)s 


TTOXXOV 


7TOWCO 

c 


7roXXf} 


7T0XXcp 


iroXvv 


ttoXXtjv 


IToXl) 



84 ADJECTIVES. DEGREES OF COMPARISON. § 65. 

3. The form o-w? sound, salvus, contr. from %AOH, is usually 
of common gender ; and is strictly in use only in the forms am 
and crcbv, e. g. 

Sing. N. crco9, ow, A. crcov, crcov, Plur. A. <tq)<;. 
All the rest are from crcoos, a, ov, (Ion. croo?,) which by degrees 
entirely supplanted the monosyllabic form. 

Note 2. The Ace. Plur. o-wr is readily explained, as contracted from 
2AOYS. But the Nom. Plur. o-&>?, which also occurs, is a transition to Dec. 
Ill, (roof, o-coey. — In the same manner as o-Sy from 2A02, arose also the 
Homeric £&>r from ZA02 ; and hence the common £a>os. Comp. the verbs 
craou) crcoco, e£aov e£a>v. 

4. Defectives are chiefly the following : 

a. aXXrjXcov, see § 74. 4. 

b. a/jLcjxo, see § 78. 4. 

c. (jypovSos gone, fled, which is used only in the Nom. of all 
genders and numbers, § 150. m. 30. 

Note 3. We adduce here some rare and poetic examples : 

1. norvia, epic ttotvcl, venerable, only feminine. 

2. ixamp blessed is of comm. gender; but has also in the Fern, p.6.Kaipa. 
The Neut. does not occur. 

3. Some masculine adjectives have a less common derived form for the 
fern. e. g. Treves, fern, nevrjercra; Trpicrfivs, fern. Trpeafteipa. 

4. Some also of common gender have such secondary forms of the fern, 
(comp. § 63. n. 1,) e. g. TrUipa from 6, rj ttloiv fat; Trpocppaaaa from 6, t} 
irpofypasv favourably disposal. 

5.. Old and simple forms used by the poets, such as we have seen among 
the substantives (§ 57. n. 3), are : Trpecr^a for 7rpeV/3etpa, X/y for Xicra-rj 
smooth. 

6. Also Sapees and rapepees crowded, thick, are two epic forms found only 
in the Plur. Their feminines are 3-ap.eiai, rapepecai. 

7. From the ease with which adjectives can be formed by composition 
from substantives (§ 63. 2), the poets are accustomed, whenever they 
find it convenient, to form single cases, to which the Nom. Sing, some- 
times cannot be analogically even presupposed ; as epvo-appare? "unroi, 
from dppa, aro$ ; Tvokvapvi Qvea-rr], from Gen. apvos, etc. 

8 See also the Anom. dpyero?, ivs, ^Xe\ $ 58. 

Degrees of Comparison. 
$ 65. Comparison of Adjectives in o?. 

1. The Greeks, like the Latins and English, have the three 
degrees of comparison, Positive, Comparative, and Superlative, 
as in the words long, longer, longest; and for each of these they 
have particular forms. Both the Comparative and Superlative 
are derived for all the genders from one form only of the Positive, 
viz. the masculine ; and in each the only distinction is in the end- 
ings of the genders. 

2. The most common forms of comparison are made by the 
endings 

-repos, repa, repov, for the Comparative, 
-tcito<;, rdrrj, tcltov, for the Superlative. 



\ 66. AIUECTTVES. COMPARISON. 8') 

3. Adjectives in o? cast off their ? before these terminations, 
and retain the o unchanged, when it is preceded by a long- sylla- 
ble ; e. g. ftkftaios /3e{3cuoT€po<;, Icryyporepo^, 7riar6raTO^. So also 
generally after the concurrence of a mute before a liquid, e. g. 
<T(f>o8p6s o-foSpoTdTos, itvkvos Trvrcvorepos. There are however ex- 
ceptions ; see Ausf. Sprachl. § 65. n. 2. 

4. When however the o is preceded by a short syllable, it is 
changed into co ; e.g. cro<p6<; aocpcorepo^, /calpcos Kacpicbraro^, iyu- 
pcorepos, Ka0dp(oraro<;. 

Note 1 . The poets make here exceptions, and the co stands in epic writers 
after really long syllables, as oi'^pcoraror, naicogeivcorepos Horn, and in Attic 
poetry after the concurrence of a nrnte before a liquid, e. g. bvcnrorpcorarGS 
Eurip. 

Note 2. Some adjectives in os, especially among the Attics, insert in 
stead of this o or co more commonly 

at, or ecr, or io~. E. g. 

1) at, as in picros mid, pecrairepos, peoairaros. So too in 'Lcros like, r\o~vxos 
quiet, 'idios own, evdios clear, irpcoios and op&pios early, o^nos late. 

2) ear mostly only by the Attics in two words : cpptopevos stout, eppcopej/e- 
crrepos, -raros, and clicparos unmixed (§ 66. n. 2). Sometimes also acpdovos 
bounteous, aldolos venerable; and others in the dialects, as cnrovScuo?, etc. 

3) to-, as XaXos-, XaXiorepoy, -raros. So too itrcoxds beggarly, d\j/o(pdyos 
dainty. — Along with all these three forms of comparison, the common 
form is also partially in use. 

Note 3. Some in aios, viz. yepaws old, naXaios ancient, crxoXalos slow. 
commonly drop the o before the ending ; e. g. yepairepos, TraXairaros. 

Note 4. The word cptkos dear, a friend, commonly either drops the o, or 
substitutes at ; e. g. cplXrepos, (piXraros, or cpcXairepos, raros: The Dor. cpiv- 
repos see in § 16. n. 1. d. So acrpevos glad has as adj. only dapevcorepos, -ra- 
ros; but when used adverbially it has both dcrpevairepa and darpepecrrepa. 

Note 5. Those contracted in eo? -ovs change eco to to, i. e. the e is ab- 
sorbed ; e. g. iropcpvpecoraros 7rop<fivpcbraros. Those in oos, -our, on the con- 
trary, most commonly assume eo- in the uncontracted form (as in note 2) • 
as dvrXoos drrXoecrraros, evvoearepos ; and hence contr. dnXovs dirXovcrraros, 
evvovarepos. We find also d7rXocorepos' Thuc. evxpooarepos Xen. 

Note 6. These forms of comparison appear very seldom in the common 
gender; in Attic writers perhaps never. The only exception is occasion- 
ally in such as are common in the Positive; e. g. Thuc. 3. 101 dvcreo-ftoXco- 
raros tj Ao<pis. But Homer has also dXocoraros 68pr]. 

§ 66. Comparison of other Adjectives. 

1. Of other adjectives, those in u? merely cast off the ? ; e. g. 
evpvs, evpviepos, VTaros. 

2. Those in a?, G. avos, do the same, and then resume the v 
which had been dropped before ? ; they thus annex repos, raro<;, 
to the stem ; e. g. fieXas Gr. [leKavo^ — /jueXavTepos. 

3. Those in 77? and et? shorten these endings into e? ; e. g. d\r)- 
6r)$ Gr. eo? — aXrjdeo-Taros • irevqs Gr. r)ro<; — irevearaTO^ • yaplec; ya- 
piecrTaTos. 

4. All other adjectives take the forms eo-repos, ecrraro^ ; more 
rarely lo-repos, {crraTo?; and are changed before them, just as be- 



8'J ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON. § 67. 

fore the case-endings. That is, they annex these endings of com- 
parison directly to the simple stem of the word. E. g. dcj)pcov 
(acfrpovos) acppov-earepos • dpira^ (apTrcvyos;) dp7rcuy-lcrTaTO<;.^ 

Note 1. Since the substantive ending rjs of Dec. I, is often employed m 
an adjective sense (comp. § 63. n. 7), it admits also the degrees of com- 
parison; but always with the form iarepos, iararos; e. g. icXeirTio-TaTos from 
KyeTrTr]? thief ', thievish. But vj3pi<rTT]S a violent person, has for the sake of 
euphony vfipuxTOTepos. 

Note 2. The word ■ty-evbrjs, G. eo?, false, has also -tcrrepo?; so too accord- 
ing to the Grammarians duparr)? incontinent, because aKpaTecrrepo? belongs 
to aKparos unmixed. But in the printed editions at least, aKpareaTepos is 
found also from the former word, e. g. Xen. Mem. 1. 2. 12 • just as ey<pa- 
reo-repos from iyKparrjs continent. 

Note 3. The simplest formation is found in pdicap paKapraros; adapts 
d^aptcrrepoy Horn. On the other hand, Xenophon from eVixapi? forms €7rt^a- 
pircoTepos. 

k 67. Other Forms of Comparison. 

1. Another form of comparison, of less frequent occurrence, is : 

-icov, Neut. -lov, (also cov, ov,) for the Comparative, 
-icttos, 7], ov, for the Superlative. 
The declension of this Comparative, see above in § 55. 

2. This form of comparison is assumed : 

1) By some adjectives in u? ; e. g. rjSvs, rjSlcov, rjSio-ros. 

2) By four in pos, after dropping the p ; e. g. 

alo-yjibs, alaylcov, aio-yiQ-TOs, shameful, 
i%6p6<$, e^Olcov, e^Oicrro^, hostile, 
oiKTpos, (ol/cTporepos), oIictmttos, pitiable, 
Kvhpos, Kvbixav, kv8l<ttos; glorious; poetic. 

3. In some Comparatives of this form (icov), the preceding con- 
sonant, together with the i, is changed into era or tt (see note 7). 
The word Tayys swift, Sup. Tayiaro^, takes in this, its usual 
form of the comparative, an initial*^-: 

^rdcracov Neut. ^rciaaov ; Att. ^drrcov, ^cittov, 
whence it appears that the r in Tayys was originally S-. § 18. 2. 

Note 1. This form of comparison always has the accent on the ante- 
penult, when the quantity of the last syllable permits it ; e. g. jyovr, fjdiav 
Neut. rjbiov, i)bi(TTOs. 

Note 2. The t of this comparative is sometimes made short by the poets, 
especially the epic writers. 

Note 3. Of adjectives in vr, only f)8v? and raxv? have usually this form. 
Of the rest some have always vrepos, vtcito?, (as Savvr, /3apvr, etc.) while 
others have both forms of comparison; and then that in iW, tcrros, is pe- 
culiar to the poets. Thus in Homer, fidOicrTo? from fiaOvs deep; fipdo-o-cov, 
ftpadiaros or by metathesis /3ap§ioToy, from j3pa8us slow; 7rao-cr<ai/, ird-)(i(TT0S. 
from ira^ys thick; ^pa^icov, co/acrro?, etc. 

* In Xenophon we find twice (Mem. 3. 13. 4. ib. 4. 2. 20) fiXaKderepos, taTaros, 
from j3A.a£ ; without doubt false, as is shown by the &>, since the a in /3Aa£, jSAa/co's, 
is long. The true reading is either fSXaKicrrepos or fSXaiwcdiiTepos, raros, from the 
secondary form /3\aKiKds. Comp. § 63. n. 3, and the Jlusf. Sprachl. 



\ G8. ADJECTIVES. COxUTARISON. 8? 

Note 4. In adjectives in pos, the other form is more or less usual at the 
same tune ; while olttrpos never has the comparative in iW. — The form iW, 
httos appears, in such words, to have come from an old positive in vs. 
$ 69. n. 1. 

Note 5. To the same class belongs panpos long, on account of the forms 
fido-aw (for p-ciKiaiv), /irjiacrTo?, where the new vowel of the superlative is 
found also in the Subst. to p.rJKo? length, and in other derivatives. More 
usual however are the forms fiaicpoTepo?, p.aKpoTaros. 

Note 6. Some other words which take this form, see among the anoma- 
lous examples in the following sections. In some, this form is used only 
by the poets, e. g. cpikiav, (p[XtaT09 f from (piko?. 

Note 7. Here belong also the comparative Adverbs avaov nearer, ayxi- 
<rra, from ay^t Horn, and the very frequent p.d\\ov magis, /zaXtcrra, from p.d\a. 
$ 115. 7. 

§ 68. Anomalous Comparison. 

Several adjectives are entirely anomalous in their comparison , 
mostly from the circumstance that they borrow their degrees of 
comparison from obsolete Positives. "When several forms of com- 
parison belong to one Positive, (see ayados and m/co?,) each of 
them is usually employed in some one of the special meanings 
of the Positive ; see the notes. 

Comp. Sup. 

1. ayados good afjueivcov, afietvov, better apiaro?, best 
ftekrlwv /3£\tmttos 

KpeiGawv or fcpeirroov KpariGTos 
\cotcov comm. \axov \col<tto<; or Xojctto?. 

In respect to signification, we find dp-eivcov, apio-To?, specially for abler, 
braver, fitter; /3eAriW fieXno-To? better in a moral sense ■ Kpeio-o-av Kpdn- 
(rros stronger, superior; while Xtocov AaiaTor is used only in certain connec- 
tions, as XwbV €<ttl it is better, more advisable, and in the Voc. <a Awcrre. 
—In the earlier poets we find the proper comparative of apiaro?, viz. 
apeiW,* and even the positive of KparicrTos, viz. Kparvs. — For Kpeiao-av 
the Ionics have KpeVo-coi/, the Dorics Kappav (for KAP2QN) from another 
form of the positive • whence also the adverb Kapra very, and the poetic 
superlative Kapno-Tos. — For /3eAnW, XooiW, the epic language has /3e'Xre- 
por, Acoirepoy. — The Dor. fiivricrTos see in § 16. n. 1. d. — Even the regular 
dyadoorepo?, -raro9, is found in late writers, as Diodorus etc. 

° teams bad, wicked Kaiciwv kclkkjtos 

yeiptov 'xeipMnos 

rjcraoov or tjttcov rjiaaro*; 

The Compar. Kcucimv signifies worse, pejor; x^'p 00 ^ ^ ess good, deterior. 
jjaaaiv (Ion. eacrcov) weaker, inferior, the opp. of Kpeio-acov. — The poets use 
the regular form KaKcorepos. For x e ' L P a > v the Ionics have xepeiW, the Dor- 
ics xepqcoi/. In epic writers are found the forms D. x e P^'> A. x 6 / 37 ? ^ Plur. 
Xepqey, to. x e 'p aa 5 which are used instead of this comparative, although 
they are strictly cases of an obsolete positive XEPHS.f — The Superl. 

* The ancient Positive is indicated in the name of the war-god "Apris, Mars, which 
^as probably identical with it ; also in the abstract noun aperr). 

t They are usually regarded as syncopated forms of the Comparative, like ir\4es : 
but the forms of both point too distinctly to Positives, in the signification of which 
ittle, ranch) there is already a gradation. 



88 ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON. $ 69. 

ZJkhjtos is rare as an adjective; but Neut. Plur. rjKLara is very common 
as an adverb. § 115. 7.* 

3. fieyas great pLsl^wv, Ion. fie&v fieycaro^ 

4. fuxpos small i eXda-acDv, ttcdv eXa^to-ros 

5. oXtryos little, few { fielcov bXuyL<7T0$ 
Since these two words (pUpo? and oXiyor) are so nearly related in mean- 
ing, the forms eXao-crcoi/, eXa^to-roy, and peiav, are employed both for the 
idea of smallness, and for that of fewness. The old positive i\axv? is still 
found in the poets. The regular form piKporepos; rctros, is also used. 
The poets too have a Compar. oXi£W {virokigopes), and a Superl. pelaros. 

6. 7roXv? much irXelwv or irXewv more irXelo-Tos most. 
The Attics use also Trkeiv for the Neut. TrXelov, but only in such con- 
nections as nXeiu 77 pvpioi. — The Ionics and Dorics contract thus : nXeov 
rrXevv, 7r\eove? nXevves'. — Homer uses also in the Plur. 7rXeer, 7rXeas-, a posi- 
tive form instead of the comparative! 

7. icakos beautiful kclXXicdv koKXmttos 

8. pahios easy pacov paaTO? 
The Ionics have in the positive pqiStoy, and then form p^iW, prfivTo? ? 

the epic has prj'irepos; tcito? ; all from PAV2, PHi'2, from the Neut. Plur. of 
which, PHVA, comes the adverb pela, pea, easy. 

9. aXyeivos painful akyicov aXyMrros 
The regular form aXyeivorepor, raros; is nevertheless more usual in the 

masculine and feminine. 

10. irkironv ripe nreiraiTepo? 7re7rairaro<; 

11. TTicovfat 7ri6repos ttlqtcltos. 
Note. To the peculiarities of the poets belongs the old Superlative in 

tiros ; as peo-aros 7niddlemost from pecros; and pearos, veiaro?,' last, from peos 
new, young. The contracted feminine of this last, viz. ptjti] (sc. x o pSy)> is 
used in prose for the last or lowest string of an instrument ; which with us 
is the highest. 



$ 69. Defective Comparison. 

1. There are also defective forms of comparison, i. e. without 
a Positive ; see the notes. Among these may be reckoned several 
of the above anomalous forms, as rjTrwv, KpeiTrcov, Xghttos, etc. 

2. Here belong also those forms which denote an order or se- 
ries, the Positive of which is mostly a Particle of place : e. g. 

Trporepos prior, nrpwros primus, from irpb before, 
vireprepos higher, -raros and vttcltos highest, from virkp above. 
ea%aTos uttermost, from i£ out. 
va-repos later, vararo^ last, from (viro). 
So too adjective forms of comparison derived from adverbs ; e. g. 

* This Superlative stands as an adjective II. \p, 531, according to the only correct 
reading ; see Lexil. I. 4. — From an error of the ancient Grammarians, this whole 
form of comparison has commonly been placed in grammar under piKp6s, becauso 
the adverbial form could be translated by minus, minimc. 

t Compare the second marginal note above, on xfyvh ete - The form 7r\ees is 
just as clearly syncopated from iroAces, as the comparative tt\€?cdv is formed by the 
.same syncope from ttoAvs. 



* 70. ADJECTIVES. NUMERALS. £9 

7r\r](TiaLT€pos, rarcs, from ifkiqaiov near ; like Lat. prope, pro- 
prior, proxiwtus. 

Trpovpyiairepos, tcltos, from nrpovpyov serviceable/. ♦ 

7]pefie(TT€po^, Taros, from rjpefia quietly. 
The Compar. irepaiTepos may also be best referred to the Posit. 
Trepa, Trepav, across, beyond; although there exists an Adjective 

7T6/3<XtO?.* 

3. Sometimes the degrees of comparison are formed from a 
substantive, which can be taken in an adjective sense ; e. g. era?- 
pos friend, kraiporaTo^ ; SovXos slave, Sovkorepo? more slavish, 
tcXeiTTrfi thief, KkeirrtcrTaTo^ most thievish, etc. $ 66. n. 1. 

Note 1 . In consequence of an erroneous system, it was formerly usual 
to refer to degrees of comparison formed from substantives, several defect- 
ives in icoi/, io-tos, to which there existed a kindred abstract substantive in 
os ; e. g. piyicov more terrible, nepdio-To? slyest, v^naros highest; Subst. to 
plyos shuddering, nepdo? artifice, v\j/o? height. In the same manner were 
explained several of the deviations above given (§§ 67, 68), as ex&oToy from 
to e-^dos hatred, pfjKicrTos from to prjuos length, KakXio-Tos from koKKos beauty, 
etc. But it is undeniable, that these substantives and these degrees of 
comparison presuppose rather the corresponding positive forms j and this is 
the more certain, because a few of these forms have been preserved in the 
earliest poetry; e. g. Kparvs, whence KpaTiaros and to KpaTos ; eXey^eey in* 
famous, whence eAey^to-ro? and to eAeyyoy. Comp. § 119. m. 9 and 39. 

Note 2. In the poets, and especially the epic poets, occur many forms of 
comparison which belong under this section; e. g. 

cpepTepoe, (pepTaTo? and <pepio-To?, braver, most excellent, which can be re- 
ferred to aya66s. 

KvvTepo? more shameless, from kvcov, kvvo?, dog. 

(3aaikei>Tepos mightier, from (3ao-ikevs. 

irvpLdTo?, /xv^aror, o7rXorepoy, 7rapotrepor, o7rt'<7Taror, and others, which are 
sufficiently explained in the lexicons. 
Note 3. In a few very rare instances, we find a new degree of comparison 
formed, for the sake of emphasis, from a word which is already in the com- 
parative or superlative degree, e. g. ecrxarcoTciTO?, ^pcono-ros 1 , from ecrxaror, 
rrpwTos. Such instances occur mostly in later writers, at least in those not 
Attic. — When the epic poets sometimes combine both forms of the compara- 
tive in one, e. g. xeipoTepos, peiorepos, this is done for the sake of the verse, 
and not to produce an emphatic sense. — In several superlatives the poets 
insert i; e. g. peaaTio?, vo~tcltlos, and \oia6ios from \o1o~6os last. 

Note 4. The early language had also a derivative adjective ending in 
Tepos, which must not be confounded with the comparative ; e. g. .aypoTtpos 
rural, opeVrepoy of a mountain, wild; SrjkvTepo? i. q. Srjkv? female. 

Numerals. 

§ 70. Cardinal Numbers. 

For the letters as used to mark the numerals, see the Alpha- 
bet, last column, and § 2. n. 3, 4. 

* We find also av&Ttpos, ivdSraros, etc. from &va>, ivtiov ; but in many passages 
these are manifestly corrupted from the adverbial form o avaiTepa), 6 eVSorerw, etc 
See § 115. § 125 G. 



90 ADJECTIVES. NUMERALS. § 70. 

1. ch, fiid, ev, Gr. evos, fxias, evos, one. 

Observe the anomalous shifting of the accent in pia, pias, piq, plav. — 
Instead of this Fern, epic writers have also 'la, G. lrjs. 

Hence, by composition with the negatives ovBe and /^rjSe, come 

the negative adjectives 

ovSefc, ovSeuia, ov&ev, ) 

sj / */ *' \ no one i none. 

fJL7]bei^, /JbTjOe/jLLCL, fjLTjoev, ) 7 

In declension in the Sing, these retain the accent of the simple 
word ; as Gr. ovSevos ov&e/uas, D. ovhevi ovSefMa, Ace. ovBeva ov$e- 
fiiav. The infrequent Plur. ovheves has again in Gren. and Dat. 
the accentuation ovSevcov, ovSeat,. 

The mode of writing these compounds separately, ov§e eh, prjbe ev, etc. 
where there is always a hiatus (§ 29. n. 1), serves for emphasis : not even 
one, not the least. — The Ionics make the Plur. ovbapoi, prjdapoi — Several 
writers, mostly later ones, write ov6eis 1 Neut. -Bev, for ovbels ; but em- 
ploy the usual feminine. 

2. $vo Nom. Ace. Svolv Gren. Dat. two. 

The Attics write also dvelv, but only in the Genitive. They likewise 
use bvo as indeclinable for Gen. and Dative. — Forms not Attic are, N. A. 
8vo£> G. 8v5)p D. dvai, dvcrtv. — Ion. dvoicriv. — Epic Sotco and Soiol, which are 
declined throughout. 

3. rpels M. and F. rpla Neut. three, Gr. rptcov, D. TpLal(v), 
Ace. like the Nom. 

4. T6crcrapes or rerrape?, Neut. a, four, Gr. TerrdpcDV, D. reaaap- 
(71,, Terrapcri (poet, rerpao-c), Ace. a?, a. 

Ion. recrcrepes, Dor. rerropes; reropes, ancient and iEol. niavpes. 

The remaining units or simple numbers up to ten, and the tens 
or round numbers up to one hundred, are not declined. 

5. nrevre 7. kind 9. evvea 

6. e£ 8. d/cTco 10. Se/ca 

20. eiKQai or -env 50. irevrrjKovra 80. dySorj/covTa 
30. TpicLKOvra 60. k^rj/covra 90. ivevrjKOVTd 

40. recrcrapafcovra 70. e^opbrjKovra 100. etcarov. 
Not only the long a in rpiaKovra, but also the short a in TecraapaKovra, 
passes over into 77 among the Ionics 3 as rpifjKovTa, recra-eprjKovTa. Other 
Ionic and epic forms are eelicocn, dybaxovTa, evvrjKovTa ; Doric, 5 Ttepne, 20 



eiKari. 

TmrnWa nnmnrmnrl aA "vxri+li fpn \ p +.Tia TnimKprc 11 1 Q 



The numbers compounded with ten, i. e. the numbers 11-19 
have commonly the following forms : 

11. evhefca 14. Teaaapeaicaiheica 17. eirTCLKaiheKa 

12. ScoSe/co, 15. irevre/calBeKa 18. d/crco/caiSe/co, 

13. TpLG-fcalBeKci 16. ifc/catSe/co, 19. ivvecucaiheKa 
Less frequent are he/carpels, Be/caTrivre, etc. — Tpet? and rio-crapes 
are declined in the compounds also, e. g. TeaaapafcalSefca, reacrap- 
<7iKaLhetca, Befcarpicov, etc. 

AtxaSe/m and SvoKalbeKa are Ionic and poetic. — The forms rpia-KaibeKa, 
eKKaLSem, shew that the other numbers connected by kcli up to 19 are not 
to be written separately. — Tea-aepea-Kaidem is with the Ionics indeclinable ■ 
e. 2. Hdot. 1. 86 bis. 



$ 70. ADJECTIVES. NUMERALS. 91 

Other compound numbers are usually written separately. When 
the smaller number stands first, they are connected by kclL ; oth- 
erwise not ; e. g. 21 eh teal eUoai or eUoaiv eh (fila, ev) ; 32 rpid- 

KOVTCL SVO Or SvO KCU TpLCLKOVTa. 

The round numbers above one hundred are Adjectives of three 
endings, like Dec. II, and I. E.g. 

200, 8ian6(Tioi : at, a 900. evva>c6o~Loi 7,000, e7rraKt<x;(iXioi 

300, rpLCLKoaioi 1,000, ^tXtot, at, a 8,000, okto.k.ktxi^'-oi 

400, rerpaKoaioi 2,000, Stcr^tXtot 9,000, ivvaKia^tkLOL 

500, 7revTaKoaioL 3,000, rpio-x^iot 10,000, pvpioi, at, a^ 

600, etjanocrioi • 4,000, rerpa/<to-^tXtot 20,000, dicrpvpiot. 

700, e7rra<6aioi 5,000, 7reiraKicr;(iXioi 30,000, rpicrpvpioi 

800, oKTaicoorioi 6,000, e^aKtcrxiXiot etc. 

The a in the first two of these numbers is long; Ion. St^KoVtot, etc. — 
Old Homeric forms are eVeaxZXot, Se^a^tXot. — These larger numbers can 
also stand, as collectives, in the Singular ; e. g. Xen. Cyr. 4. 6. 2 lttttov e^cu 
els xtAtav rpiaKocTLav ; An. 1. 7. 10 da-7rts p.vpia kclI rerpa/coo-ta. 

Note 1 . Instead of the numbers compounded with oktw 8 and evvea 9, a 
circumlocution is often used ; e. g. for 49 or 48 we find : evos (par) v. 8vo7v 
deovres, 50 less one or two. Here of course the Part, deovres, conforms to its 
Subst. in gender, and case; Thuc. 5. 68 dvolv deovres TrevTrjKovra aVSpes 
Dem. p. 480 7revTrjKovra pias beovo-as eXa/3e rpirjpeis. Thuc. 8. 17 fita? deov- 
crais etKoori vavcriv ; ib. 25 dvolv deovcraLS nevTrjKovra vavcriv. — Another much 
later mode of expression (e. g. in Plutarch and Eusebius) is that with the 
Gen. absolute (§ 145), thus: 49, evos deovros (pay deovo-rjs) 7revTr}Kovra ; 48, 
bvoiv deovroiv (deovcraiv) e'Uocrt. Hence in the single like passage known to 
us in earlier writers, Xen. Hell. 1.1.5 rj\6e dvolv deovcraiv e'Uoai vavo-iv, we 
probably ought to read t)eovo~ais, as above in Thucydides. 

Note 2. When three or more numerals are compounded, they are regu- 
larly all connected by /cat; and then we may begin either with the least or 
the greatest ; e. g. euro, /cat e'Uocn kol eKarov, or eKarov kcu e'iKocri /cat enrd. 

Note 3. When other parts of speech are to be compounded with numer- 
als, the first four numerals have a particular form, viz. unity is expressed 
by povo-(povo? alone), two by St-, three by rpi-, and four by rerpa- ; e. g. 
povoKepcos, diKepoos, diarvWafios, Sierrjs (from eros), SiG>/3oXof (from 6(3o\6s), 
rpinovs, rerpdivovs, etc.f The other numerals either retain in such com- 
pounds their usual form, with a few necessary changes for the sake of 
euphony, e. g. irevrevata, emropirvkos, eKirrjxvs from eg, etc. or they are like- 
wise formed with o or o ; e. g. Trevrd-perpos, egd-ycovov, elKocrd-eSpos, nevrr]- 
Kovro-yvos, eKa.TovTa-p.vaio?, ^tXto-raXa^ror. An Ionic form from evvea is 
elvdnTjxv?, etc. — The a in such compounds sometimes remains before vowels, 
and sometimes not ; the o is dropped, or in compounds with eros year is 
contracted ; thus : eTvraerrjs of seven years, better eitrerr}? ; rptaKovraerrjs or 
rpiaKovrovrrjs for -oerrjs. These words have the Gen. in eos, ovs, and are of 
common gender; but they admit also a Fern, in is, e. g. rptaKovrovnbes 
VTovbaL. Observe also evvaerrjs of nine years, evvrjpap nine days long. 

* Distinguished from pvpioi many, innumerable, by the accent. 

t Compounds with Star-, rpiff-, are formed only where the proper signification of 
dls, rpis, twice, thrice, must be expressed ; as in Siffdajrfjs Horn, durpvpioi, 8i<r€<p6os, 
Tpurddhtos, etc. 



1. 


Trpcoros, or of two 12. 


ScoSe/caror 




nporepos 


13. 


TpiSKCLlbeKCLTOS 


2. 


hevrepos, a, ov% 


14. 


reao-apaKaibeKaros 


3. 


rpiros, ?;, ov 


15. 


TrevTemibeKaros 


4. 


rerapros, 77, 01/ 


16. 


eKKaidemros 


5. 


Tre\mros 


17. 


enraKmheKaros 


6. 


eKTOS 


18. 


OKTCDKaL^eKaTOS 


7. 


e/38op.os 


19. 


ivvea.KaibtKa.Tos 


8. 


6'ySooy 


20. 


eiKOCTTOS 


9. 


evCLTOS Or ewaTOS 


21. 


elKoo-rbs 7rpa>Tos or 


10. 


heKaros 




7rp£)TO? KCU etKOOTOS" 


11. 


evbeKaros 




etc.f 



92 ADJECTIVES. NUMERALS. § 71. 

s s 71. Ordinals and other derived Numerals. 

1. The Ordinal Numbers are all Adjectives in 0? of three end- 
ings. The first two are defective forms of comparison ; see § 69. 2 

30. TpiaKOO-TOS 

40. Tecro-apaKocrTos 

50. 7TeVTqKOO-TOS 

60. i^Kocrros 

70. e^bop.r]Koaros 

80. 6y8ot]Kocrr6s 

90. evevrjKocrros 

100. eKaroaros 

200. StaKoo-toordy, etc. 

1,000. ^iXiocrrdr 

2,000. cW^; 1X100-1-0? 

10,000. p.vpioo-ros, etc. 

To these ordinals corresponds the interrogative ttocttos, quotus, 
lit. £Ae how-many-eth ?t 

For rerapros we find on account of the metre rerparos; for evaros we 
find evvaros, Ion. etvaros. — Epic forms are : rpiraros, efidop-aros, oy&oaros. 
— The Dorics have rrparos for 7rp£>ros, contr. for Trpoaros. 

Note 1. In the ordinals also the construction with 6Va> (§ 70. n. 1), is 
formed as follows ; Thuc. 8. 6 evbs Beov elKoarbv eros the nineteenth year. 
4. 102 evbs beovri rpiaKoara erei. 

2. The numeral Adverbs, which answer to the question how 
many times, are : dira^ once, St«?, Tpk, rerpdias, irevrcuas, effd/cis, 
hnTTaicis, oKTatas, ivvedias or iwd/eis, Sem/a?, elicocraKis, eKarovrd- 
/a?, ^CkiaKL^, etc. (Poet, -/a.) Interrog. is nrocraKis ; 

3. The numeral Adjectives which answer to the question how 
many fold, are : airXovs simple, hiifkovs double, Tpi7r\ovs, re- 
Tpa7r\ov<?. four -fold, irevTairXovs, etc. ($ 60. 5.) Or also htifkd- 
aios etc. 

4. The numeral • Substantives are all formed in a?, G-. dho?', 
as r) /jLovd? monad, unity, hva<$, rpeds, rerpds, irevrds (also 7re/x- 
irrds and irejxird^), e£a?, e/3&o/J,d<;, oySods, ivveds, Se/ca?, el/cds, rpid- 
icas, reaaapaKovTa^, etc. eKarovrds, ^iXcd^, yLvpids. 

Note 2. The fractional parts of a number, as one third, one fifth, etc. are 
commonly expressed with the Subst. p.epos or p.oipa ; e. g. to rplrov p.epos> 
\; tcov Trevre p.epa>v ra 8vo, f. — The fraction one half is made by compounds 
with f)p,i- (§ 120); e. g. ^pLiraXavrov, fjpidapeiKov, etc. and so in the Plur. 
rpla, Trevre, enra -qp-iraXavra, i. e. 1^, 2|, 3j? talents. But where the Sing, is 
put with ordinals, as to rpirov, reraprov, e(38op.ov rjpiraKcovrov, this signifies 
2|, 3i, 6| talents; like Germ, dritthalb, viertehalb, etc. Hdot. 1. 50. 

* A corresponding Superl. SetrraTos iAe Zasf of two, is only poetic. 

t Also as in Eng. ev\ na\ elKoarcp erei, in the one and twentieth year. Lat. ' uno et 
vicesimo anno.' Elsewhere this mode of expression was used only where the 
smaller number is indeclinable, as TrevreKaieiKotrros ; but ^OXvp-Tvias rpirrj Kal evevn 
Koarr) Xen. Or a different turn was given ; e.g. with iiri, as tj? eW?? iirl rpiaKovra 
sc. TjfMepcus ; also with np6s, as ''OXvp.Tnas reraprr\ npbs reus evevi\Kovra. 

X So too tcoXXo<tt6s one of many, oXiyoo-rSs one of a few. Hence to iroXXoaibt 
uepos one part among many, a very small part. 



H 71, 72. PRONOUNS SUBSTANTIVE AND POSSESSIVE. 93 

PRONOUNS. 

§ 71 a. Division of the Pronouns. 

1. The general division of the Pronouns may be presupposed 
as known from the Latin grammar ; and hence in the following 
sections they are taken up in the order in which they are ety- 
mologically derived from one another. 

2. The Pronouns, according to the usual division, fall under 
three classes, viz. Substantive Pronouns, or such as stand only 
substantively or for a person ; Adjective Pronouns, or such as 
are mostly used adjectively, but can also stand substantively ; 
and Adverbial Pronouns. 

I. The Substantive Pronouns are : 

1. Personal Pronouns, eya>, crv, i, § 72. 3 sq. 

2. Reflexive Pronouns, ijiavTov, o-eavrov, iavrov, etc. § 74. 3. 

3. The Recipr. Pron. ak\ijka>v etc. § 74. 4. 

4. The Indef. Pron. 6 y to delva, § 73. 

II. The Adjective Pronouns are : 

1. Demonstrative Pronouns; to which belong: 
The prepositive Article 6, 17, to, § 75. 
ovto9, avrr], tovto, this, § 76. 2. 

ode, rjde, rode, this, § 76. 1. 

e/caj/or, 77, 0, that, § 74. 1. 

avros, rj, 6, self, § 74. 1. Also 6 cards* ?Ae same, ib. 2. 

6 erepos one of two, the other, § 78. 2 and 4. 

2. Relative Pronouns ; to which belong: 

The postpositive Article or, 77, o, w&o with the strengthened forms 

oanep, etc. § 75. 
oo-ri?, 777-ir, on, i#/\o, etc. § 77. 3. 
67rdrepoy which of two, § 78. 2. 

3. The Interrogative Pron. r/r, rt, who? what? § 77. 1. Also Trorepo- 
which of the two ? § 78. 2. 

4. The Indefinite Pron. rlr, rt, some one, any one, § 77. 1. Also 7rdre 
por one of the two, § 78. n. 1. 

5. Possessive Pronouns, ep.6?, 17, oV, mj/; crdr, etc. § 72. 4. 

6. Negative Pronouns, ovtis, pr]Ti?, 1, § 77. 4 ; ovSeis, firjdels, -oV/zta, -fie'i^ 
§ 70. 1 ; ovderepos, prjberepos, § 78. 2. 

7. Correlative Pronouns; see in §§ 78, 79. 

III. The Adverbial Pronouns. 

Here belong all those Adverbs of manner, place, and time, which are* 
derived from Pronouns; see § 116. 

§ 72. Pronouns Substantive and Possessive. 

1. The substantive or personal Pronouns of the first and sec- 
ond persons are iyco I, ^et? we ; crv thou, vfjuels (long v) ye. 

2. In the Pronoun of the third person, the Nom. Sing, i is want- 
ing in the common dialect ;* just as in the Lat. se, to which this 

* On this very rare Nominative, and its actual use by the Attics, see JLusfuhrl. 
Sprachlehre, with the note to p. 284. 



PRONOUNS SUBSTANTIVE AND POSSESSIVE. 



k!2 



pronoun, among the Attics, corresponds also in its reflexive sense, 
'self. In the Plural it has a particular form for the Neuter, which 
however is also infrequent. 

Note 1. This pronoun throughout is not frequent in the Attic language ; 
for in the reflexive sense {self) the compound eavrov (§ 74. 3) is more com- 
monly used ; and in the direct sense (him, her, it) the oblique cases of the 
pronoun avros (§ 74. 2) are .employed. In Ionic and epic writers, on the 
contrary, who employ it indiscriminately for him and for himself it occurs 
more frequently. — For all that concerns the use and misuse of the reflexive 
pronoun, see Synt. § 127. 

3. These pronouns are declined as follows : 

thou he {himself) 

(TV (T) 

(70V OV 

ctol 61 

<xe e 

ye two they two 

((T(f)C0i) o-(poo crdycoe 

(o-(J)colv) o-(p>Q)V aijxoiv 

ye, you they 

vfiels acjieis N. (T(pea 

VfJLWV O~(f)0L)l> 

v/jliv o-<fiicri(v) 

vfia? a(pa<; N. cr<f>ea 

Note 2. Enclitic are the following : 

1) The oblique cases of the second and third Pers. Singular ■ yet not so 
but that they may also become orthotone, as pointed out in § 14. 8. 

2) The like cases of eyco when monosyllabic, pov, etc. This form is always 
enclitic; and only the dissyllable can be made orthotone; see in n. 3. 

3) Of the forms which begin with a(p, only the oblique cases of the third 
person are enclitic, including the forms of the dialects given in note 6 ; 
and even here, acpoiv and acpa? in this circumflcxed form are excepted. 
But when resolved into acpecov, crcpias (note 6. 8), or when sometimes 
the latter is shortened by the poets to acpds; these also are enclitic. 

Note 3. When one of these pronouns is governed by a preposition, it 
regularly retains its accent, or is orthotone, as nepl crov, iv aoi, napa crcpi.- 
criv ; and so from eya> — kcit ipe, ig ipov. Some Grammarians except npos 
fie ; and it is thus actually found in Attic writers in most instances. See 
Ausfuhrl. Sprachl. 

Note 4. For the sake of emphasis, the particle ye is often appended to 
these pronouns (§ 149. 2). In such instances, eyco, epol, and ip.e draw back 
the accent, as eycoye (equidem), epoiye, epeye, (but Gen. epovye) ; and the 
oblique cases of av cease to be enclitic, e. g. prj aeye, not jjltj crey — , Od. a. 386. 

Note 5. The oblique cases of rjpeis and vpel?, according to the ancient 
Grammarians, are also capable of inclination ; inasmuch as in all instances 
where the forms above specified are enclitic, these, though they do not 
throw their tone upon the preceding word, draw it back ; as rjptw, fjpw, vfuv, 
etc. This however is not commonly observed in our editions. 



Sing. 


I 


Nom. 
Gren. 
Dat. 
Ace. 


1 r 

€<yco 

ijjuov and /jlov 
i/iol and fiol 
i/jbi and /mi 


Dual. 


we tivo 


N.A. 


(yo)l) vo)* 


G-.D. 


(yo)lv) v&v 


Plur. 


we 


Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 


rjfjLCQV 
7]{UV 



* The unconlracted forms of the Dual are only Ionic. 



$ 72. PRONOUNS SUBSTANTIVE AND POSSESSIVE. 95 

Note 6. Dialects. 1) For eya>, an old Doric and epic form is eyap. 

2) The Dorics have tv for av, and in the enclitic Accus. also rv. The 
Accus. re is rare and only orthotone, Theocr. 1. 5. In place of it the 
JEolics and even Dorics have elsewhere retained ere. — An old epic form 
of the Nom. is rvpr]. 

3) In the Dative, the Ionics and Dorics have. rot for crot, but only as an 
enclitic. 

4) The Genitive in ov of these pronouns came from eo ; hence the epic 
forms e/ieo, aed, eo, or e/xelo, aelo, elo. The Ionics and Dorics have 
thence ifxev, fxev, aey, ev ($ 28. n. 5) ; the Dorics for crev have also rev 
and revs: Wholly anomalous is the Gen. reolo for creo, aelo, II. $. 37. 

5) The poets have a peculiar Genitive, formed "by appending the syllabic 
Sep (comp. § 116) : e/xedep, creOev, eBev. Of these, edep in the direct sense 
(note 1) may have the inclination, e. g. II. a. 114. 

6) Orthotone Doric Datives (§ 14) are ejxlp, rip or re'ip, h (not tv), for e/xo/, 
o-ot, ol. But nV is also sometimes Accus. Theocr. 11. 

7) The old Ionic of the epic writers augments the pronoun of the third 
person by a prosthesis of e, as G. eelo D. eol A. ee. These forms are 
always orthotone, like ifiov. 

8) The Ionics resolve the contraction in the Plural, and write ^/xeer, 
v/Aee?, (r<fiee?, G. rjjxewv etc. (epic rjjxeloDV etc.) Ace. Tjjjiea?, etc. 

9) The poets make the endings w and as short, e. g. rjfiiv, t»/xtV, fjfids, v^as, 
acpds. When these shortened forms then come to be enclitic (comp. 
note 5), they are accented thus : rj/jnv, etc. 

10) The Dorics shorten the ending of the Nom. as dfxes, vfxes ; and in the 
Accus. they assume the otherwise Dual ending e, as a/xe, vfie, for rjLids, 
viids ; all with long a and v. Hence arise, through a change of the 
pronunciation and of the tone, the following old iEolic forms, which 
have been retained in the epic language : 

Nom. aLLLies, v/xfxes 

Dat. afiLitv, vfxixtv, or a[Xfju, vfj,[j,t 

Ace. aLLfxe, vLiiLe. 

Whenever diie or a/xjue occurs for i/xe (Theocr. 11. 42), this is the same 
figure by which r^iels often stands for e-yco. 

11) In the third person also there is a similar apocope of the Plural : 

Dat. a<pi or cn^iV, Ace. a(pe, 
both enclitic. — The Accus. a(pe is likewise employed by the Attics, but 
for all genders and numbers ; consequently for avrov, tjv, 6, and alrovs 
as, a. Very rarely <rcj)Lv also stands for the Singular. Comp. Lexil. 
I. 17, 14. 

12) Finally, there is still another enclitic Accusative of the third person : 

Ion. flip, Dor. and Att. vip, 
which in like manner stands for all genders and numbers, but only in 
the direct sense (note 1), for him, her, it, Plur. them. The Attics em- 
ploy their pip only in poetry. 



4. To the flexion of these Pronouns may properly be subjoined 
that of the Possessives derived from them. These are regular 
adjectives of three terminations. Their common form is derived 
from the Gren. Sing, as follows : 

Gen. ijJLov — e/<to?, ifjur], i/iou, my 

Gren. gov — (toS) crij, gov, thy 

Gen. ov — 6V, rj, ov, his, her; 
and from the Nom. Plur. thus : 



96 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. §§ 73, 74. 

97/xet? — rj/jLerepos, a, op, our 
vfieis — vfjuerepos, a, op, your 
afels — <7(£eTe/3o?, a, oz>, ^ezV. 
For the Possessives, especially of the third person Sing, and Plur. 
there is often substituted in prose the (xen. of the substantive 
Pronouns ; see more in § 127. 7. 

Note 7. Dialects. 1) For vos the Dorics and Ionics have reo?, d (77), 
6v> and for or they have edr, a (77), 6v. — For the supposed form erjos see 
the note to the Anom. evs §58. 
2) For the Plural possessives there is an old and shorter form : 

d/JLOSy 77, OV VflOS; T], OV (T(j)6?y Tj, 6u, 

which is used by Doric and by epic writers ; except that the last pro- 
nounce the first person with the smooth breathing : 

afJLos; 17, 6v. 
In this form it is used also by the Attic poets, but only with the signi- 
fication of the Sing, (for e/zdr, comp. note 6. 10,) e. g. Eurip. Electr. 
555. Soph. Electr. 558. 
Note 8. The poets form also a possessive of the first and second persons 
from the Dual : 

v<£>'i — vcotrepos oar y i. e. of us two 
a(j)S)'i — (rcjiaiiTefjos your^ i. e. of you two. 

§ 73. The Pronoun Selva. 

To the substantive Pronouns belongs also the indefinite 
6, t), to Seiva, 
some one, such an one, Fr. un tel. This is declined as follows : 
N. and A. Secva Gr. Selvos .D. helvi, 

Plur. oi Selves Gr. Belvcov D. A. Belvas. 

Note. Sometimes, though very rarely, Seiva is found indeclinable; e. g. 
tov Belva tov tov Selva (vlov), Arist. Thesm. 622. 

§ 74. Adjective Pronouns. 

1. The four following adjective Pronouns are regularly de- 
clined, except that they have the Neut. in o. 

avros, avrrj, avro, self 

e/ceivos, eice'ivr), eicelvo, that 

aXkos, olXKt], aXko, other 

09, tf, o, for which see § 75. 
Note 1. The Ionics often insert e in some of the forms of civto?, e. g. av- 
rerj, avTeav, § 28. n. 3. — 'Eiceivos comes from e/cet there. The Ionic form is 
/ceiz/oy, ?7, o, and the Doric rfjvos; a, o. The iEolics had the intermediate 
form k?]vo9. — For &Xkoi instead of oi aXkoi, see § 29. n. 6. 

2. The Pronoun avros has a three-fold signification : 1) self; 
2) In the oblique cases, him, her, it; 3) "With the article, the 
same. The details are given in the Syntax, § 127. 2. "We mere- 
ly remark here that, in the last signification, it often forms a 
crasis with the article in all those cases where the article begins 



§ 75. PRONOUNS. THE ARTICLES. 9? 

with t and does not end with a consonant (§ 29. n. 4). It must 
also be noted, that the Neut. then ends in ov as well as o. Hence 

6 avros rj avTT] ravrb and ravrov 

ravrov T7J9 avrrjs ravrov 

ravrw ravrfj ravrcp, etc. 

Note 2. One must take care not to confound the forms Tavrfi and ravrd 
(especially when the coronis _L is omitted) with ravrrj and ravra from ovro? 
(§ 76). For the Ionic forms covros-, tg>vto, see § 29. n. 6. 

3. From avros are formed the common Reflexive Pronouns, 
by compounding with it the Accusatives of the substantive Pro- 
nouns, ifie, ere, e. They are then declined in the three oblique 
cases thus : 

1 Pers. G. i/jLavrov, e/iavrfjs, D. ifiavrco, y, A. i/juavrov, r\v, of 

myself, to myself, myself 

2 Pers. Or. aeavrov or cravrov, 77?, etc. of thyself 

3 Pers. G. kavrov or avrov, 779, etc. of himself ; it forms also an 

Ace. Neut. iavro, avrb. 
The ^z>d person is declined also in the Plural ; but in the first 
and second persons Plur. the words are separated : 

1 Pers. G. fj/Jioiv avrcov of ourselves, D. tj/jllv avrols, als, Ace. 

77/za9 avrov?, as, etc. 

2 Pers. G. vfiwv avrcov of yourselves, D. vfuv avrofc, ais, etc. 

3 Pers. Gr. iavrcov or avrcov of themselves, D. kavrols or avroh- 

Ace. eavrovs or avrov?, a?, a, themselves. 

Note 3. The Singular also was naturally used at first in the separate 
form. And since Homer has still aoi avra and 01 avrcp, so too the forms I 
avrrjv, €fx avrov etc. are at present written separately in his poems, II. a. 
271. |. 162. In Od. £. 185. II. £. 490, to. a avrov, ra a avrrj?, is regarded as 
an elision of ra ad. 

Note 4. The Ionics have in these compounds aav instead of av (§ 27. n. 
11), and do not elide the e in the first person; e. g. ifxeavrov, aecavrov, ecov- 
tov, etc. — For icovrerjv, see note 1. 

4. From aXXo? is formed the Reciprocal Pronoun, marking 
the mutual action of one upon another : 

Gr. aXKrfkwv of one another, D. aXXrjkois, at?, A. aXKrjkovs, a?, 

aXkrfka 
Dual, Gr. T). aWrjXotv, aiv, A. aXKrjkw, a. 
This Dual expresses mutual action between two ; for whicr 
however the Plur. may stand just as well. 



h 75. The Articles. 

1. In Greek grammar the Articles (ra dp6pa) are the two 
most simple adjuncts of a Substantive, which have a mutual ref- 
erence to each other in two connected clauses of a complete sen- 
tence. Of these in modern languages the one is called the Def- 

G 



08 



PRONOUNS. THE ARTICLES. 



§75. 



inite Article, the; and the other the Relative Pronoun, who, 
which, what* 

2. Of these two articles, the one is called the 

Prepositive Article 
o, rf, to, hie, haec, hoc, the. 
This coincides in flexion with the adjective pronouns, § 74 ; ex- 
cept that 

1) The Masc. and Fern, in the Nom. Sing, and Plur. are atona, 
unaccented (§ 13. 3), and have the Spir. asper; while all 
the other forms have an initial t. 

2) Not only the Neuter, as in the adjective Pronouns, but also 
the Masc. in the Nom. Sing, ends in o (6). 

The other is called the 

Postpositive Article 
09, rj, o, qui, quae, quod, who, which, what. 
This is declined precisely like the adjective Pronouns, h 74. 1. 

Sing. 

Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 
Dual. 

N.A. 

G.D. 
Plur. 

Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Note 1. The variations in the dialects are the same as in the endings 
of Dec. I, and II ; e. g. roio for tov, & for 17, ray for r^r, etc. — For the Gen. 
of the postpos. ovj there is an unfrequent Homeric form oov ; and for rj? we 
find once eij? II. it. 208. 

Note 2. In the earlier language the two articles were alike in form; 
(just as the German der, die, das can still stand for both;) and were dis- 
tinguished only by position and tone, as has ever continued to be the case 

* Such a complete sentence, in which both the (Greek) articles appear, is e. g. 
"This is the man, who will deliver us," outSs icriv 6 avrjp, ts adxrei rums. It was 
because these two words refer so intimately to each other, and as it were lock into 
one another like joints, and thus connect the two clauses as members or limbs of 
one sentence, that the Greeks called them ra &p6pa, articuli, joints. The first of 
these, however, <5, f], r6, the, stands very commonly with its own simple clause 
alone; and is therefore, strictly speaking, in such instances no longer an article or 
joint. This arises from the circumstance, that in very many such instances, the 
second clause or apodosis is not expressed in words, but is left to be mentally sup- 
plied; such as "who is spoken of," or "who is here concerned," or "whom yon 
know," etc. See more on the article § 124. 





Prepos. Art. 






Postpos. 


Art. 


hie 


hcec 


hoc 


qui 


quce 


quod 


f 








<•/ 


<i 





7) 


TO 


o? 


V 











-? 






TOV 


t?5? 


TOV 


ov 


?7? 


OV 








t 


T 


f> 


TOO 


Trj 


TO) 


00 


V 


CO 


c f 






rf 


rf 


rf 


TOV 


T7)V 


TO 


ov 


7]V 





, 


/ 


' i 


rf 


rf 


rf 


TOO 


TCL 


TOO 


CO 


a 


CO 


n 


r> 


! 


-p 


f 


T 


TOLV 


Taw 


TOLV 


OLV 


aLV 


OLV 


r 


r 


/ 


r/ 


r/ 


rf 


01 


ai 


TCL 


OL 


at 


a 


n 


n 


m 


T 


T 


? 


T00V 


T00V 


T00V 


cov 


COV 


— cov 














TOt9 


Tat? 


TOLS 


Ofc? 


aL$ 


ois 


r 


/ 


z 


rf 


rf 


rf 


TOV? 


TCL? 


Ta 


OV9 


a9 


a 



§76. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



99 



with the forms #, ox, at The epic writers have still the form 6' (ina i-curately 
6) for or ; and all the cases of the prepositive article which begin with r. 
are used by the Ionics and Dorics for the corresponding forms of the post- 
positive ; thus 

to for o, rrjv for rjv, etc. 
The Dorics have rot, rat, for both oi, at, and ot, at; the epic writers only foi 
of, ai y in demonstrative clauses : ra\ Se, etc. 

Note 3. Strictly speaking, both articles are nothing more than the an 
cient simple demonstrative pronoun, this ; and were used (as will be shown 
in the Syntax $ 126) for this pronoun in many connections, even in prose ; 
as is the case with the German der, die, das. The common demonstratives, 
which have sprung from this form, see in § 76. 

3. The postpositive Article, or simple relative Pronoun, is in 
many connections strengthened, by receiving an accession for the 
sake of emphasis; sometimes by the enclitic particle irep, as 
ocnrep, wirep, rjirep ; and sometimes by composition with the pro- 
noun rt?, as oo-rts, etc. See $ 77. 3. 

Note 4. For the enclitic re, which is appended in the epic language to oy, 
as or re or oare for oy, see § 149. m. 8. 



k 76. Demonstrative Pronouns. 

1. For the common demonstrative Pronoun this, the Grreeks 
have a double form. The one is made from the prepositive arti 
cle, by merely appending the enclitic he ($ 14. n. 3) ; e. g. 

ohe, r/Se, roSe, Gr. rovSe, rrjcrSe, etc. A. rovSe, rrjvSe, roBe 
Plur. olBe, alhe, rdhe, A. rovcrSe, etc. 

2. The other, o5to?, comes from the same article ; and hence 
it follows that article in its very anomalous flexion. Where the 
article has the rough breathing or the initial t, this pronoun has 
the same ; where the article has o or <w, this pronoun has ov in its 
first syllable ; where the former has rj or a, the latter has av ; e. g. 

Sing. Plur. 

Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut. 



Norn. 
Gren. 
Dat. 
Ace. 



OfTO? aVTT] TOVTO 

TOVTOV TCLVTrjS TOVTOV 

tovtw ravrrj rovrcp 

TOVTOV TCLVT7JV TOVTO 



OVTOi CLVTdl TCLVTCL 

TOVTCOV TOVTCOV TOVTCOV 

TOVTOIS TCLVTaiS TOVTOl? 
TOVTOV? TaVTCLS TClVTa, 



Masc. Fem. 



Neut. 



Dual. 



N.A. 
G.D. 



TOVTCO TavTa TOVTCO 

TOVTOIV TCUVTCLIV TOVTOIV 

Note 1 . As the prepositive article was the only demonstrative in the an- 
cient language (§ 126), but by degrees lost that power, it is apparent that 
both the above forms are only a strengthening of this article ; and that ovtos 
especially is in a certain sense the superlative of 6. 

Note 2. In the dialects there is no special peculiarity, except the Ionic 
c (§ 74. n. 1) in rovreov, ravrer]s, etc. and the very anomalous epic form 
Dat. Tolcrbecri, roia^ecrat, for toio-oV. 

Note 3. The Nom. ovtos, avrrj, is often used as a kind of Vocative or ox 
elamation, like the Lat. heus ! you there ! hear ! 



100 



INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 



$77 



§ 77. Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns, rfe, tIv. 

1. The simple interrogative pronoun t/<?; tI; Gr. rlvos ; quis, 
quce, quid ? who ? what ? always has the accent on the i ; and 
this always the acute, even in the monosyllabic forms ; § 13. n. 2. 
— By these two circumstances it is distinguished from the sim- 
ple indefinite pronoun rh, rl, Gr. tlvgs, aliquis, a, id; one, some 
one, a certain one ; which moreover, as an enclitic, most com- 
monly stands without accent. The i of both pronouns is every 
where short. 

2. For the Gen. and Dat. Sing, of both these pronouns we often 
find the forms rov, t£>, for all genders ; and these too are enclitic 
where they stand for the pron. indefinite. E. g. rS reK/ialpeL rov- 
to ; by what dost thou prove this ? yvvai/cos rov of a certain wo- 
man ; yj)r)(jQal tw to use something. — For the Neut. Plur. of the 
indefinite form, we find drra, Ion. dyaa, for nvd, but always or- 
thotone ; e. g. Secva drra for heiva riva. Od. t. 218 qttoV daaa 
— Hence 

Pron. Interrogative. 

Sing. 
N. ris; Neut. ri; ~ : 

G. rivos or rov ; 

D. rivt or tg>; 

A. riva) ri ; 

Dual. 



N. 


A. 


rive ; 


G. 


D. 


rivoiv , 


N. 


rives ; 




G. 




rivoav ; 


D. 




ricri(v) ; 


A. 


rivas ; 





Pron. Indefinite. 




Neut. 


ri 


rivos or rov (rov) 




rivi or rep (ra) 






ri 


rtvi 




rivoiv 




riva and 


arra 


rtvcov 




rio~i(y) 




riva. and 


arret 



Plur. 



Note 1. In the ^infrequent instances where the monosyllabic form ris, 
r\, receives an acute accent because of another following enclitic, it is to be 
distinguished from the interrogative either by the connection, or by the ac- 
cent of the preceding word, e. g. dvrjp ris nore, el ri ttov. 

Note 2. For the interrogative ri used as an adverb, the poets and Attic 
comic writers have an emphatic lengthened form, nrj ; wherefore then ? 
how so ? 

3. The compound relative oaris, who, whoever, which is only 
a strengthening of o? (§ 75. 3), is doubly declined, i.e. both the 
09 and tU are inflected at the same time : 

Sing. Norn, ogtis, i]tl<;, o,tc § 15. 2. 

Gren. ovtivos, rjcrrtvo<;, D. wtlvl, ynvi 
Ace. ovTiva, rjVTiva, o,tl 
Plur. Nom. (Strives, arrives, dnva 

Gren. wvtlvcov, D. olartcri, aloTitn 
Ace. ovdTivas, acrTivas, dnva. 
There is also a form compounded with the secondary form of rt9 
mentioned above in no. 2 : 



% 78. CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 101 

orov, orcp, for ovtivos, cpTLvc, hut not for the feminine. 
arret,, Ion. acrcra, for ariva. 

Note 3. This secondary form rod, ra, must never be confounded with 
the article, from which it is fundamentally distinct, as the threefold gender 
and the dialects show. The rod of the article is by epic writers resolved 
into ro to ; the rod for nVor, riz/or, on the contrary, into reo, whence Ion. and 
Dor. red, and Ion. Dat. reco. So too in the compound relative, oreo, orreo, 
orev, oreco. 

Note 4. The Ionics have likewise the secondary form in the Gen. and 
Dat. Plur. reoov, reotcri, for rivmv, riviv. And in the compound relative we 
find among the Attics, though very rarely, orcov, oroio-i, Xen. An. 7. 6. 24. 
(Ec. 3. 2. v. Schneid. Soph. (Ed. T. 414. Aristoph. Eq. 758. The Ionics 
write 6Vec0i>, oreoiaiv, and also in the Fem. orerjoriv. 

Note 5. Epic writers had the license of forming the compound relative 
with the first syllable indeclinable ; as on?, onva (for ovriva and ariva), on- 
i/ay. — They write the Neut. when the r is doubled, thus : o,rrt. 

4. From rh are formed, by composition with ov and pur], the 
negative pronouns ovns, puiqris, i, Gr. ovnvos, purjnvos, etc. no one, 
none; which are declined like the simple rh. § 78. 1. 

§ 78. Correlative Pronouns and Adjectives* 

1. Correlatives are certain words having such a mutual rela- 
tion to each other, that when one implies a certain question, the 
others contain the simplest answers to that question in a like 
form. Those Correlatives which are wholly of a general nature, 
have already been given above ; viz. the 

Interrogative t/? ; who ? 
Demonstrative 6, oSe, ovros, this; i/ceivos that 
Indefinite rh, one, some one 
Relative 6V, compound ocrrvs, who, whoever 
Negative ovrts, purjris, (§ 77. 4,) or ovBefc, fiajSek, (§ 70. 1,) no 
one, none; 
each of course with its Fem. and Neuter. 

2. When these correlative ideas are limited to two objects or 
parts, they are thus expressed : 

Interrogative rrorepos, a, ov ; which of the two ? 

Demonstrative, as above in no. 1 ; with 6 erepos the other, al- 
ter ; see in no. 4. 

Indefinite irorepos, a, ov, one or the other (of two), alteruier ; 
see n. 1. 

Relative orrorepos, which of the tivo 

Negative ovSirepos, fjurjSerepos, neither of the two. 

Note 1. Uorepos as indefinite corresponds to rh when referring to the 
Plural j e. g. Plat. Theset. 8 ri 8\ el norepov rrjv ^vx^v inaivdi; and so often.* 
That also cmorepos is so used, see Heindorf in loc. cit. — For the crasis arc- 
pos, Snrepov, etc. see § 29. n. 5. 

* The idea of the pronoun cannot be so accurately and systematically defined, as 
not to include much, which may in general be considered as belonging likewise to 
the adjective. 



102 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. $ 79. 

3. To the questions rfe ; and Trorepos ; can also be answered 
every, each. In Greek this has the form of a comparative and 
superlative : 

etcarepos, a, ov, each of two, 
eKacrTos, tj, ov, each (of many), every. 

4. Other general answers to the question t/s are : 

a\\o$ another, § 74. 1. 

7ra?, TT&vres, all, § 62. 4. 
To these correspond, when the question is made by irorepos, 

6 eVe/3o? the other, 

dfi^orepo^, a, ov, dficporepoL^ai, a, both. 
For this last there is used, in certain connections, the Dual 

N. A. afJLcjxo, Gr. D. a/ji(f)olv 
(the latter with the accent shifted,) which stand for all genders. 
Note 2. By the poets apcpco is sometimes used as indeclinable, i. e. also 
for the Gen. and Dative, without change. — See more on oaAop and erepor in 
k 127. 10. 

k 79. Special Correlatives : irocro^, ttolos, 7T7]\lkos. 

1. Besides these general Correlatives, there are also some spe- 
cial distinctive ones, which refer more particularly to the quali- 
ties and relations of an object ; as, how constituted ? where situ- 
ated ? etc. These are formed in Greek after a very clear analo- 
gy ; and have partly the form of Adjectives, partly that of Ad- 
verbs. For the latter, see § 116. 

2. Every series or set of such special Correlatives, has its root 
and formative ending in common ; but the several words of each 
set are distinguished among themselves by their initial letters or 
by the accent. The interrogative begins with 777 e. g. 7t6<to? ; 
quantus ? how much ? how great ? etc. — The indefinite has usu- 
ally the same form, but with a change of the tone, e. g. ttoctos, 
aliquantus, of a certain size or number. — The demonstrative 
has t instead of ir, e. g. rocros, tantus, so great, so much. — The 
relative, instead of this initial consonant, begins the word with 
the rough breathing ; e. g. ocro?, quantus, so great as, so much 
as. — A particular negative for these special correlatives, does not 
occur in the common language. 

3. Along with this simple relative, there exists also a compound 
one, which is preferred in certain connections. It is formed by 
prefixing the syllable 6 to the interrogative : 

7t6go<; ; Relat. 6V09 and ottoctos, poet. oirTroao^. 

4. The simple demonstrative, too~os, occurs in the full sense 
of a demonstrative, for the most part only in the poets ; in prose 
only in certain connections. E.g. oaw ftekriwv io~rl, to a <w 
fiaWov (pyXdrrerat, by hoiv much . . .by so much, Xen. Cyr. 1 . 6 
26. So Tccro? koI toctos, so and so great, Demosth. in Phorm 



80. 



PARAGOGIC ENDINGS. 



103 



p. 4. More commonly a strengthened form is employed ; and 
just as the article 6 is strengthened either into oSe or into ovto? 
(§ 75. 3), precisely so here ; e. g. 

t6<jo<$ — togogSe or togovtos. 
The first form is declined in the middle syllable : 

togogSe, Toarjhe, togovBc, Gr. TOGOvhe, etc. 
(For the accent, see § 14. n. 3.) The other form coincides in re- 
spect to the diphthongs ov and av entirely with ovtos, and has in 
the Neut. both ov and o ; thus 

Sing, togovtos, togcuutt), togovtcv and TOGOVTO 
Gr. togovtov, togcivt7)<;, etc. 

PlW. TOGOVTOV, TOGCLVTCLl, TOGaVTd, etc. 

5. The following are the three complete sets or series of Cor- 
relatives : 

Indefin. Demonstr. 
ttogos 



Interrog. 



7TOCO? ; 

quantus ? how great ? 
how many? 

7T0fc0? ; 

qualis? how? 
how constituted? 

7T7]\LfCO<; ; 



how old ? how large ? 



TOGO? 

togogSc 



Relat. 

OCTO? 

OTTOGQS 



TOGOVTO? 
TOIOS oh? 

TOlOG$6 07TOL 

TOLOVTOS 

7rrj\ltco<; ttjXIkos rfkitco? 

TrfkiKOG^e OTTljXl/COS 

T7)\LK0VT0$ 

For the Ionic forms Kooroe, Koloy, okoo-os-, etc. see § 16. n. 1. c. 

Note 1 . There are some other incomplete sets of correlatives, which, (like 
7rorepoy, onorepo?, § 78. 2,) besides the interrogative, have only the compound 
relative ; so especially Trodcnro? ; oTrobcnros ; where born 1 and the derivatives 
from 7rd(joy, as ttocttos, 7rocrraioy, TrocraTrkaarios, — ottocttos, etc. — To the cor- 
relatives belongs also the demonstrative rvvvos, tvvvovto?, tantillus, so small. 

Note 2. Other words likewise, as erepo?, aXXoy, 7rar, often receive cor- 
relative endings. E. g. to the question 7rotor, answers also erepoioy, aXXolos, 
of another kind 7 iravroios of every kind. So too (TroSanos;) aXXodcmo?, ttovto- 
rWoy, i7fte§a7roy our countryman, etc. 

Note 3. It is incorrect to regard toctovtos etc. as compounds with ovtos. 
That the ending -ovtos both here and in ovto? itself, is nothing but a sort 
of superlative strengthening of the ending or, is apparent, and becomes still 
more evident in the particles ivravda, ivrevOev. See § 116. 7. 

Note 4. The poets use the form tt)\lkovtos also for the Fem. e. g. Soph. 
Electr. 614. OC. 751 ; comp. § 60. 3. and n. 2. 



§ 80. Paragogic Endings : irep, ovv, t. 

1. All the Relatives take the enclitic irep as a strengthening ; 
usually for no other cause than to give to the shorter forms more 
emphasis. E.g. • 

oGirep, 0V7rep, oGovirep, oldnrep. 
Further, all the Relatives thus or otherwise compounded oi 



104 VERBS. THE TENSES. ? 81. 

strengthened, as 6V™?, orov, oairep, oirocro?, etc. annex to all theii 
forms the particle ovv, which retains the tone upon itself; and 
which in this connection corresponds exactly to the Latin cunque, 
and marks the sense as full and complete ; e.g. 

octtis ivho, ogtigovv quicunque, ivhoever, whosoever it may be, 
rjricrovv, otlovv, otwovv, Acc. ovtivclovv or ovtlvovv, etc. 

oairepovv, biroaoaovv, OTTTjkiKovovv^ etc. 

Note 1. For a still greater strengthening of the sense, serves also the 
particle Si^-ore; e. g. oo-Tiordrj-rroTe ecrnv, ivhoever then it can be ; 6a-ov8j]7roT€ y 
etc. Such forms however are often written separate. 

2. In like manner demonstrative words assume among the At- 
tics, but only in the tone of social intercourse, the 

demonstrative i 
upon all then* forms, in order to strengthen their demonstrative 
power. This suffix likewise always draws the tone upon itself, 
is always long, and absorbs all short final vowels, e. g. 

ovTo? — ovroai this here, Lat. hicce, Fr. celui-ci ; 
and so avrrft from clvtt), tovtl from tovto, ifcetvocrl that one there, 
i/ceivovl, etc. toctovtovI, roaovBl, i. e. so much, so great, as you 
there see, etc. 

For the shortening of the long vowels and diphthongs before this t, see 
k 7. n. 16. 
Note 2. When the demonstratives already have the enclitic particle ye, 
this i stands after it, e. g. tovto ye, rovroyL 

Note 3. When this i is preceded by o-, it sometimes takes after it the 
movable v; e. g. ovroalv, tovtovct'iv. So too among the adverbs, ovtcchtlv 
from ovtcos. 

VERBS. 
§ 81. Peculiarities. The Tenses. 

1. The Greek language is richer in verbal forms, than either 
the Latin or English; inasmuch as it definitely distinguishes 
the Middle as a special form, separates the Optative from the 
Subjunctive as a distinct mood, makes the Aorist a distinct 
tense, the Dual a distinct number, and distinguishes also the va- 
rious Moods and Participles in all the different tenses. But we 
must here remark, on the very threshold, that it is by no means 
the fact, that all which can be formed, is actually formed and 
usual in every verb ; although in grammar it is customary to ex- 
hibit some one verb as complete in all its parts, in order to serve 
as a model for the rest. 

2. Another preliminary remark is, that in Greek, far more fre- 
quently than in other languages, a certain mode of formation, 
which according to the prevailing analogy is connected with a par- 
ticular signification, may also have another and often the contra- 
ry signification ; e. g. the Passive form has often an Active sense. 

3. The : dea of Passive, Subjunctive, Imperative, Present, etc 



* 82. VERBS. AUGMENT. 105 

so far as is necessary for understanding the doctrine of forms, we 
may assume as sufficiently known from other languages. For 
the Optative, the necessary preliminary information is given in 
$ 88. 2 ; and for the Middle, in § 89. The Greek Tenses alone 
require here a particular classification, in order to facilitate an 
acquaintance with their forms. 

4. The simplest division of the tenses is into present, past, and 
future. The past, however, has in ordinary language a greater 
variety of modifications, than both the others. In the tenses of 
the past, which are all included under the general name of Pre- 
terites, there is this essential distinction, viz. in one of them, the 
Perfect, I remain with my thoughts in the present time, and only 
speak of a thing as done and past ; e. g. reOvy/ce he has died, i. e. 
is now dead. In the others, my thoughts are transported back 
into the past, and I relate what then took place ; e. g. Wave he 
died at that time. # This narrative species of tense has again 
subdivisions ; in Latin and English the Imperfect and Pluper- 
fect ; in Greek, besides these, the Aorist ; of which the com- 
plete signification can be developed only in the Syntax. § 137. 

5. The Perfect, as we shall see, remains in respect both to sig- 
nification and form entirely in the analogy of the Present and 
Future ; while the narrative class follows an analogy .of its own. 
On this difference we found, especially for the grammar of the 
Grreek language, a second division of all the tenses, and include 
under the name of 

Primary Tenses 
the Present, Perfect, and Future; and under the name of 

Secondary or Historical Tenses 
the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Aorist. 

6. The difference of form in the Greek tenses, is of two kinds :. 
1) All the tenses are distinguished from one another by their end- 
ings. 2) All the Preterites are further distinguished by an addi- 
tion at the beginning, called the Augment ; h 82 sq. 3) The his- 
torical tenses are again distinguished from the primary ones by 
a particular manner of inflecting the endings through the differ- 
ent numbers and persons ; § 87. 



Augment. 
§ 82. Syllabic Augment. 

1. The Augment is in general that addition which the Preter- 
ites assume before the root or stem. The Fut. 3 also has it ; see 
no. 4. 

2. The augment is of two kinds. When the verb begins with 

* In animated narration, this transposition of the thoughts into the past occasions 
i-wt unfrequently the use of the Present tense. 



106 VERBS. SYLLABIC AUGMENT. $ 82. 

a consonant, the augment forms a syllable of itself, and is there- 
fore called the Syllabic Augment. We treat first of this, be- 
cause it is the foundation of the other, or Temporal Aug- 
ment. 

3. In each single verb again there are two species of augment, 
viz. that of the Perfect, and that of the historic tenses. 

4. The augment of the Perfect, in verbs beginning with a con- 
sonant, is formed by repeating this first consonant with e before 
the root of the verb, e. g. 

TV7TTCO, Pei'f. T€-TV(f>a, 

where of course, if the first letter be an aspirate, the correspond- 
ing smooth mute is prefixed instead of it (§ 18), e. g. 

(j)t\eco 7T€(pl\7)/ca, ^rvco riOv/ca, ^copeco fce/ccoprj/ca. 
This .'augment is also called Reduplication. The Future 3, which 
includes in itself the sense of the Perfect, retains also this aug- 
ment. § 99. 

5. The historical tenses, on the other hand, prefix simply an 
e, which in distinction from the reduplication of the Perfect is 
called simply the Augment ; e. g. 

TV7TTO), Imperf. e-rvirrov, Aor. e-rwjra. 
The Pluperfect also, which unites the historic quality with the 
signification of the Perfect, takes this e before the reduplication 
of the Perfect, e. g. 

TV7TTCO, Perf. T€TV(£>a, Plupf. €-T6TV(f>eLV. 

Hence the primary tenses, in respect to increase at the beginning, 
are distinguished from the historical tenses thus : The primary 
take either no augment at all, as the Pres. and Future ; or only 
the reduplication, as the Perfect. The historical take the sim- 
ple augment ; and the Plupf. as one of them and in accordance 
with its signification, receives both. 

6. All the augments appear both in the Active, and in the Pass- 
ive and Middle ; the simple augment, however, only in the In- 
dicative, but the reduplication throughout all the moods and 
tenses. As now the Imperfect and Pluperfect exist only in the 
Indicative, the preceding rule may be expressed thus : 

The reduplication of the Perfect is retained through all the 
moods and participles ; the augment of the Aorist occurs 
only in the Indicative. 
Thus from tv7ttco 

PERF. rirv(j)a, Inf. rerv^evat, Part. T€TV(j>cb<; 
. qt> j 1- ervyfra, — rv^rai, — rvyjras 



2, ervTTov, — rvirelv, — rviroav. 

The Fut. 3 conforms here also to the Perfect ; see 4 above. 

Note. This rule may be expressed more exactly thus : All that is re- 
duplication, or which stands in the place of reduplication, is retained through 
ill the moods and participles ; all that is simple augment occurs only in the 
Indicative; comp. § 83. 2, 3. § 84. 1. Hence, according to the former part 



<■ 83. VERBS. SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 1U7 

of this rule, we have the irregular reduplication of the Aorist XeAaOov, Part. 
kekaO&v, etc. § 83. n. 10; while in accordance with the latter part, the ir- 
reg. Aor. rjyayov casts off in the Infin. only t>he temporal augment, as dya- 
yeiv, etc. \ 85. n. 2. — What can here he adduced hy way of exception, 
whether with or without ground, see in the Anom. ayvvpi and ewre«/, § 114. 

§ 83. Syllabic Augment, continued. 

1. The preceding paragraph (k 82. 6) exhibits the syllabic aug- 
ment in its proper and regular shape ; the present section treats 
of its deviations and peculiarities. 

2. "When a verb begins with p, this letter is doubled after the 

pairTCD, Imperf. eppairrov. 
See k 21. 2, and the exceptions in n. 2. This form of the aug- 
ment is then employed in the Perfect and Pluperfect, instead of 
the reduplication, e. g. 

Perf. eppa(f)a, Plupf. ippd(f>eiv. 

3. When a verb begins with a double consonant, (^, f, f,) the 
simple augment (e) is alone prefixed both in the Perfect and Plu- 
perfect, instead of the reduplication. E.g. 

yjraXXco, Perf. e-yjraXfca, Plupf. er^raXtceiv 
fy]Teco, £e'a>, Pass. Perf. ifyjrrificu, e^eapuai, Plupf. igecrpLrjv. 
The same takes place, in most instances, where a verb begins 
with two consonants ; e. g. 

(pOeipco, Perf. e(j>0opa, Plupf. i$66peiv 
(nr€LpQ), Pass. Perf. eairappuai, Plupf. ecrTrdppLrjv 
fcrl^ca, TTTveraco, Pass. Perf. efcrio-pbcu, eirTvapLat. 
In all the examples under 2 and 3, the augment of the Perfect 
(and Fut. 3) remains the same in all the moods : 

eppafya, Inf. ippacpivai,' eKTiapbat, Part. eKTio-puevo^. 
Note 1. The following are exceptions to the last rule, and accord with 
t.he general rule, i. e. are reduplicated as usual. 

a) Two consonants, of which the first is a mute and the other a liquid, 
i. e. a mute "before a liquid; e. g. ypdcpm ye-ypacpa ; so Ke'-KXi/xai, 7re- 
irvevKci, re-SKam, etc. Yet yv assumes only e, and yX, /3X are variable : 
e. g. yvcop'ifa eyvwpKTfxai, /car-eyXcorrtcr/xeVoy, di-eykv7TTai and Sia-yeyXv- 
Trrai, /3Xa7rro) j3e/3Xaja/Liat, /3Xao-raz>o) efiXdcrTTjKa.^ 

b) The Perfects [xe fivrj pai and k.€ktt] p,ai from pvda> and Kraofxai. But 
the Ionics (and the Attics often, e. g. Plato. Meno 39) write ekrgpuu. 
All other verbs beginning with jxv and kt take only e ; e. g. ip,vrjp,6vevKa, 
e/creartoyicu, eKTOva. 

c) The Perfects 7re7rrap.ai, 7re7rr<»Ka, 7r e 7r r 77 o> r, see the Anom. jverdv- 
vvyny 7rero/xat, mirr®, 77x770-0-0), § 114; all which however have arisen 
rather by syncope out of old verbs from the root IIETG. All Perfects 
immediately and regularly derived from 7rr, have simply e ; thus the 
usual Perf. from 71-7770-0-0) is ran^a; and so enrorjpai, i'mio-pai, from 
Trroeo), nriacra). 

* It is to be observed, that yv, y\, j8A, belong to those instances of a mute before 
a liquid, which form also in prosody an exception to the general rule (§ 7. 9, 10). 
The other exceptions there adduced, do not here occur ; for SeSjUTi/ucu is an instance 
of syncope; see the Anom. Se'jctw, § 114. 



108 VERBS. TEMPORAL AUGMENT. $ 84. 

Note 2. The same kind of augment which now belongs to verbs begin- 
ning with p, probably occurred in the ancient language in verbs beginning 
with other semivowels; hence the two Perfects epupopa and eaavpai ; see the 
Anom. peipopai and aevco, § 114. — The epic poets, for the sake of the metre, 
double all the liquids, but only in the Imperf. and Aorist • as eXXafiev, ep- 
fiade. — For edbeiae, see the Anom. Seicrcu, § 114. 

Note 3. Some few words beginning with a liquid, take even in the com- 
mon language, instead of the reduplication, the syllable el or el; e. g. e'CXr}- 
(pa. See the Anom. Xapfidva, Xay^dva, Xeyco, peipopai, and PEG under elnelv, 
§ 114. 

Note 4. Of the ancient reduplication before p, the only instance retained 
is the Homeric pepynapeva, Od. f. 59. 

Note 5. In the three verbs fioyXopai will, hvvapat can, peXXca am about to 
do, the Attics very commonly increase the syllabic augment by superadding 
the temporal augment ; e. g. rjdwdprjv instead of eftvvdprjv. See the same in 
a7roAai)co, § 86. n. 2. — For the syllabic augment before a vowel, see § 84* n. 8. 

Note 6. The augment of the historic tenses is very often omitted in poetry 
by writers not Attic ; e. g. j3dXe for eftaXe, fir} for efirj, yevovro for eyevovro, 
etc. See for the accent, § 103. n. I. 2. In Attic poets this omission is 
rare, and only for the sake of the metre ; see Herm. ad Eur. Hec. p. 32. 

Note 7. In Attic prose the omission of the simple augment is very com- 
mon in the Pluperfect; as Tervcpetarav, Tervrrro, for ererixpeiaav, erervnTo ; 
8e8iei for eSeStet Plat. In other tenses this never happens ; except in xPW> 
see Anom. XP" 05 § H4. 

Note 8. Likewise in the Ionic prose of Herodotus this omission of the 
syllabic augment is never found ; except in the iterative forms so called, in 
ctkov, o-ic6p,r)v, § 103. n. II. 1. Yet in the same writer the neglect of the 
temporal augment is very common. See however Hdot. 7. 54. ed. Gaisf. 

Note 9. On the other hand, the omission of the regular Reduplication is 
very rare and doubtful. For edeicTo and the like, see § 110. 8; and for the 
epic reduplication dei instead of de, see Anom. delaai and he'iKvvpi § 114. 

Note 10. In the epic poets the Aor. 2 (Act. and Mid.) often takes the 
Reduplication, which is then retained through all the moods (§ 82. 6, and 
note) ; e. g. 7re7rXr)yov, XeXadcw, ireiriOelv, Kendpn), XeXafieadai, etc. In some 
few verbs they prefix, in the Indicative, still further the simple augment, 
as cppdfa eitecppabov ; see the Anom. (ppdfa, and comp. KeXopai and <J?ENi2, 
§ 114. — The Present and Future Act. have such a reduplication in a few 
''orms derived from reduplicated tenses, but mostly poetical : see § 111. 



$ 84. Temporal Augment. 

1. "When a verb begins with a vowel, with either the rough or 
smooth breathing, the augment unites itself with this vowel, and 
thus forms with it one long vowel ; and this kind of augment, 
which is called temporal (av&cns %povt/cri, from XP° V0( > time or 
quantity of syllables), is then the same in all the Preterites. In 
this way, initial a or e is generally changed into 77, and o into 

avvco Impf. tjvvov Perf. 7]vvtca Plupf. r)vviceiv 

dpfjLO^co — rjp/jLo^ov — rjpfMOfca — r)p/j,6fC€iv 

iXirl^co — rfXnutpv — rfXfrrika — rjXnrUeiv 

djAiXeoo — wjjbikeov — 6)fjLi\r)fca — <bfM\i]K;€iv> 



§ 84. VERBS. TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 109 

In respect to the moods the general rule holds good, § 82. 6. 
Hence in the Aorists, out of the Indicative, after the augment is 
dropped the original vowel reappears, e. g. 

dvvco, Aor. rjvvcra, Subj. dvvcra), Inf. avvcrcu. 

But in the Perfect the lengthened vowel is retained in all the 

moods, because it stands instead of the reduplication ; e. g. 6{ii\ico 

Perf. co/M\7}fca, Subj. GbfAckrj/ccQ, Inf. d)fit\r)K6vat. 

2. The following verbs, viz. 

e%a> have epirco ) earidco entertain 

ido) permit epirv^co \ & eirw ) folloiv, see 

ekKco draw ) $114 editfia accustom eiroyuai ) s s 114 
e EAKTf2 \ ikla-ao) wind ipydtyficu work, 

change the e into et, instead of into tj ; e.g. Impf. el~)(ov, eio-ricov, 
Perf. etpyaa/juac, etc. See note 4. 

Note 1. See further elXov, ekelv, in the Anom. alpeai ; also e'icoda in the 
Anom. e#oo, § 114; and the verbs derived from the root C E£2, § 108. — The 
following. are sometimes wrongly referred hither, viz. eVco and epea>, see the 
Anom. fi7retv; e|co on isocount of eto-a, see § 108. II; epvco and epcoraco on 
account of e'ipvaa, elpoorcov, which forms however belong to the Ionic elpvco, 
elpcordco. 

3. The vowels i and v can be augmented only when they are 
short, and then only by being lengthened ; e. g. 'tKerevco Eurip. 
Med. 971, Aor. 'i/cerevcra ib. 338. And even where the syllable 
is already long by position, the augment must be made audible 
in the pronunciation ; e. g. hryyto "icr^vou, vfivico "vfjuvovv. 

4. Of vowels which are already long in themselves, a usually 
becomes t) (no. 1 above) ; the others, nj, co, i, v, are wholly inca- 
pable of being augmented ; e. g. rjTrdofjLcu, 

Impf. rjTTCOfJbTJV, Perf. 7]TTr\jXai, Plupf. r)TT7]/JL7]V. 

5. Verbs beginning with a diphthong- admit the augment, 
when the first vowel of the diphthong can be changed in the man- 
ner above specified ; and then if the second vowel be (,, it is sub- 
scribed ; e.g. 

avXeco — tjvXovv ev^o/uai, — nqvyopjrjv 
alreco — f)TOW ahw — fjhov olfceco — cokovv. 

But verbs beginning with ov and ec neglect the augment wholly, 

e- g. 

ovrd^co — ovrobCpv eUco — el/cov, eltja, 
with the exception of el/cdfo, which is augmented only by the 
Attics, and rarely even by them : eltcaaa, eUaafxai, Att. jj/mcra, 
yfcacrfjLcu. — Verbs beginning with ev have sometimes rjv and some- 
times ev ; as evypiLai, ^vyppaqv and ev'XPfiTjv ; evpio-fcco, evpeOfjv, 
very rarely 7}vpe6r)v. 

Note 2. It is true, in general, that very many verbs remain unchanged, 
in which the augment might produce cacophony or ambiguity. So especially 
some beginning with a, au, oi, with another vowel immediately following, 
as atco, arjpi, dt]bi£opai' avaivm, oiajKt£co, oioa>, and some others ; except thai 
short a, as in atco, is made long; e. g. Imperf. atov (long a), avaivero, oldiafcv, 



110 VERBS. TEMPORAL AUGMENT. $ 84 

etc. But det'Sw follows the general rule, fjeibov; and hrata forms inrficra 
Hdot. Some others beginning with ol have no augment, as olvifa, otKoupeo), 
olcrTpeoo. 

Note 3. The Ionics (also Herodotus, comp. § 83. n. 8) and the poets not 
Attic, often omit this augment in all verbs, as well as the syllabic aug- 
ment ; e. g. d/jL€L(3eTo for ^pei/3ero, eW for elav from edco, etc. and sometimes 
even in the Perf. and Plupf. Pass. e. g. dp,p.ai, oU-qpai, from gottcd, otKeco, in 
Herodotus. — In verbs beginning with a the Dorics merely prolong the quan- 
tity into d, and never change the vowel into rj. 

Note 4. The temporal augment unquestionably arose from the contrac- 
tion of the syllabic augment e with the vowel of the verb, e. g. ayco e-ayov 
rjyov. Here however the contraction of ee into ??, and of eo into w, deviates 
from the common rule (§ 28. 3. b). Hence, and from the general rule that 
the accent can never go back beyond the augment ($ 103. m. 10), may be 
explained the accent of some compounds, e. g. in dvrynTov from dvdirra. In 
this way sometimes the augment becomes apparent only by the accent ; e. g. 
KaOrjKco {rJKoi), 3 pers. Impf. KaOrjKtv ; and from dneipyco the form dneipye is 
Imperative, but dnelpye is 3 pers. Impf. 

Note 5. The syllabic augment is in many instances still actually pre- 
served before a vowel. Besides several epic forms, this is found in the 
common language in the following three verbs, which according to the 
general rule above are not susceptible of the temporal augment : 
Qi8e<x), aJV€Ofj.aij ovpeco 
Imperf. iaOovv, e&vovprjv, eovpovv. 
The same takes place in the verb Ari2, Anom. ayvvfii, break, Aor. ea£a. 
etc. to distinguish it from dya> lead. 

Note 6. In the Perfect likewise the temporal augment has arisen from 
the e; since in the case of a verb beginning with a vowel the ordinary re- 
duplication was impossible. And this e is still preserved unchanged (in- 
stead of the reduplication) in the verbs already quoted (note 5), as eaya, 
ecoaixat, ia>vrjp.ai, eovprjua, and besides these in 

eoiKa, tokTra, eopya 
from e'Ua, eA7ra), epyco, all which once had the Digamma, § 6. n. 3. The o 
in these Perfects comes from changing the vowel of the root ($97. 4. c), and 
the i is instead of the reduplication ; thus epy<o e-opya (FeFopya) like Sep- 
Kopai deftopica. 

Note 7. In verbs which have the rough breathing, this kind of temporal 
augment takes it also; e. g. iaXa>v, iakooka from 'AAOii, see Anom. dXiV/co- 
fiai ; also dv8dva>, evvvp.1. 

Note 8. We have seen above (§ 83. n. 5), that the syllabic augment is 
sometimes increased by the temporal ; in the same manner the temporal 
augment in the verb 6pda> see is commonly increased by the syllabic, which 
retains the same breathing, e. g. Impf. ecopcov. For the Perf. eoopa/ca, see 
the Anom. opdeo § 114; and also oiyco, dvoiyw. — In the epic poets this takes 
place with some other verbs; e. g. eWo^oet from oiW^oea), irjvdave from dv- 
ddvco, § 6. n. 3. 

Note 9. When a verb or verbal form begins with eo, the second voivei 
takes the augment. This occurs in the verb eoprd£a>, Impf. eaprafav, and 
with the three Perfects mentioned in note 6 when in the Plupf. 
iaiceiv, icokiTeiv, £d>py€iv. 



$ 85. VERBS. ATTIC REDUPLICATION. ill 

$ 85. Attic Reduplication. . 

1. In verbs beginning with a vowel, the reduplication, as we 
have seen, cannot take place ; § 84. n. 6. But several such, all 
of them radical verbs, have in the Perfect a special Attic Redu- 
plication so called ; which consists in repeating the first two let- 
ters of the verb before the temporal augment in the Perfect, the 
initial vowel remaining unchanged ; e. g. 

ayeipco (rjyeprca) ay-rjyep/ca, ayiiyepfiai 

ifjueco (ff/jLe/ca) ifA-tffieKa 

opvTTQ) (wpv^a) 6p-copv%a, opcopvyfiai 

o^co (co&z) oS-coSa. 
The name Attic reduplication is only technical, and by no means 
implies that in these verbs it is peculiar to the Attics. On the 
contrary, the simple form of these Perfects was in all the dialects 
nearly obsolete, in some instances directly not Attic; see the 
anom. alpeco, ay a), § 114. 

2. This form prefers a short vowel in the third syllable ; and 
therefore exchanges the long vowels for the short stem-vowel 
which lies at the basis of the verb ; § 92. 4, 9. E. g. in aXelcpco, 
Perf. a\r}\i<f)a, ahJjki\xixai ; in clkovco, Perf. cucrjKoa. 

Note 1. Even from epeifio), which commonly makes iprjpeicrpai, Homer 
could form eprjpebarac by such a change ; see § 103. n. IV. 4. The temporal 
augment of the second syllable sometimes falls away in the epic poets on 
account of the metre, e. g. epepwrro, dpapvla, from epaVcD, APQ. 

Note 2. The verbs in which this form was more or less in common use, 
and which therefore are mostly inserted in the list of anomalous verbs 
(§ 114), are : aya'pco, d/covco, dXeicpa), dXeco, apda>, eyapco, eAey^a), eAtcnrco, epeco, 
epeiKco, o£co, opvrTco. Besides these there are also quite a number of Perfects 
of this kind, some of' them in current use, whose simple Present forms, 
from which they were regularly derived, are lost ; see the Anom. dpapi- 
(tko>, epxofiai, iadi(o ) eXawco, oKXvpi, op.vvp.i, (pepco, § 114.— Other peculiarities 
in this reduplication, and some single poetic forms, see in the Anom. alpeco, 
eyeipo>, e^co, rjfxvco, o'i%op.ai, opaco, opvvfii, etc. § 114. 

3. The Pluperfect sometimes prefixes to this reduplication a 
new temporal augment ; thus commonly in afcrjKoa r/tcrjicoeiv.* 
In most other instances this is omitted ; comp. $ 83. n. 7. 

Note 3. In some verbs which fall under this section (comp. § 83. n. 10), 
the Aor. 2 has in the poets a reduplication which corresponds to that of the 
Perfect; except that here the temporal augment has the first place, e. g. 

APQ Perf. apapa (Ion. apt] pa) Aor. rjpapov. 
So also rJKaxov, apopev, and some other forms (see marg. note). In the com- 
mon language the verb ayco has this Aorist, fjyayov ; see in § 114.f This 
reduplication remains in the other moods, which then cast off only the 
temporal augment; e. g. dpapy, aKax^lv, dyaycov. See § 82. n. 

"* So the epic forms rjK-fjXaTo, JipftpeicrTo, upcbpei; see § 114. 

t Grammarians have commonly explained the epic forms tfpapev, &pope, as Per- 
fects, by metathesis for &pr]pa, tipwpa. But this is contradicted not only by their 
undeniable aorist signification, but also by forms like 3 Plur. &papov for tfpapoi/, Part 
apapdov, and by the analogy of the similar Aorists ayayeTv, cucaxew, a7ra<J>e?j/, a\a\ 
Ktivy and iveytctTv ; see Anom. § 114. 



Il2 AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. § 86. 

Note 4. A very peculiar reduplication of the Aorist at the end of the 
word, occurs in the epic poets in 

epi/Kco, Aor. rj pvKaicov, epvuaxeeiv for -elv, 
and in the same manner in eViTrro, rjv inane; see in § 114. 



§ 86. Augment of Compound Verbs. 

1. In compound Yerbs the following rules hold good. When 
the Yerb is compounded with a Preposition, but so that this first 
happens in the verb itself (loose composition § 121), it takes the 
augment and reduplication between the two, i. e. after the prep- 
osition. "Wherever two vowels would thus come together, the 
vowel of the preposition is elided, except in nrepi and irpo. On 
the other hand, prepositions ending in a consonant, which may- 
have been changed before the Present for the sake of euphony, 
reappear in their original shape before the vowel of the augment. 
We may therefore always first construct the form from the sim- 
ple verb, and then prefix the preposition. E. g. 

iTpo(T(f)epo), 7rpo<T-e(f)€pov avWeyco, crvv-ekeyov 
a7ro$v(D, dir-ehvcra, diro-he&vKa, dir-ehe^VKeiv 
cryppdiTTCo, avv-eppaiTTOV' diraXkaTTco, dir-^Warrov 
i/LL(f)V(D, iv-6(pvv, ifi-TrecpVKa, iv-eirefyviceiv 
r jrepi(3dXk(D, r jr€pi-e(3aXh.ov 7rpo{3alv(D, irpo-kftawov. 
In the moods of the Aorist, after the ' augment is dropped, the 
preposition of course takes again the same form as in the Present : 
avWeyco, Aor. crvveke^a, Subj. o-vWe^co, Inf. avWi^ac 
dnrohvoii, — direhvaa, — diro^vaco, — diroSvcrcu 
eKkebrrco, — i^ekiirov, — eKkiTrco, — eicXnreZv. § 26. 6. 

2. If however the compound is formed from a word already 
compounded, usually a Substantive or Adjective (close composi- 
tion k 121), then, whether the first part of the compound is a 
preposition or not, and whether the last part is like a simple verb 
or not, the augment regularly stands first. E. g. 

ivavTioojiai (from evavrios) Impf. r}vavTiov[JL7)v 
dvTiftoXeo) (from dvTLJBoXrj) — rjvTt/36\ovv 
liekoiroieo) (from [JLeXoiroios) ifJLeXoiroiovv, fie/jLeXoTroirjica. 
So too dcfrpoveo) rjcppovovv, olfcoSofAea) (pfcoSo/Arjcra ; also such as have 
the first part a preposition : ifjarehoco, eirlaTafiai (see § 114), dv- 
tlSlk6co, irapprfacd^o/jLaL. See n. 3. 

3. Yerbs compounded with the adverb ev, and the inseparable 
particle Svcr-, (although belonging to no. 2,) often take the'teinpo- 
ral augment in the middle, e. g. 

evepyerico, evrjpyerovv Svo-apeareo), hva^pearovv. 
When however these particles are followed by an immutable vow- 
el or by a consonant, they take the augment at the beginning, e. g. 

Su<TCD7reco, e^vcrooirovv' evBofcifieco, r/vSo/cl/jLovv 

Sva-rvveo), ebvo'Tvyn^cra, BsBvo-rv^rj/ca. 



$ 87. VERBS. CONJUGATION. 1VS 

But compounds with ev, in such cases, more commonly omit the 
augment ; as evtypalvero, evco^ou/jirjv ; and also evepyerovv, § 84. 5. 

Note 1. The preposition npo often makes with the syllabic augment a 
crasis, e. g. TrpoeW/x^a 7rpov7rep.\lra, see § 120. n. 7. 

Note 2. Some compounds belonging under no. 1, the simple forms of 
which are found only in the dialects or poets, so that the former may al- 
most be regarded as simple verbs, take the augment before the preposition ; 
e. g. iicddevdov, indBi^ov, rjcpiovv (from d(pir]p.t). Still, this cannot be regarded 
as a general rule ; for in the best writers we find also K.a0r)d8ov ; and other 
verbs, as itjerdfa, dnavrdco, Trpoo-doicda, aTroXavco, whose simple forms are 
likewise not in use, nevertheless always take the augment in the middle. 
From aTrdXavco we find not only dneXavov, but sometimes also aTrrjXavov with 
double augment, § 83. n. 5. See too dp-irix^ under e^co § 114; also dficptev- 
inifxi and Kadrjfiai § 108. 

Note 3. Although, according to the above general principle, all close 
compounds should have the augment at the beginning ; yet (as in the case 
of those with ev and 6W-) in those especially whose first part is a preposi- 
tion, both custom and euphony very often occasion a deviation from the 
rule ; so that these words also commonly have the augment after the prep- 
osition, just as if they were first compounded in the verb itself. So in 
Homer, ciz/re/3oX?;a-e.* In Attic writers we find quite a number of such verbs 
every where so employed, of which some of the more frequent are : 

eiCKkrjcndfa, ey/cco/xta^co, e'y^eipeco, ey^etpt^ca, eV^etpcco, enidvp-eco, ivdvp.eop.ai, 
7rpo8vp.eop.a1, spro§i£co, ep-Cpavlfa, e7rt/3arer)a), e7TiTr]8eva>, Kar^yopeco, 7rpo- 
£eve(d, Trpo<pr]T€voL), crvvepyea>, v7ro7rrevoD. 
Hence : e^eicXrjo-iacrav, eveKa>p.ia£ov, avvrjpyovv, einTeTrjbevKa, Kar-qyopovv, etc. 
although they all are derived from eKicXrjcria, eynwpiov, Karrjyopos, etc. So 
€fX7ro\av to trade (from ep.7roXr} wares) has indeed commonly rjpjKokqo-a, -rjKa; 
but Lucian has ep.7Teir6XrjKa, and Isseus eveiroXrjo-av. Even 7vapavop.ea> (de- 
rived from napd-vop.o?, and hence Perf. usually 7rapavev6p.r)ica) forms Impf. 
napt]v6p.uvv, Aor. 7rapt]v6p.r]cra, as if from rrap-avop-ecd ; although this was cer- 
tainly not its origin • comp. n. 4. Also eyyvdeo to give in pledge has both 
forms : rjyyvrjora, rjyyvrjica, and eveyvrjcra,^ eyyeyvrjKa. 

Note 4. The following verbs commonly take the augment in both places 
at once : viz. dvop86a> r]v<x>pdovv } evoxXea ^fcoyA^cra, dve%op.ai r)veiy6p-r\v, 
•napoivelv ireuapa>vr)Ka. Still more anomalous is this in the verbs hia- 
tcovelv, diairav, — dedirjKovrjKa, KaredirjTrjoa, (or also with simple augm. 81$- 
T-qaa, &t,rjKovovp,r]v,) since these come from didicovo?, hiaira, where the a begins 
no new word. In these words common usage has been led astray as in 
Trapavojj.i'co, by the mere semblance of composition. I 

Note 5. Of compounds, whose first part is a noun, we find the anomalous 
reduplication in the middle only in InTroTpocpea), Perf. l7nroT€Tp6(pT]K.a in Ly- 
curgus ) probably because it could receive no audible augment at the be- 
ginning. 

Conjugation by Endings, etc. 
$ 87. Inflection by Number and Person. — Union Vowel. 

1. In the Greek verb, as in the substantive, there are three 
Numbers, both in the Active and Passive ; consequently each 

* But see Lexil. I. 63. 13. 

t The reading ei/eyyiW, iveyyvrjcrev, is now rejected by Bekker from the texts. 
On the other hand, forms wholly without augment (iyyvrjKc^s, iyyvfoaro) are cited; 
Jlusf. Sprachl. § 86. n. 5. 

H 



Sing. 
Dual. 
Plur. 



1 


2 


3 


fJLCU 

fjieOov 
fjueOa 


(era/,) 
aOov 
o~0e 


TCLL 

aOov 

VTCLb 


fltlV 

[JLeOov 
fjueOa 


M 

adov 
a6e 


TO 

o-Qt]V 

VT0 



114 VERBS. CONJUGATION. $ 87. 

tense has strictly nine personal endings. In the tenses of the 
Active, however, the 1 pers. Dual is wanting, that is, it does not 
differ from the Plural. 

2. In Grreek, as in Latin, there is a peculiar active inflection 
of the persons, which the tenses of the Active follow ; and also a 
peculiar passive inflection of the same, which is followed by the 
tenses of the Passive (and Middle). The Passive Aorists alone 
follow the active inflection. 

3. In both the Active and Passive, the inflection of the person- 
al endings of the primary tenses differs in an analogous manner 
from that of the historical tenses. All this appears from the fol- 
lowing table ; which applies to all tenses without exception. 

Active Form. Passive Form. 

Primary Tenses. 
1 2 3 

Sing. I — 9 — . 

Dual. wanting TOV TOV 

Plur. I fjbev re criv, en 

Historical Tenses. 

wanting TOV TTjV 

pev re v or crav 

4. Herewith is connected the theory of the Union Vowel, so 
called. By this is meant that letter by which the above endings 
are united with the stem. Thus in 7\vco, Pres. (stem \v) 1 pers. 
Plur. \v-o-fjLev, 2 pers. Plur. \v-e-re ; Aor. (stem i\va) 3 pers. Dual 
i\vo~-d-T7]v. Here o, e, a, are union vowels. 

5. The rule is, that all the tenses of the verb, excepting the 
Perfect and Pluperfect Passive, and the irregular flexion of 
Verbs in /ju, append the above endings to their stem by means 
of a union vowel. The manner in which this is done, and what 
union vowels each tense and each mood requires, may' best be 

'learned from the paradigms ; because of the variety and changes 
of these vowels even in a single tense. They are eight in all, viz. 
five simple vowels, a, e, rj, o, co, and four diphthongs, at, ei, ot, 77.* 

Note 1. Thus, for example, the ending -jxev of 1 Plur. Act. is con- 
nected with the stem of the Present, Future, etc. by o, as \v-o-fiev, XiV-o- 
fiez/; with that of the Aor. 1 and Perf. by d, as ekvo--a-ixev> \e\vK-a-fxev ; 
with that of the Plupf. by ei, as iXeXiiK-et-fxev ; with that of the Aor. 1 Pass. 
by rj, as iXvd-r)-nev ; with that of every Subjunct. by g>, as Xii-a-pei; ; with 
that of the Opt. Pres. etc. by 01, as \v-oi-/xev ; and with that of the Opt. Aor. 
by at, as \va-ai-yLev. — From these examples it is quite apparent, that the 
person is sufficiently known by the mere ending (ficv) ; but that in order to 
mark the tense and mood the union vowel does not of itself suffice ; inas- 
much as there are changes in the stem of the verb, which will be explained 
farther on. 

* The diphthong ov does not belong here; since Pres. 3 Plur. Kv-ov-ci is c ox 
\v-o-v<ti; see n. 3. 



§ 88. VERBS. CONJUGATION. 115 

Note 2. The endings of the 1 and 3 pers. Sing. Act. are not given in the 
above table ; because in most instances these have no consonant in the 
termination, but only in a certain sense the union vowel alone 3* which 
moreover is very different in the different tenses. Compare e. g. 1 Xti-co, 
3 \v-ei, with e\vo--a, ekvcr-e. Nevertheless in the greater part of the forms 
of the historical tenses, the first person has a fixed v> as eXv-o-v, eXeXvK-ei-v; 
and the third person, when its vowel is e, takes the movable v, as eXv-ev or 
e. In the less frequent conjugation in pi, both these persons have in the 
Present an ending wholly peculiar, viz. /it, at. § 106. 

Note 3. The 3 pers. Plur. ended originally in vtl (Lat. nt) ; hence the 
long vowel before the usual ending crt, according to § 25. 4. See too § 103. 
V. 4. 

Note 4. The endings am and 0-0 of the 2 pers. Passive are to be noted 
merely as being the original forms ; since in most of the tenses, except 
where there is no union vowel (see 5 above), the a and union vowel are 
dropped, and then the Attics contract ; as rtWreo-at, tvttttj. See the details 
in § 103. III. 

Note 5. In regard to the peculiarities by which the historical tenses are 
distinguished from the primary ones, we must take care not to overlook in 
the above table the following points especially :f 

a. One characteristic, which runs through the whole of the Active and 
Passive forms, is, that the 3 pers. Dual, which in the primary tenses is 
always of the same form as the 2 pers. (e. g. Pres. tvtvtctov, rvnTerov, 
Pass. TvnTeadov, TVTrrecrdov,) in the historical tenses always ends in rjv ; 
e. g. Impf. 2 irvTrrtTov, 3 irvirT^T-qv, Pass. 2 ervTrrecrdov, 3 irvTrrecrOriv. 

b. In the Active, the 3 pers. Plur. which in the primary tenses always 
ends in at with the movable v (ovaiv, aaiv, or ovai, acrt), terminates al- 
ways in the historical tenses in a fixed v ; as ov, av, eiaav, rja-av. 

c. In the Passive, on the contrary, the two classes of tenses differ through- 
out the whole Singular, and in all third persons Plural. 

Note 6. That the Dual, as being an ancient Plural, has sometimes in 
the poets, and particularly in verbs, a plural signification, has been already 
mentioned, § 33. n. 4; see also § 129. 6, and n. 7. 

Note 7. In respect to the Dual-endings ov and -qv there is also some un- 
certainty. Thus, several times in Homer the ending -ov stands as 3 Dual 
of an historical tense (e. g. II. k. 364 diooKerov ; v. 346 eVev^eroi/) ; while the 
ending -rjv appears as 2 Dual of an historical tense, not only in the poets 
(Soph. OT. 1511 elx^rr]v), but also in Plato; see Ausf. Sprachl. § 87. n. 2 
and comp. § 103. m. 27. 

§ 88. Conjugation by Moods and Participles. 

1. The Grreek language is richer than others in Moods and Par- 
ticiples. Except the Imperfect and Pluperfect, all the tenses 
can form moods. But of the Future the Subjunct. and Imperat. 
are wanting ; and in the Perfect the Subj. Opt. and Imperat. are 
seldom used ; k 137. n. 12. Hence in every Present, Perfect (1 
and 2), and Aorist (1 and 2), there are, besides the Indicative, 

* Although in such instances there is strictly nothing to unite, yet this vowel is 
essentially the same with the union vowel, and therefore falls away in such forma- 
tions as have no union vowel ; compare e. g. from -rftfyjut, 3 Sing. Impf. iridrj, where 
■q belongs to the stem. § 107. 

t All these differences are of use in the epio poets, where it is often the case, 
when the augment has been omitted (§§ 83, 84, notes), that they alone serve to 
point out the tense. 



116 VERBS. CONJUGATION. $ 88. 

also the Subjunctive, Optati *e, Imperative, Infinitive, and Par- 
ticiple. 

2. The Optative is so called as expressing in general a desire 
or wish ; but it is used nevertheless in very many other senses. 
The details are given in the Syntax ; and we only remark here, 
that its signification corresponds almost wholly to that of the Lat- 
in Imperfect and Pluperfect of the Subjunctive, a tense which 
is wanting in Greek ; or to that of the English Potential mood. 

3. The •'inflection of the Subjunctive and Optative by persons 
is included in the above table (§ 87) ; and the following is here 
the rule : 

In the Subjunctive of all tenses the flexion of the primary 
tenses every where forms the basis ; in the Optative, that 
of the historical tenses. 
Hence, in the preceding table (s s 87), the upper series contains 
likewise the personal endings of all Subjunctives ; and the lower 
one, those of all Optatives. Further, the Subjunctive and Opta- 
tive have also their peculiar union vowels ; by which they are 
distinguished from each other on the one hand, and from the In- 
dicative on the other. These are hence appropriately called mood 
vowels. 

4. The peculiar union or mood vowels of the Subjunctive are 
7] and w. The following is then the rule : 

The flexion of all Subjunctives follows throughout that of the 
Subjunctive Present. 
The Subjunctive of the Present is formed from the Indie. P^es. 
as follows : 

Where the Indicative has o, ov, w, the Subjunctive has ft). 

Where the Indicative has e, ei, y, the Subjunctive has y or y. 
Hence, in full, the endings of ail Subjunctives are : 

Act. ft) ys y) — yrov yrov ; wfxev yre w(tl(v) 

Pass, coficu y yrai ; cofieOov ycrQov yaOov ; oofieOa yaOe covtcli. 

5. The characteristic letter of the Optative is i, which forms 
a diphthong with the preceding vowel, whether union vowel or 
that of the stem ; and this diphthong then remains before all the 
personal endings. Thus in the regular verb we have the follow- 
ing: 

oi, in Opt. Pres. and in all Optatives which follow the same ; 
and these are by far the greater part. 

cu, in Opt. Aor. 1 Act. and Mid. 

ei, in Opt. Aor. 1 and 2 Pass. 
To these are added in the first person of the Active the endings 
uc and 7]v (e. g. tvtttoljal, TvfyOeiyv) ; and in the latter this y with 
the diphthong remains in all the other endings, as eiyv, elys, eiy, 
eiycrav, etc. In the Passive, the diphthong stands directly 
before the historical endings ; as rv7rrol-fMyv, rv^al/jieOa, ridel-TO, 
etc. 



§ 89. VERBS. CONJUGATION. 11? 

6. The Imperative has a second and third person in all the 
numbers. Its endings in all the tenses are as follows : 

2 3 2 3 2 3 

Act. S. . . , tg> D. toz;, rcov P. re, rcoaav or z^tow. 
Pass. S. (tf"o), 0"0g> D. a6ov, aOcov P. cr#e, aOwcrav or adcov. 

7. The Infinitive has the following endings : 

Act. e£z> or mt or at 
Pass. o-0a*. 

8. All Participles are declined as adjectives of three endings ; 
the feminine therefore always follows Dec. I. (§ 59. 2.) The 
masculine of the Active has in the Gren. vtos, whence in the 
Nom. comes 5 or v, and in the Fern. era, thus : 

cov or 01/9, oucra, oz^, G. ovtos d?, dcra, az>, Gr. avros 
et?, etcnx, 6^, Gr. ez^ro? 1)?, votz, vz>, Gr. vvtos- 

From these forms the Participle of the Perfect Active deviates 

entirely ; and has always 

&)?, via, 6?, Gr. otos. 

The mode of declining this Participle, see in $ 103, after tvtttw. 

— The Participles of the Passive all end in 

fJLeV0$, 7], OV. 

That of the Pass. Perf. has the same endings with different accent . 

fievos, 77, fjievov. 
Note. Among the modifications, "which many of the ahove endings receive 
in their application, we must particularly not overlook their contraction; 
not only in the proper contract verbs, but more especially in certain parts 
of the ordinary conjugation, where a contraction lies at the foundation : 
see $ 95. 7 sq. and 103. n. I. 3. 

§ 89. Conjugation by Active, Passive, and Middle. 

1, The idea of the Passive may be presupposed as known. 
The Middle is strictly only a modification of the passive idea ; 
and ought not therefore, as its form also shows (no. 3), to be sep- 
arated from the Passive as a distinct voice. Its primary signifi- 
cation is reflexive ; just as in Lat. versor can signify, not only 1 
am turned, but also I turn myself. That is, the state or condi- 
tion which I suffer, is produced or proceeds from myself and not 
from others. See more in h 135. 

2. If now we change the first persons of the Indicative in the 
six active tenses into the corresponding passive forms, we obtain 
a Passive, which indeed is by no means the one adopted in gram- 
mar, but which therefore we may name the original or natural 
Passive. 

Active Passive Active Passive 

Pres. o> — ofiac 

Impf. ov — ofirps 
Perf. a, tea fiac 

Plupf. eiv, fC€& jjarjv ( ov — o^v 



-J-, , \ aw — ao/jLat 
ovfiat 
<rd m v 



Fut. 

CO 

, era 

Aor 

" OP 



-\ 



lit) VERBS. CONJUGATION. $ 90 

3. Of this natural Passive the Present and Imperfect, Perfect 
and Pluperfect, include in themselves the Middle signification 
also, and should therefore strictly be called Passive-Middle. 
But in the Aorist and Future, the above naturally Passive-form 
is regularly only Middle ; while for the real Passive these two 
tenses have a special form, in which there is this peculiarity, 
viz. that the Aorist, notwithstanding its passive signification, as- 
sumes in its flexion of numbers and persons the Active form 
(^7]v and 7]v) ; while the Future, although made by lengthening 
this Aorist, returns again to the Passive-form ftrjcro/jLai and rjcro- 
fiac). Hence the tiv of old form of the Future and Aorist in all 
the three voices of the verb : 

Active Passive Middle 

*&ij(ro/jL(u ao/jbai 

iqaofiai ov/nac 

^f7)V adfjLrjv 

7]V 6/jL7)V 

Note 1. That the Aor. Pass, in &r)v or -qv often has also a Middle signifi- 
cation, i. e. the Pass. Deponents so called, see in § 113. 

Note 2. The ancient Greek grammarians had in their system a distinct 
Perfect and Pluperfect Middle. But these were nothing more than the Perf. 
2 and Plupf. 2, so called; see § 97. As some of these second Perfects take 
an intransitive signification, while the Present is transitive (§ 113. n. 3), 
they placed these forms in the Middle, in order thus to supply the tenses 
which seemed to he wanting. Modern grammar has abandoned this wrong 
method. 

$ 90. Conjugation by Tenses. 

1. A portion of the tenses of the Grreek verb appear in a two- 
fold form, distinguished in grammar by the numbers 1 and 2 ; 
but without any difference of signification. The twofold form 
of the Perfect is found only in the Active (§ 89. n. 2) ; that of 
the Future and Aorist in the Active, Passive, and Middle. 

2. Besides these, the Passive has still a Third Future (Fut. 
3), called also the Paulopost- future, which takes the reduplica- 
tion of the Perfect; see H 99, 138. 

3. We now distribute all these ordinary Greek tenses under 
the three forms, called, according to the division in the preceding 
section, the Active, Passive, and Middle Forms, or also Voices. 

Note. In the following table are given only the augments and the end- 
ings of the first person Sing. Indie, as they are appended to the stem of the 
verb, whether pure or impure. The longer stroke or dash stands for the 
proper stem of the tense ; the smaller one or hyphen at the beginning, fox 
the first letter repeated in the augment. The rough breathing over the 
termination, signifies that the preceding consonant is to be aspirated. 



♦ 91. 


VERBS. CHARACTERISTIC. 




li y 




Active. 


Passive. 


Middle. 


Pres. 


CO 




-o/iau 


Impf. 
Perf. 1. 


i — ov 
-e — aor Ka 


5 

6 — 

-e — 


-OfJLTjV 

-fiav 


Plupf. 1. 
Perf. 2. 


6-6 hvOT K6LV 

-e — a 


6-6 — 


-flTJV 


Plupf. 2. 
Fut. 1. 

Aor. 1. 
Fut. 2. 

Aor. 2. 


6-6 6LV 

(7 CO 

i — era 

CO 

6 OV 


— ^ao/xai 

i ^7]V 

— rjcrofiaL 

6 7)V 




— (jo fiat 
i — adfjbrjv 

— ovfiat 

6 6fl7]V 


Fut. 3. 


wanting 


-6 (TO fiat, 




wanting 



§ 91. Characteristic. 

1. That letter which immediately precedes the chief vowel ol 
the tense-ending, is called the Characteristic, the distinguishing 
letter, of that tense. Thus, according to the preceding table, a 
is the characteristic of the Fut. 1, and of the Aor. 1, Act. and 
Middle. 

2. Especially, that letter which stands at the end of the stem 
of the verb, after casting off all that belongs to flexion and end- 
ing, is called the Characteristic of the Verb. Thus, if the co of 
the Pres. be dropped, the last letter, (whether consonant, vowel, 
diphthong, or double letter,) is the characteristic ; e. g. in \ey-co 
the 7, in (povev-co the ev, in ap^co the %, in <ty-co the ty, in avg-co 
the g 

Note 1. It should here be noted, that in most cases where the co of the 
Pres. is, preceded by two consonant?, the characteristic of the verb cannot 
be found in this way. Thus in tvtttco, rdo-crco, refivco, the learner must not 
suppose r, rr, p, to be the characteristic. 

3. All that remains in the Present, after dropping the co, is the 
Stem of the Verb ; thus \iy from \eyco, rtfia from Tifidco, av% 
from av£co, ap% from ap^co. 

Note 2. That the stem in the Present is often impure, e. g. in verbs with 
two consonants before the ending, we shall immediately shew. — Further, 
the distinction pointed out between the etymological root of a word, and the 
stem or root of flexion (§ 39. n, 1), holds good also here in the verb; e. g. 
ri/xaco, root rifi, stem rtfta. 

4. From the different characteristics are derived the different 
names of verbs. E. g. 

a) Verba pura, pure Verbs, are those in which co of the Pres. 
is preceded by a vowel or diphthong, i. e. which have a vowel 
or diphthong for their characteristic ; as cpovevco. § 28. 1. — 
Among them, those which have a, e, o, as their characteris- 
tic, admit of contraction in the Pres. and Impf. Act. and Pass, 
and are called Verbs contract, Verba contracta, as TL/xdo). 
§ 105. 



120 VERBS. DOUBLE THEMES. $ 92. 

b) Verba liquida, liquid Verbs, or Verbs X/xvp, are those which 
have as their characteristic the letters X, \x, v, p ; as fieveo ; 
see § 101. 

c) Verba muta, mute Verbs, are all those which have any 
other consonant, or a double consonant, as their characteris- 
tic ; e. g. Xeyco, rdo-crco, av^cd. 

Note 3. For barytone Verbs, so called, see § 103. 2. — Another classifies 
tion of verbs see in $ 100 a. 



§ 92. Double Themes. 

1. In Greek, as in other languages, the Present is assumed as 
the principal tense, from which grammarians set out in order to 
form the other tenses. 

2. In many verbs, however, the stem of the Present differs 
more or less from that which appears in the other tenses. It 
must therefore be determined, which form of the stem is the 
primitive one. 

3. In a portion of these verbs, this difference consists solely in 
the interchange of the three short vowels, e, a, o. In such it is 
most natural to assume the vowel of the Present as the stem- 
vowel, and the changes in the other forms as alternation ($ 27. 
1) ; e. g. in rpecjxD, irpd^rjv, rerpocfra ; or in Engl, beget, begat, 
begotten; Grerm. sterben, starb, gestorben. 

4. In many other verbs, the stem of the Present is longer and 
fuller ; sometimes because of long vowels and diphthongs ; some- 
times because it has more or different consonants ; e. g. Xetirco 
eXtTTOV, rij/tco erd/crjv, fidXXco e{3aXov, tvtttw irvTnjv, rdacrco irdy^v. 
Sometimes the Present exhibits a still greater difference, and has 
even another syllable ; e. g. Pres. Xa/jb/3dvco, where the stem is 
Xa/jLj3av, while other tenses, as eXajSov, X^o/icu, contain only 
the stem Xa/3, Xrj/3. 

5. Since now it is more natural and easy to assume the sim- 
pler form of the stem as the primitive one ; and yet the uni- 
formity of grammatical procedure would be interrupted, if the 
Present in such verbs were formed from other tenses ; Gramma- 
rians have introduced the expedient of assuming, along with the 
usual Present, another old or obsolete form made by appending 
the ending a> to the simpler or primitive stem.*" Such assumed 
Present-forms are then usually printed in a different type and 
without accent ; e. g. for eXaftov, X^^o/iai : AABfl, AHBI2. 
See § 114. 2. 

6. Every form of the Present, whether usual or not, which is 
thus made the foundation upon which the other parts of a verb 



* Such unusual Present-forms have actually been preserved in some verbs by 
the poets ; e.g. /3Aa/3a> and flAd-iTTa, Xirofxai and Ai acrobat, Spixpw and SpuFTco. 6pi>x^ 
and bpxKTac*. 



$ 92. VERBS DOUBLE THEMES. 121 

are built, is called a Theme, ^e/aa, i. e. something- set or placed. A 
verb in which another Present must thus be assumed along with 
the usual one, is said to have a double or sometimes a threefold 
theme ; e. g. tvtttcd TTIIfL. The characteristic of the simplest 
theme is called the simple characteristic ', in distinction from 
other forms in which it is less easy to be recognized ; e. g. tvttt-w, 
ervir-ov, simple char. tt. The stem or root of the simplest theme 
is called the simple stem ; e. g. TTII from tvtttco. 

7. This plurality of forms in one and the same verb, is strictly 
an anomaly ; and hence the catalogue of anomalous verbs given 
below {k 114) consists mostly of verbs of this sort. Still, many 
such Present-forms, especially where the characteristic appears 
only as strengthened, or the primitive vowel only as lengthened, 
are reckoned as ordinary verbs. 

8. Among these last are especially those mute verbs, Verba 
muta {\ 91. 4), in which the simple characteristic is strengthen- 
ed in the Present. They may be divided into three classes : 

1) In verbs ending in tttco, the r is an addition for strength, 
and the simple characteristic is one of the labials or P-sounds, 
8, tt, 0-20); e.g. 

KpV7TT(0 TV7TT0) pCLTTTOd 

KPTBn Txnn PA$n. 

2) Most verbs in era or tt have as the simple characteristic- 
one of the palatals, 7, k, % ; e. g. 

irpdaaw typiaaco ftrjaaaf 

nPArn qpiksi BHxn. 

But some have also the Unguals ; see notes 2, 3, 4. 

3) Most verbs with f in the Present have & as the simple char- 
acteristic ; e.g. 

cjipdfr QPAAtl, Sfc OAI2. 
But several have 7 ; e.g. 
fcpdfr KPATft. 

9. To the above verbs may be added those, in which the 
strengthening in the Present consists almost wholly in the quan- 
tity, viz. 

1) Yerbs in which the simple characteristic is doubled in the 
Present ; which in the common language occurs only with 
X ; e.g. /3dWco ej3dXov, aTeWco aTeXa) iaToK/qv. 

2) Those in which the Present has a long vowel or diphthong 
instead of the short vowel of other tenses ; e. g. fyaivco cj^avco 
7ri(j)ayKa, ttjk(o ttj^w eTa/crjv, <pev<yco (pev^w €(j)uyov, Xeiirco 
\el^\rco eknrov.* 

10. All these verbs retain the fuller form and the strengthened 

* It is a current expression in Grammar, that e. g. the verb Aei7ra> in Aor. 2 
shortens et into i. But this is only for convenience : and is the same as if in nouns 
the Nom. were to be made the basis, although the primitive stem is often first 
known only from the other cases ; e. g\ /n-efr, Krev6s. 



122 VERBS. DOUBLE THEMES. $ 92. 

characteristic only in the Present and Imperfect of the Active 
and Passive ; while all the other tenses come from the simpler 
theme. It is therefore strictly ungrammatical, when, for the 
sake of brevity, we say, that e. g. in rvyjrco, Tvirek, etc. the r of 
the Pres. tvtttoo has been dropped ; or, that before the a in <ppdaco 
(Fut. of (frpdfo) not the simple characteristic 8, but £ has fallen 
away. See the last marginal note. 

11. Meantime, what letter in each case is the simple charac- 
teristic in the mute verbs mentioned above in no. 8, cannot be 
definitely specified, except in such as have the second form of 
tenses, i. e. those forms in which (according to ^ 93) the simple 
characteristic appears unchanged. As to other mute verbs, which 
have only the first form of tenses so called (§ 93), it is sufficient 
to know, whether the simple characteristic is a labial, lingual, or 
palatal, (a T, P, or K-sound,) as will be seen from the formation 
of the tenses, § 95 sq. 

Note 1. In Verbs in 7rrco, the characteristic is always a labial or P-sound; 
see 8 above. But only the following among these form tenses with a sim- 
ple characteristic : 

a. fiXdnToo, up-ultra, with simple char. /3. 

b. tvittco, KonTCD, KXeTTTco, with simple char. ir. 

c. j3d7TT<£>, pdnro, SanTo), crKcnrrco, ptVrco, S-pvTrrii), with simple char. (p. 

Note 2. Verbs in cra-co (rroo) have for their characteristic for the most 
part a palatal or lingual, e. g. 

A) Of those with a palatal or K-sound only the following form the second 
tenses with a simple characteristic : 

a. aXkacrcroy, pd<T(ra>y 7rpdaa(H, rao~o~co, (ppa<j(rco, cc^arrco, Trrjcraoo, 7rX^crcra), 
dpvcraco, with simple char. y. 

b. (fypLcraco, with simple char. k. See also anom. 7rrr]o-<T(a § 114. 

c. In /3j7o-<jco (no. 8. 2 above) x i s given as the simple characteristic; but 
only by conjecture, because /3^£ cough has Gen. ft-q^os.* 

B) Others follow the analogy of verbs in £co, and have a lingual or T- 
sound for their simple characteristic, viz. 

7r\daaa>, Trdcrcra), 7rrtV<xco, j3Aittg>, (3pdcnra>, lpdcrcra>, ip£a<ra>, Kopv(T(ra>, XiV- 
o-opai ; thus Fut. 7rAao-&), etc. 

Of all these the simple characteristic is strictly known only in XiVo-o- 
pai, viz. r; for in 7r\d<r(ra> and Kopvao-m we can only infer a # from 
forms like lirvoirkados baker, potter, Kopvs G. KopvOosf helmet, and the 
single KenopvOpevos in Homer. 

Note 3. Of verbs in £a>, the greater part and especially all derivatives, 
have for their characteristic a lingual; others, a palatal. 

A) Of those with a lingual or T-sound, only a few form tenses with the 
simple characteristic, viz. 

o£o>, (f>pd£a>, ^a^o/Acii, H°^ a h X*&> with simple char. 6\ 

* Such inferences nevertheless are not always certain; since the letter of the 
stem is often changed in such derivatives without apparent cause ; e. g. Aor. Pass. 
€Kpv(5r}v, Adv. npiKpa, Adj. Kpvcpios. From these and like examples, we see that the 
leading letter was by no means in all cases so fixed, as not sometimes to vary be- 
tween several kindred ones. Compare in English youngster, younger ; cleave, cleft; 
rive, rift ; speak, speech, etc. 

t See the preceding marginal note. 



§ 93. vTERBS. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 123 

R) Several following the analogy of verbs in craa, have a palatal or K 
sound, viz. 

a. All those which signify a cry, call, sound ; as icpd£a>, arrevaga, rpifa, 
ot/zd)£a>, aXaXa£co, etc. 

b. Some others, as ora^co, or/£a>, onjipt^a), cr(pv£a>, paarL^oa.^ 

c. In three the characteristic is a double palatal, yy, viz. 

7rAa£oo, KAd£a>, cra\7ri£a> ; thus Fut. 7rXay£co, etc. 
Of all these (a, b, c), in only a few does the simple characteristic 
actually appear, viz. 

Tpifa, Kpd£co, with y ; Kkd£co, with yy, 
e. g. rerplya, KeKpaya, nexXayya. In ora£a>, /xacrri£oe>, and others, the 
simple characteristic y suggests itself only from the derived forms of 
nouns, as <rraya>i/, pdo-rig, G. yoy, etc. See the last marginal note but 
one. 
Note 4. Some verbs in aam and £a> fluctuate between a lingual and 
palatal as their characteristic, having sometimes one and sometimes the 
other; see the following in Anom. verbs, § 114: 

apirdfa, /3ao-ra£co, pvcrTa^co, iraity, vdcrcrco, dcpvacrco. 
Note 5. Some verbs have in the Present both £ and rr, but follow in the 
other tenses only one of these two modes of formation ; so especially o-cpdr- 
rco or o-(pd£oi slaughter, F. acpd^co, etc. Also dpp6£(a or apporroa adapt, F 
dpjLtdcrco, etc. 

Note 6. It cannot be too often repeated, that all which we have hitherto 
said, regards not etymological verity, but only grammatical analogy. When, 
for instance, on the one hand, it would be difficult to explain such forma- 
tions as irpdaara neirpaya, ickdfa KAdy£co, without assuming a more ancient 
theme ; it would be absurd, on the other hand, to assume in respect to such 
derived verbs as aXXdo-o-co, yapiX 00 * that an actual ancient form in yco, So), 
had really existed; although in the former we find the Aor. 2 Pass. dXXa- 
yrjvai, and in the latter the Ion. 3 PI. Perf. Pass. /t^oopi'Sarai. It is mani 
test rather, that after an analogy had once become current in the language, 
in respect to certain verbs, it was again followed in the formation of cer- 
tain other verbs. But it is here impossible to draw the proper limits ; at 
least this would only serve to render the grammar more complex, without 
any corresponding advantage. 

Note 7. The Doric dialect, in verbs which commonly have a lingual for 
their characteristic, assumes in some tenses a palatal. This is more fully 
exhibited in § 95. n. 2. 



$ 93. Formation of the Tenses. 

1. All the tenses of the Greek verb fall naturally under three 
divisions in respect to their mutual relation to each other ; the 
Perf. and Plupf. Pass, being reckoned as first tenses. The fol 
lowing three series may be readily retained in memory. 
I. Present and Imperfect, Act. and Pass. 
TI. All first Tenses, with Fut. 3: 
Fut. and Aor. 1, Act. and Mid. 
Perf. and Pluperf. 1, Act. with Perf and Pluperf. Pass. 

and Fut. 3. 
Aor. and Fut. 1, Pass. 

* In many it was probably only the effort to avoid the recurrence of the «r (e. g. 
trriffdeis, RaaTaadels), that carried them over to the other formation. 



124 VERBS. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. $ 94. 

III. All second Tenses : 

Fut. and Aor. 2, Act. and Mid. 
Aor. and Fut. 2, Pass. 
Perf. and Pluperf. 2. 

2. The points in which the tenses in each of the above series 
are distinguished from one another, are mainly the following. 

Ser. I. These tenses never change the actual and usual stem 
of the Pres. Active, whether strengthened or not ; as tvtttw, erv- 
7TTov, etc. 

Ser. II. All these tenses are formed with the simple character- 
istic (§ 92. 10, 11) ; but for the most part changed according to 
the general rules, especially by the addition of a consonant in the 
ending ; e. g. Fut. tv^cd for tvtt-o-co, etc. 

Ser. III. These tenses always have the simple characteristic 
of the verb unchanged (§ 92. 11) ; and only change sometimes 
the vowel of the stem or Present ; as Aor. 2 ervirov, ecjivyov from 
(f>evya>, irpdirrjv from rpiirco. 

3. Every change which a verb undergoes, in either of the tenses 
which stand first in each of the above series, holds good also for 
the tenses which follow it; unless counteracted by particular 
rules and exceptions. 

k 94. Tenses derived from other Tenses. 

1. The formation of the tenses, and their respective differences, 
are usually exhibited for each tense in one of its persons only ; 
and for this purpose the first person of the Indicative is always 
adopted. Only the Perf and Plupf. Pass, require special rules 
for the other persons and moods ; see § 98. 

2. Several tenses are formed from other tenses in a simple and 
uniform manner. Thus, in the ordinary conjugation, in oo, are 
derived : 

1) From the Present in a>, the Imperfect in ov; e. g. tvttto), €tvtttov. 

2) From every tense in a a Passive form in opai, viz. from the Present, 
the Pres. Pass, as tvtvtco, Tvirro^ai ; and from the Future, the Fut. Mid. 
as rv^ro), rv^rofiai. So also from the Fut. 2 or circumflexed Fut. in a>, 
the Fut. 2 Mid. in ovpai, as appears from § 95. 7. 

3) From every tense in ov, a Passive form in ofirjv, viz. from the Imperf. 
the Imperf. Pass, as ervnrov, Itv^t6\ix]v ; and from the Aor. 2, the Aor. 
2 Mid. as ervirov, eTVTvofjirjv. 

4) From the Act. Aor. 1, the Aor. 1 Mid. by appending the syllable \vc)v, 
as trv^a^ lTV^ra\iy)v. 

5) From every Perfect the Pluperfect , viz. in the Active by changing a 
into eiv, as rerv(pa, erervcpetv ; and in the Passive by changing pai into 
firjv, as rervfifxai, (T^TV\i[ir]V. 

6) From each of the two forms of the Aor. Pass, the Fut. Pass, by 
changing t]v into rja-ofxai ; as inxpdrjv and irvwriv, rv(f)dr)(ronat., rvirrjcofxau 

AU the other tenses require special rules. 



$ 95. VERBS. FUTURE ACTRE. 125 

$ 95. Future Active. 

1. The primary form of the Greek Future is the ending aco 
(Mid. crofjicu). This form is actually found in much the greater 
number of verbs, and is therefore called Future 1. E.g. 

iravco Fut. iravaco, Fut. Mid. izavaop,ai. 

2. When the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, Ihe 
changes which are usual with a, take place here ; e. g. 

^Xlfico, Xelirco, <ypd(f>co — F. ^Xtyco, \ekjrco, <ypd^\rco 
Xiyco, Tfkmco, rev^co — F. Xegco, 7r\i^co, revtrco 

airevhoy, irelOco, TrepBco — F. aTrevaco, irelaco, irepaco. 
Note 1. When the characteristic of the verb is a lingual preceded by v, 
the vowel is lengthened before or of the Fut. according to § 25. 4. The 
case occurs but seldom ; most clearly in cnrev8<o F. aneiaa). See also the 
Anom. 7racr^;c0j )(av8dva>, § 114. 

3. In verbs with ttt, with aa or tt, and with f, the simple char- 
acteristic reappears (§ 92. 8) ; that is, the Fut. is formed as above, 
but from the simple theme ; e.g. 

tvtttco (TTIIfl) — Tirfym, pdirrco (PA&I2) — pd^co 
rdaaco (TAPfl) —rdjjco, cjypdfc (QPAAfL) — cbpdaco 
Kpd^co (KPATfL) — fepd^o), nfkdaaco (IIAAQfl) — ifXdaco. 
Hence, when the characteristic is 

a labial, or P-sound, the Fut. has ^rco 
a palatal, or K-sound, — %co 

a lingual, or T-sound, — aco 

a voivel or diphthong, — aco. 

4. When the characteristic of the verb is a vowel (Yerba para, 
k 91. 4), the syllable before the ending aco of the Fut. is regularly 
long, whatever its quantity may be in the Present ;* e. g. 

haicpvco (v) F. Safcpvaeo (v) 

tico (t)t F. rlaco (l). 

Hence, e and o are changed into 77 and co ; e.g. 

(piXico, BrjXoco, F. cpiXrjaco, hrjkooaco. 
For the exceptions, see notes 3, 4. 

5. The characteristic a is changed in the Future into 77, except 
when it is preceded by e, i, or p ; in which case the Future has 
long a',% e.g. 

TCfidco, dirardco — rcfxrjaco, aTrartfato 
/3odco, iyyvdeo — ftorjaco, iyyvrjaco 
idea, fieiDidto — idaco, fieiScdaco (long a) 
hpdeo, (fxopdeo — Spdaco, epeopdaco (long a). 
The exceptions see in notes 6, 7. 

6. On the other hand, the penult of the Futures in daco, iaco> 
vaco, is always short, when they come from verbs with £ or with 

* The probable cause of this see in note 15. 

t Tio> is here taken in its usual quantity, although Homer makes it also long. 
% Compare the similar rules under Dec. I, (§ 34. 2,) and for the Fem. of the 
Adj. § 60. 2. 



126 VERBS. FUTURE ACTIVE. § 95. 

ere, tt ; e. g. in (f>pdaco, ScKacrco, vo/Jbla-ay, nXvaco, from <f>pd£a), Sucdfo, 
vo/jll^co, fcXv^co ; and in TrXdcrco, ittlctw, from irXdcraco, tttlo-o-co.* 

Note 2. The Dorics assume £ instead of o- in the Fut. and Aor. 1, not 
only in most verbs in £, e. g. ko/lu£o>, StKa^co, from ,ko/zi£c°> 6W£co ; but also 
in such verbs as have a vowel before the co of the Present ; chiefly however 
where the vowel of the common Future is short; e. g. eyeka^z (see note 3). 
Along with this form they retain also the one in common use, and employ 
the two in verse alternately, according to the necessities of the metre. f 

Note 3. Several verbs which have a short vowel as their characteristic, 
retain it unchanged in the Future : so particularly 

yeXdco, yaAaa), -SXaco, /cXaco break, o"7raco, Fut. yeXdaoo, etc. 

dXeco, apnea, e'/ieto, KaXeoo, reXeco, £Vco, £eco, rpeco, aldeofiat, diceopLai, Fut 
aXecra), aldeaopai, etc. 

apdeo Fut. dpoVa) 

dvvco, apv(£>.,% p.e6v(£>, 7ttvco, Fut. di/ucrco, etc. 
also some poetical verbs, as Korea, veiKtco, epva, ravva>, p.va> ; and further 
several unfrequent and obsolete themes, from which the tenses of some 
anomalous verbs are derived, as Kopeo-co, Kpepdaa, eXdcrco, cXkuo-co, etc. — In 
the verbs in vm which belong here, however, the quantity of the Present 
requires still to be more accurately determined : although they are in gen- 
eral to be assumed as short in that tense. All verbs which have v long in 
the Fut. iaa>, are in the Present either long or undetermined ; see § 7. n. 10. 
Note 4. Some verbs fluctuate between the two formations, (i. e. a long 
or short vowel in the Fut.) partly in the Fut. itself, partly in the tenses 
derived from the Future ($ 93. 1). It is therefore proper to exhibit them 
here together : 

alveo) (comm. inaiveai) praise, F. alveaco (inaiv£crop.ai) , Aor. fivecra, Perf. 
Act. fjV€Ka, Perf. Pass, fjvrjpat, Aor. 1 P. rjveOrj/. Epic alvrjcrco, fjurjaa. 

irode<o desire, F. 7ro6ecropai § and -^crco, Aor. enodeo-a and -rjaa, Perf. 7tf- 
TroOrjKci) Pass, -tjpai, Aor. 1 P. enodeo-dijv 

Sea bind, F. drjo-co, Perf. cVSe/ca, Pass, -e/xai, Aor. 1 P. ihiOrjv 

atpeco take, F. aiprjo-oa, Perf. Pass, rfprjfiai, Aor. 1 P. ypeOrjv. 
See also the anomalous yapeco, noveco, o-repeoo, evpla-Kut, [xd%op,ai, vipco, and 
PEO under elnelv. — Besides these there are some dissyllables, 8va>, $va>, Xva, 
which shorten the v in the Perf. and Aor. 1 Pass, the two last also in the 
Perf. Act. although they all have long v in the Present, even among the 
Attics ; thus 

Perf. Pass. XeXvpai, Aor. 1 Pass. eXvdrjv, ibvQ-qv, ervOrjv, with short v. 

Perf. Act. XeXvica, reduica ; but dedvm. \\ 
Note 5. All verbs which retain in the Future the short vowel of the 

* That is to sa}', the vowel in all these verbs is already in itself short, and in the 
Future it does not become long. Were it long in itself, it mi<;lit just as well re- 
main long, as in xP'ofa XP'0 crat> - Whether such verbs as nv&acrw, Kevaaca, v'i(T(Tojxai 
or vei(T<ro/xai, really have a Future Kvdxrw, Xevaca, vlcrofxai, veicrofxai, as is commonly 
assumed, cannot with certainty be determined. See the Ausjuhrl. Sprachl. I. 
p. 375. 

t The instances are more rare, (1) where this form occurs with a long vowel. 
e. g. yuedty ; and (2) where it likewise passes over into other tenses ; e. g. ikvyl- 
X0i?f for -iaQt\v from XvyiQa in Theocritus. It is indeed evident, that this Doric 
form was merely a partial usage, which, on account of some seeming analogy, had 
been introduced by degrees from verbs where the palatal is radical, into other verbs. 
We have an entirely similar and undeniable case in the Dor. a in note 8. 

X The verbs auvw complete, and apvu draw water, have in the Present an Attic 
secondary form, avxiru, apvrw. 

$ For this Fut. see Heindorf ad Plat. Phaed. p. 98. a. 

|| Compare also some verbal nouns from dissyllables in ia> and vot>, as <pv<ris, rlais, 
arlros, d-in-Tjs; see § 119. m. 17, 23, 30. 



$ 95. VERBS. FUTURE ACTIVE. 127 

Present, can double the a- as a compensation in all poetry except Attic, both 
in the Future and Aorist; e. g. -reXe'crcrco, eKopnaae, diKac-aco, eyeXaorae, Kiikecr- 
adfievos, dvvacras.^ 

Note 6. The verb dicpodopai hear, has F. aKpoaaojiai (on account of the p). 
contrary to the analogy of j3oda>, dXoaco F. 770-0) ; comp. dBpoos, fem. ddpoa, 
§ 60 n. 1. On the other hand xP^y XP" /* 01 ' nas XPW 03 e * c - contrary to the 
analogy of dpdco, da-ay. 

Note 7. The Ionics, in such verbs as commonly form their tenses with 
long a, have rj instead of a; e. g. Serjaopai, Treprjaco. On the other hand, the 
Dorics, instead of 77 in verbs in da, have always long a ; as rijxda-a), efioaara. 
This follows indeed from the general principles in § 27. n. 5, 7. — The verb 
eaco has in all the dialects eda-a. 

Note 8. The Dorics, in many instances, likewise carried their long a 
into the flexion of verbs in eco ; e. g. <piAao-co, Sao-ar, eirovdOrj, from (piXeao, 

6Vco, TVOv£(£>. 

Note 9. The following six verbs, which all express a, flowing or a stream- 
like motion in a fluid, viz. 

TrXeco saiZ, 7n/e&> Wow, veio swim 
£eco rww, (pea) flow, ^eco i^wr) 

take eu in the Future, or at least in forms which come from the Future , 
e. g. rrXevaopai, enveva-a, x € vpa, etc. — The two following, viz. 

kcu'oo burn, kAcu'g) weep, 
whose original forms, mco, kAcico, with long a, became peculiar to the Attics, 
assume in the Fut. av ; as Kauo-co, e/cXavcra, etc. See Anom. Verbs, § 114. 

Note 10. That many verbs in 00 without another vowel preceding, also 
make the Fut. in 770-co, will be shewn in § 112. 6. 

7. Futures of three or more syllables, which have before the 
ending crco a short voivel, viz. a, e, l, are capable of taking a sec- 
ondary form, called the 

Attic Future, 
because used more particularly by the Attics. The difference of 
form consists in this, that the <r falls away in the Ionic manner 
(§ 28. n. 4), and then the ending is if possible contracted, and re- 
ceives the circumflex. This takes place in two ways. 

8. In Futures in daw and eaco, after the a is dropped, the vow- 
els da and eco are contracted according to the general rules ; so 
that there arises for this Future the same flexion, which we shall 
see below in the Present of contract verbs in da) and eo) (§ 105). 
It is to be noted, that the Ionics leave here the form ew, eei$, etc* 
uncontracted. E.g. 

(3i{3d%co F. /Stfldaa) ({3i/3dco, (3cj3de^, etc. not used), T ' Att. 

(Sifta), a?, a, D. — , drov, drov, PI. cofiev, are, Coat(y). 
reXeco F. reXeaco, Ion. again reXeco, reXeeis, etc. Fut. Att. reXcj, 
6?5, el, J). — , elrov, elrov, PI. ovfiev, elre, ovcn(y). 
With these forms coincides also the Fut. Middle, w^iat, a, etc. or 
ovfjuai, el, etc. Compare every where the Present of contract 
verbs in the Act. and Passive ; see k 105 and notes. 

* When verbs which never have a short vowel in the Future, are sometimes 
written (especially in the older editions) with a double cr to mark the length, it is 
an offence against correctness. Still, there are some verbs as to which the ques- 
tion has always been and is still agitated ; e. g. epuouat deliver, ^Tiffffaro, eto 



128 VERBS. FUTURE ACTIVE. § 95 

9. In Futures in law, where after dropping the a the vowels 
lco cannot be contracted, the w takes the circumflex by itself, and 
is then inflected as if contracted from ew ; e. g. 

KO/JLL^W F. KOjJblaw, Fut. Att. KWfllW, 16LS, C€L, D. , LeLTOV, Lei- 

rov, PI. iovfjiev, telre, covai(v), Mid. KOfiLov/juat, lei, celrai, 
D. iov/jueOov, celaOov, telaOov, PL LovfxeOa, celaOe, iovvtcll. 

Note 11. Examples of the Future in eco, in this uncontracted shape, are 
reXe'ei II. #. 415- Kopeeir, II. v. 831, for Kope'cmr, see Anom. Kopevwpi § 114. 
But Future-forms in to, ay, are as seldom resolved by the Ionics, as the cor- 
responding forms of the Present in contract verbs (Hdot. diicav, eXar, ikcov) : 
while in the epic writers they are only capable of being resolved, or rather 
prolonged into the double sound (Horn. icpepoco, iXda, nepaqv), like the Pres- 
ent of contract verbs; see § 28. n. 3. § 105. n. 10. 

Note 12. On the whole, the examples which belong here, both in the 
contracted and uncontracted form, are not very frequent. The least fre- 
quent are those in which the usual Present likewise ends in eco and aco ; as 
reXe'co, tcXco, Fut. reXeei Horn. reXei Plat. Protag. p. 311. b; KaXe'co, kcxXco, 
Fut. KaXelcrde Demosth. Leptin. 5, KaXovvra? Xen. Hell. 6. 3. 2, for KaXeaov- 
rar. See also the Anom. yeco, § 114. But most of the instances are such 
that no confusion can take place, viz. either the Fut. in o-co comes from a 
Present in a£co (e. g. dimv for diKaaeiv from SiKa^co, /3t/3a Plat. Phcedv. 7, for 
(3t/3ao-et, etc.) or the simple Present in eco and dco is not in use, e. g. dpcpicb 
dpcpielre, for dpcpuaco, etc. from AM$IEQ (see hwpi § 108. Ill); so also 
/cope'etr (see above), cnceSa for cnceSdVei, see Anom. crKebdvvupi^ iXavvco, Sa/xdco, 
etc. § 114. — Here belongs likewise the Future of some verbs in uco, which 
is like the Present; see the Anom. ipvco, ravvco, § 114. 

Note 13. Very rare and doubtful is the case, where a long vowel in the 
Future, e. g. the co in the Fut. cotrco, is shortened and so admits of this con- 
traction ; e. g. i p rj p, o v r e for ep^/xcocrere, olizeiovvTas for oi/cetcocrovrar Thuc. 
3. 58. ib. 6. 23. Here eprjpovre can be the Present put for the Future; and 
instead of oIk.€lovvtcis Bekker reads oIklovvtcls from oIk'l(co. See on these and 
some other doubtful similar cases, Ansf. Sprachl. § 95. n. 16 and the mar- 
ginal note. 

Note 14. In verbs in i£a> the form of the Fut. in ico is actually more in 
use than the regular one in tVco. It occurs also among the Ionics, and that 
without being resolved, e. g. dyKdielcrBai^ Secrmelv, voptovpev^ etc. in Herod- 
otus and Hippocrates. Once we find the uncontracted form Secrirueiv Hdot. 
8. 135. The form KopUai 7. 49, is to be explained by the elision of e and 
the drawing back of the accent. 

10. The Future which in grammar is called the 

Second Future, 
after shortening the syllable of the verbal root or stem, appends 
to the simple characteristic of the verb the Ionic ending eco, and 
contracts this in the common language into co. The flexion then 
proceeds in the Active and Middle according to the general rules of 
contraction ; e. g. fiaXXco, simple stem /3a\, Fut. 2 fiaXco ; see n. 16. 

11. This Future is found in the common language only in verbs 
with the characteristics X, fi, v, p ; in which verbs, on the other 
hand, the Fut. in aco never regularly occurs ; k 101. 2. — The case 
is different with the Future 2 Passive ; for since this is derived 
from the Aor. 2. Pass, (k 89. 3,) it is actually found in all verbs 
whore the latter occurs. 



J 9£>. VERBS. FUTURE ACTIVE. 129 

Note 15. In order to bring into one view all that has been said above, 
we may make the following supposition, as presenting the nearest analogy. 
We place as basis the ending crco, Fut. 1. This was appended to the stem 
partly with and partly without the union- vowel e. The shorter form re- 
mained the most common one. The form eVco could also be shortened into 
eco, co, the Fut. 2 ; and this form remained common, with a few exceptions 
(see the next note), only in verbs whose characteristic is X p v p. Fur- 
ther, when in pure verbs the vowel of the stem came immediately before 
the ending eVco, the two vowels, the stem- vowel and union- vowel, flowed 
together, and thus produced the long vowel of the Fut. as (pikrjo-ai, ricrco, 
Text 4, 5. But when the stem- vowel came before the ending o-co, as reXe'- 
o-o), vo/u'-crco, these forms sometimes remained unchanged; and sometimes 
the same tendency which produced the Fut. 2, produced here also the dif- 
ferent forms of the Attic Future.^ 

Note 16. In some few instances, the form of the Fut. 2 has been pre 
served in verbs not having the characteristics X p v p ;f just as in verbs 
with X p v p, there are some exceptions where the Fut. 1 in crco is found. 
These instances are the following, all of them in the Middle form : 

paxpvpai, along with which the fuller form pa^eo-opai has been pre 
served; see the Anom. pdxppai, § 114.$ 

ehovpai, Kadedovpai, see Anom. e£opai, § 114. 

Triovpai, a form censured by the ancient critics, instead of the still 
more anomalous niopai (see note 18) from IIIQ ; see the Anom. 7rivco, 
§ 114. 
So a few poetical examples : reKelaOai Horn. Hymn.Ven. 127, from TEKQ, 
Anom. rt/crco; and padevpai (Dor. for -ovpai) Theocr. 2. 60, from MH0Q, 
Anom. pavddvw. — On the epic forms /ceico, drjed, as belonging here, see mar- 
ginal note on 8r)a> under anom. AA-, Sauo, § 114. 

Note 17. The Dorics, in all circumflexed Futures, as generally in con- 
tractions, have ev instead of ov; and this contraction is common to them 
and the Ionics (§ 28. n. 5), when the latter contract ; e. g. /3dXXco, Fut. 
/3aXco, Plur. fiaXeopev, fiaXevpev, comp. § 105. n. 13. — The Dorics however 
circumflex also the common Future 1 in o-co, and then decline it as if con- 
tracted from eco; e. g. tv^co, rvyjsevpev (for -ovpev), ru^eTre, rvfyevpai yfor 
• ovpai), etc. This form, under the grammatical name of the 

Doric Future, 
is found more or less in use in some words in Attic and other writers ; but 
only in the form of the Fut. Middle (comp. § 113. 5), and with the Attic 

* The same occurs in the Bat. Plur. of Dec. Ill, which in the early epic lan- 
guage ended in ecn ; in the common, in <n. Hence also it arose, when in the Gen. 
of those words which have a diphthong in the Nominative there was a lino-ual next 
before the case-ending, and the same fell away in the Dat. Plur. after e before a- had 
been dropped, that the preceding vowel did not again (as in fiovs and the like) pas' 
over into the diphthong of the Nominative; e. g. ttovs, ^Secn, 7ro8cn', irocri. But 
/Soys, ySciecrt, contr. fiovai, and ypavs, ypdeai, ypavatv. 

t Precisely as in other verbs the Aorists exea, e?7ra, etc-, which correspond to the 
Aorists in A. p v p, as ecrreiAa, ecprjva. It is very probable, that as this form of 
the Aorist was actually more common in the Alexandrine dialect (see marg. note 
to § 96. n. 1), so likewise Futures of the above kind may have been common in 
certain dialects, without ever being adopted into the more cultivated ones. Hence 
the ancient method of placing a Fut. 2 tvttw in the paradigm. 

t We might indeed consider these two Futures as the regular and the Attic form 
from the Present pax^ofiai, which is actually used by the Ionics ; but it is more in 
accordance with analogy to assume, that this Ionic Present was first occasioned by 
the above Future forms, which are so seemingly derived from it. That the case 
Is the same with /caAe'co is shewn below in § 110. 11. 2; but since this is the only 
form of the Present in use, it is necessary in grammar to make the Fut. /caAe'cra> 
from it. 

I 



130 VERBS. AORISTS ACTIVE. § 96 

diphthong of contraction ov ; e. g. (pevyco, Fut. comm. cpevgov/iai. See also 
the anom. nalfa, x^t 05 ' kkaia-, rrXeoo, Sea, veco, 7rt7rrco, Trveco, § 114. 

Note 18. An entirely irregular form of the Future occurs in these two : 
7riofxai I will drink, edo/iat I will eat. The form is precisely that of the 
Pres. Pass, of the simple themes to which they belong. See the Anom 
irivoi and io~0i<o 9 § 114. 



§ 96. First and Second Aorist Active. 

1. The form of the Aorist in a is called the Aorist 1. In all 
cases where the Future regularly ends in aco, the Aor. 1 is form- 
ed in -era, Mid. -crdfirjv ; and the same changes of the cr take place 
here, as in the Fut. in <tcd ; e. g. 

TV7TTO) tii^co — erv^ra 
rdaao), rdgco — era^a 
ko/jlI^co, icojjligw — i/copicra, inf. KOfJblaai 
<j)(Xi(o, (j)i,\r)crco — efyiXrjcra, inf. (frCkrjcrai 
irvew, irvevcrco — eirvevaa, § 95. n. 9. 
For the Aor. 1 in -a, from verbs Xfiv p, see § 101. 

Note 1 . A few anomalous verbs form the Aor. 1 in a instead of aa, wrth- 
out being themselves verbs X/ii>p ; e. g. ^eco, e^ea. See also the Anom. Kaico, 
elnelv, aeixo, aAeo/iat, dareopai, and rjveyKa under (pepco.^ — For the Aor. 1 in 
Ka of some verbs in pi, e. g. edaxa, see under those verbs, § 106. 11. 

2. The form of the Aorist in v is called the Aorist 2. In the 
ordinary conjugation its full termination is ov, Mid. ojhtjv ; which 
is appended immediately to the characteristic of the verb, with 
the following conditions : 

1) The Aor. 2 is always formed from the simple theme, and re- 
tains the simple characteristic of the verb when the Present 
has a fuller form, § 92. 

2) It commonly shortens the penult syllable of the Present. 

3) It sometimes changes e in the stem-syllable into a. 

3. By means of these changes alone, is the Aor. 2 distinguish- 
ed in its form from the Imperfect ; and verbs in which none of 
these differences can have place (e.g. dpvco, ypdcfxD, etc.) or where 
the only difference would be in the quantity of the vowel (as in 
/cXivco), form no Aor. 2 Active or Middled 

4. This tense is never found in all those derivative verbs, which 
are formed from other verbs by means of particular endings, like 
u^co, ifyd, alvco, vvco, evco, oco, dco, eco. k 104. 

5. Of other verbs, the most have the Aor. 1 ; and a far smaller 
number have the Aor. 2. But this latter is often assumed in 



* The Alexandrine dialect (§ 1. n. 8), from several verbs which in the common 
language had only the Aor. 2 in ov, formed also such an Aorist in a; e. g. eld a 
for elSoi/; sXiirav 3 PI. for cKnrov; ^Aflare, etc. See the marg. note under n. V. 
— Here also belongs the remark, that in writers not Attic, some forms of the Aor. 
2 Mid. fluctuate between o and a; e. g. evpavro for evpovTo ; el\durjy, see a'lpea, 
tiotypavTo Hdot. etc. 

They can howeve readily form an Aor. 2 Passive, e. g. eypa<p7]v.- see § 100. 



$ 96. VERBS. AORISTS ACTIVE. 1-3 X 

grammar, in verbs which do not actually have the Aor. 2 Active, 
but yet form the Aor. 2 Passive in t)v (instead of ov) ; since it is 
easier to exhibit this formation once for all under the Aor. 2 Act. 
and then derive from it the Aor. 2 Passive.^ 

6. The following table exhibits the changes, which take place 
in order to form the Aor. 2, according to no. 2 above. 
Characteristic. 

Pres. XK Aor. 2 X — 0dXkxo efidkov 

( 7T TV7TTCO *eTV7T0V 

7TT < j3 KpVTTTW *6tCpv/3oV 

(f) — pdirrco ^eppa(f>ov 
rdorcra) ^eraryov 
\laaofjLai ikvrSfjfrjv, single instance. 



(Tdj 


T7 


Stem- Vowel. 
In Pres. ai Aor. 

— - v — 


— ei 

— ev 


_ 


— e 






\l 



( 8 — <j>pd£<o *ecf)pa$> 



fcpdfyo e/cparyov, single instance. 

a — irralpco eirrapov 
a — ■ XrjOco ekaOov 

I — Xeliroy eXiirov 

e or a in verbs Xpvp, h 101. 
v — cfrevyco e<f>vyov 
a — Tpeirco erpairov. 
For the forms marked with an asterisk (*), see the marg. note. 

Note 2. The Aor. 2 stands in the same relation to the simple theme, as 
io form, that the Imperfect does to the usual Present. It is distinguished, 
however, from the Imperfect, partly by the Aorist signification (for which 
see in the Syntax, § 137), and partly by the circumstance that it has moods 
and participles of its own, formed after the manner of those of the Present. 
Hence, in the Indicative, that only can be a real Aorist which differs as to 
form from the usual Imperfect ; and in the other moods, only that, which 
in like manner differs from the Present. Thus e. g. eypacfrov can be only 
Imperfect, and ypdcpys only Present Subjunctive, etc. 

Note 3. From this otherwise universal rule, a few Imperfects seem, at 
first view, to form an exception, and to be at the same time Aorists. But 
closer observation shews, that all these, at least so far as usage is concerned, 
are mere Aorists; so ecprjv (see § 109 (prjpl), and igrpidfiqv, rjpoprjv (from 
cpojjuu), for which see the Anom. Verbs. In the Homeric usage, there be- 
longs here especially kKvo hear, whose Present is in use, but from which 
the form eicKvov has always the Aorist signification. 

Note 4. In other verbs too Homer often uses, for the sake of the metre, 
the Imperfect as Aorist ; but it would be incorrect to reckon among such 
instances cSikov, ererpov, expaicrpov, and some others, whose Present never 
occurs, and which are therefore never used but as Aorists. f 

* Thus in regard to the Aorists used as examples in Text 6, the learner must 
bear in mind, that the forms %tvitov, eKpvfiov, %ffia<pov, zrayov, never occur at all, or 
at least only in single passages, which are for that very reason suspected of beino- 
corrupted ; but instead of them, srvtya, €ra£a, etc. They stand here only on ac- 
count of the Aor. 2 Passive, irvTrrju, iupvfiriv, etc. which are actually in use. § 100 

t The separation of the Aor. 2 from the Imperfect, may perhaps be historically 
illustrated somewhat in this manner. Originally the Greek language probably 
distinguished the signification of the Aorist from that of the Imperfect, just as lit-tle 



132 VERBS. AORISTS ACTIVE. 9 96. 

Note 5, To the same class must be referred the Aorist of several verbs 
in eco and da>. These endings, in some verbs, are merely a prolongation of 
the simple form (§ 112. 6, 7). Hence, just as in some of these verbs other 
tenses from this simple form have been preserved (comp. the Perf. 2, § 97. 
n. 4, and the Aor. 1 in the Anom. ya/zeco) ; so also in others the Aor. 2 is 
still found; e. g. Krvneco eKrvnov, yodco eyoov, from KTYIK2, TOO,. See 
also the Anom. tvitvg<s>, crruyeco, ropeoo, pr)Kaop.ai, p.vx.dop.ai, § 114; and gen- 
erally $ 112. 6, 7. 

Note 6. The shortening of the penult syllable (\r)6a> Tkadov, cpevya ecpv- 
yov) can also be properly regarded as a return to the ancient form of the 
verb. And even the change of e into a can be regarded in the same man- 
ner; since among the Ionics we find a in the Present of some of these 
words, as rpdnoo, rdp-va). Biit it is just as probable, that in one portion of 
such verbs, the original short root was lengthened and strengthened in the 
Present ; while in another portion the original long root was shortened in 
the Aorist and other forms.* 

Note 7. In some verbs nevertheless the Aor. 2 has the syllable before 
the ending long, and rests satisfied with the difference of the simpler form, 
or with the change of e into a; e. g. evpov, i'ft'Xa.o-Tov, errapbov ; see the 
Anom. evpio-Kco, /3Xao-raz/co, nepBco, etc. — In a few poetical forms, the long 
vowel by position is made short by transposition; e. g. depitco edpaicov, 
see also the Anom. 7rep0co, dapddvoa, Tepnai, dfiaprdvco. Or also a letter is 
dropped; see the Anom. p.dpTmo. 

Note. 8. For the Aor. 2 in nv, a>v, vv, and for the syncopated Aorists, see the 
Verbs in pi, and § 110. — For some anomalous verbs, whose Aor. 2 has a 
neuter sense, while their Aor. 1 has a transitive meaning, see § 113. n. 3. 

Note 9. We have seen above in note 1, that some verbs form their Aor. 
1 with the characteristic of the Aor. 2. In like manner, the reverse of 
this sometimes occurs, viz. the Aorist in ov is formed with o - ; of which a 
plain example is the common Aorist of 7Ti7rrco, formed from IIETQ, viz. 
€iT€(rov, TTCcrdv. To this may be added the epic l£ov, efirjaero, iftvaeTo, see 
Anom. 'ucveopLcu, /3cuW, 8vco ; and further some Imperatives, e. g. olo-e com- 
pared with the Fut. otVco, see the Anom. <fiepa ; and the epic a£ere from 



as the English does ; and both species of the historical Preterite, in a and v, (erinpa 
and Zrxnrov ox Ztvtttov,) were formed probably in like manner without difference of 
signification ; just as with us in some verbs there is a double form of the Imperfect. 
one in ed and the. other irregular; e. g. awake, Impf. awaked and awoke; dig, 
Impf. digged and dug ; hang, Impf. hanged and hung, etc. So, in the earlier Greek 
writers, the signification of the Aorist and Imperfect was not yet entirely separa- 
ted (§ 137. n. 4). When however the signification of the Aorist began perceptibly 
to distinguish itself from that of the Imperfect, the latter attached itself by degrees 
exclusively to the form in v, while the Aorist on the other hand did not attach itself 
exclusively to the form in o. When, namely, again a double form was developed 
from the preterite in ov, (e. g. e\eLirov, e\nrov; %\a$ov, i\djj.fiaj/ov,) it was natural 
that in like manner the aorist signification should attach itself to one of these two 
forms, -and that the shortest. Moods and Participles thence arose by degrees, and 
of a peculiar kind under the form in a; while under the form in v they followed the 
analogy of the Present, with a few deviations of accent. 

* It is an incontestable fact, that the greater part, if not all the analogies in a 
language, are produced by the operation of such reciprocal causes. It was natural, 
that in consequence of the more frequent use of the narrative form (the Preterite), 
the exhibiting or descriptive form (the Present) should be made conspicuous by an 
emphasis laid upon its chief or radical syllable ; but it was also natural, that for the 
sake of contrast with the Present, an emphasis or the accent should in like manner 
be laid upon the distinguishing syllables of the Preterite, and thus the radical syl- 
lable of the word be obscured in pronunciation ; not to mention, that in the anima- 
tion of narrative, words are naturally uttered with greater rapidity. 



§ 97. VERBS. PERFECT ACTIVE. 133 

ayco, Xf^eo, 6'pcreo, (see Anom. \eya>, opwfii,) compared with the Impera- 
tives firjareo, 8vaeo, from the Indicatives just mentioned.* 

§ 97. First and Second Perfect Active. 

1. The Perfect Active has, in both its forms (1 and 2), the 
same personal endings, viz. a, a?, ev or e, etc. but it distinguishes 
the two forms by means of the characteristic. The Perf. 1 has a 
characteristic of- its own ; the Perf. 2 has always the simple char- 
acteristic of the verb. 

2. The Perfect 1 has several variations in respect to its char- 
acteristic, viz. 

a) When the characteristic of the verb is /3, tt, <£, or 7, a:, ^, 
this characteristic becomes (or remains) aspirated in the 
Perfect, and then a is appended ; e. g. 

Tpiftco, X67T&), ypdcpco — TeTpLcpa, XeXecfra, yey packet 
Xiyco, TrXifcco, rev^co — XeXe^a, TreirXe-^a, rerev^a. 
If this characteristic of the verb has been changed in the 
Present ($ 92. 8), then the simple characteristic is aspi- 
rated : 

TVTTTCO, F. TV^CO, P. 1 TETVCfXl ] idcraCO, F. Ta^CO, P. 1 TETa^d 

Trat^co, F. 7raL^ov/iac, (P. 1 irkirai^a) ;f» 
or generally : When the Fut. has tyco, the Perf. 1 has </><x. 
_ _ f^ _ — X a - 

b) If the characteristic of the verb be a lingual or a voivel., 
then the Perf. 1 has tea ; and the same changes of the char- 
acteristic and of the vowel $ take place as in the Fut. before 
crco. Hence when the Fut. has the ending crco pure, it is 
only necessary to change it in the Perf. 1 into /ca ; e. g. 



irelOco 


(rreicrco) 


— TreireiKa 


KOfll^CO 
TLCO 


(fCOfjLicrco) 
(tlo-co, long i) 


— fc€/c6fj,ifca 

T6TLKCI 


cptXeco 
Ttfjidco 
epvOpcdcc 
CTTrdco 


((fitXtfcrco) 
(tl/jltJctco) 

(ipvOpcdcrcOj long a) 
(enrdcrco, short a) 


— TT6c\)iXr}Ka 

T€TLJJL7]Ka 

— rjpvOplaKa 

eCTTTCLKa 


TTV6.CO 


(nrvevcrco) 


— TreirvevKa. 


Verbs X/jlv p 


have also the Perf. 1 


in Ka ; see k 101. 


3. The Perfect 


2, or the Perfect Middle as it was formerly 



* It was formerly customary to regard all these as forms derived from the Fu- 
ture, contrary to the analogy of the language. The above is sufficient, to show, 
that just as the language could form both Aorists in ov and o without <r, as elvoy 
and €?7ra, eiSov and elBa (see note 1 with the marg. note) ; so also it could form 
them both with <r in gov and <ra, as eireGa (see Triirrw) and sireGov, i5v<rdy.7)v and 
iSv<r6fXT]u. The general usage became fixed in go, and ov; but remnants were also 
preserved of the formation in a and gov. See the JLusf. Sprachl. § 96. n. 10. 

t Verbs in fa, with the char, y, do not usually form the Perf. 1. But from nalfa 
we find Siaireiraix^s, Plut. Mor. p. 79. See more in note 6. 

J The few instances in which the Perf. retains or assumes a short vowel when 
Ihe Fut. has a long one, see in i 95. n. 4. 



134 VERBS. PERFECT ACTIVE. § 97. 

called (§ 89. n. 2), appends the same personal endings to the char, 
acteristic of the verb without any change ; e. g. 

\r)6(o \ekrj6a • arjirca akaiywa ■ (f>evyco irefavya. 

4. Here however three things are to be observed, viz. 

a) When the characteristic of the Present is not simple (§ 92. 
6), the simple characteristic reappears in the Perf. 2, pre- 
cisely as in the Aor. 2 ; e.g. 

irXrjcrcrco {TIAHTfL) — ireifKrjya 

(f)pL<T(TCD ($PIKf2) 7T€cf)pifCa 

o^co (OAQ) — oScoSa. 

b) In general this form prefers a long- vowel in the stem-sylla- 
ble, even when the other tenses derived from the simple 
theme have a short vowel. Hence the lengthened sound of 
the Present appears again in the above examples : 

favyco A. 2 %<j>vyov — irefevya 

\rj0co A. 2 ekadov — XekrjOa 

arjircQ A. 2 Pass. l(TanT7]V — crea-rjira. 
Further, the short a of the stem is changed to rj in this Per- 
fect, when the strengthening of the Present consists either 
in the diphthong cll, or in a position ; e. g. 

Batco A. 2 eSaov — SeSrja* 

^dWco Fut. *&a\cQ — TeOrjka. 
After p and after vowels, the Perf. 2 takes a and not r\ ; e. g 

Kpdt,co, e/cpayov — iceicpaya 

eaya, eaha, in Anom. ayvvfu, avMvco, § 114. 

c) This Perfect prefers especially the vowel o ; and therefore 
this vowel not only remains unprolonged, as in kotttcd KeKoira 
Horn, but is also assumed as the alternate vowel (Umlaut) 
toe; §27. 1. , E.g. 

(pepftco — 7re(j)opl3a' TEKI2 — reroKa, see Anom. tlktoj 
§114. 
This change of e into o has a twofold operation upon the 
diphthong ei in the Present, according as e or i is the radical 
sound ; and the same is likewise to be recognized in those 
tenses which shorten their vowel. Where e is the radical 
sound, (which however is the case only in the verbs \jjlv p,) 
the ei is changed into o ; when t is the radical sound, the ei 
passes over into oi ; e. g. 

(TTrelpco (F. (77T6pco) — eairopa 
\eiirco (A. 2 ektirov) — Xekonra. 
So too ireidco irkiroiQa ; comp. the anom. el/cco, o28a, § 114. 

5. Finally, by far the greater number of verbs, and especially 
all derivatives, have only the Perf. 1. The Perf. 2 therefore, like 

* The mode of writing Sedrja, and also ir4(priva, o-ecrripa, etc. is incorrect; as also 
in the corresponding case of the Aor. 1 from K fi v p. The Perf. 2 always has tho 
simple or shortened stem of the verb (here AA, <J>AN, etc.) as its basis, whose shon. 
vowel however it again lengthens; as & into i). 



§ 97. VERBS. PERFECT ACTIVE. 135 

the Aor. 2 ($ 96. 4), never occurs except from primitives. It is 
also to be noted, that the Perf. 2 generally prefers the intransi- 
tive signification ; see note 5. 

Note 1 . Some Perfects 1 have in like manner the alternate o. Such are 
7re/x7ro) send. 7reiTop.(pa ; icXe7rrco steal, nenXocpa ; rpeVco turn, rerpocpa ; further 
Tpe(poi nourish, rerpocpa,^ and arpecpa) turn, eo-rpocpa, which can also be regard- 
ed as Perf. 2 ; see also the Anom. Xeya>, o~wei\oxa, $ 114. Here too belongs 
the change of ei into oi in SeSotica from AEIQ ; see the Anom. Selcrcu, § 114. 

Note 2. To the change of e into o corresponds that of 77 into co in the 
Perfect of the Anom. pr}ywp.i (PHTQ) eppcoya. And kindred to both these 
changes, is the insertion of a> and o in some Perfects, which of themselves 
would be dissyllables ; where too the o is placed after the Attic reduplica- 
tion. E. g. edco — (elda) eimda' ayco — ^a, ayi^o^a. See also in the cata- 
logue of Anom. Verbs i 5 77 80 k a under c<rdito, evqvoxa under (pepco, avrjvo- 
6 a and ivr)vo6a\>y themselves • and the Passive forms a a pro under alpco, 
iiavrai in a marginal note to lr\\u, § 108. T. See genr. Lexil. I. 63. 

Note 3. It has already been remarked ('§ 85. 2), that after the Attic re- 
duplication the vowel is shortened; e. g. anoxia aicfjicoa, akeicpta aXrjXXcpa, 
EAEY9Q iXrjXvda. — For the sake of the metre, the epic poetry could also 
shorten the 77 of this Perfect into a in the Fem. of the participles ; e. g. 
a-eaapvla, rcdaXvla, dpapvla. 

Note 4. In the few examples of the Perf. 2 from verbs e'co and aco, as 
plyeo) epplya, p.vK.dop.ai (Aor. ep,vKov) p.ep.xiKa, the case is the same as with the 
Aor. 2 in $ 96. n. 5. They come from simple forms PirG, MYKQ, § 112. 6. 
See also the Anom. yr)6eu>, Sovneco, p.r)Kaop.ai, § 114. 

Note 5. That the examples of the Perf. 2, even including those which 
occur only in the poets, amount in all to a very limited number, is to be 
presumed from Text 5. Of those which belong to transitive verbs, we 
name here particularly : a<r]Koa, XeXonra, reroica, exrova, 7renov8a, olba, ecnvo 
pa, earopya, onoina, 8e8op<a ; and from intransitives, iceicpaya, XeXdna, rerplya, 
TreCppiKa, epplya, eoina, e'iwOa, eada, oda>8a, i\r)\vda, aearjpa, redrfXa, Tedrjira, 
pep.rjva, Ke^iyi/a, yeyova, Kexoda, 7T67rop8a, p.ep.v<a. There are some others, 
which, though strictly intransitive, yet become transitive in certain con- 
nections, as XeXrj6a, necpevya, SeSta. To these are still to be added those 
noted in § 113. n. 3, 4; see for all. § 114. 

Note 6. In respect to the use of the two Perfects, it may be noted, that. 
in those verbs which form a Perf. 2, this is the only usual Perfect ; or, 
where both Perfects exist, the two forms differ also in their signification , 
pee $ 113. n. 3. Only 8e8ia and 8e8oiKa are used without such a difference. 
Further, the Perf. 1 was most frequently formed in verbs where it would 
end in <a ; consequently in all derived verbs and in a part of the primi- 
tives • see above, no. 2. b. The early epic language exhibits in general no 
aspirated Perfects • but only the form in *a with a vowel before it j as 
8e8vna, /3e/3X77Ktt ; and hence from koVtg>, which later formed only neicocpa, 
Homer has Part. Perf. KeKonvs; II. v. 60. But in prose also the forms in 
(pa and x a (as XeXe^a, XeXecpa, ireTrXexa) are either rare, or not at all in use. 
Hence we see clearly, that the Greek language sought to avoid all such 
Perfects as would have a harsh or unusual sound ; and supplied their place 
by the Aorist or by a periphrasis with the Perf. Passive; see § 134. 4. — 
For the Perfect of the Subjunctive, Optative, and Imperative, see § 137. n. 
12, 13. 



* The form rerpocpa from rp4(p<a is rare; it occurs Od. \p. 237 as intransitive; 
Soph. (Ed. Col. 186 as transitive. As Perf. from irpiira it stands in the earlier 
writers without variation of form, e. g. Soph. Trach. 1009. In writers somewhat 
later is found the peculiar form Teroacpa. 



136 VERBS. PERFECT AND PLUPF. PASSIVE. § 98. 

Note 7. [n the Ionic dialect the k of the Perf. 1 in na from verts pure. 
sometimes falls away; and thus the Perf. 1 passes over into the form of the 
Perf. 2. Here belong the Homeric participles 

K€Kacf)rja>s; Tenr]a>s, rerXr/coy, etc. for -r)Ku>?. 
See anom. KA<£-, TIE-, rXrjvaL, § 114. The same takes place in epic writers 
(with a shortening of the vowel) in the 3 pers. Plur. and in the participle 
of some verbs ; as 

fieficiacri, ftefiaus, for j3ej3rjKa.cn, fitfinicoo?, from BAQ (Anom. /3cuVg>) 

necfivacn, nerval?, for necpvKacn, 7re(pvKa>s, from (fivoo. 
From some old Perfects, only these forms occur, and none at all in na ; a& 
ue/xdacn, jue/zacor ; deftdacn, SVSaeoy ) see Anom. MAO, AA12. Hence a 1 pers. 
Sing, is assumed for the above forms of the 3 pers. Plur. although it is no- 
where found, and may not have been in actual use ; as necpva, /xefxaa, de- 
baa, Pepcid', and so also earaa (for earrjKa or ecrraKa, see tarvfj-i), yeyaa, re- 
Bvaa, rerkaa, see Anom. yiyvofiai, SvrjaKcd, rkrfvai) and from these come cer- 
tain syncopated forms, as /3e'/3a/zez/, reQvdvai, for /3e/3aa/zei/, redvaevai, which 
are treated of along with other syncopated forms of the Perfect in § 110. 10. 



§'98. Perfect and Pluperfect Passive. 

1. The Perfect Passive takes the endings fiai, aai, rat, etc. 
and likewise the Pluperfect the endings firjv, ao, to, etc. not by 
means of a union vowel (o/mu, erai, etc. $ 87. 5), as is the case in 
the other Passive forms ; but they are appended directly to the 
characteristic or (simple) stem of the verb. 

2. If the characteristic of the verb be a labial, a palatal, or a 
lingual, (a P, K, or T-sound,) it is changed before the letters ft, 
a, t, according to the general rules, §§ 20-24. Thus are formed 
from TU7TTCO (TTIIfl), rptftco, irXeKw, rev^co (TTXS2), irelOw, dSco, 
<f>pdfr(<PPAAn): f 

Terv-fifxai, Terv-^at, Teru-7rrac, for -irpbai, -iraai, -irrai 
Plpf. ir€TpL-/JL/jL7]v, ererp l-^o, irerpL-Trro, for -ftfir/v, -/3ao, -/3ro 
ireifke-<yiJLai, 7re7r\e-^ai, irenfKe-Krai, for -Kfiai, -icaai, -Krai 
Plpf. €T€TV-y/jLr)v, irerv-^o, irerv-Kro, for -yj^^v, -X ao i "X T0 
7r67r€t-cr/jLaL, Treirei-aai* ireirei-ai-ai, for -^/xat, -^aac, -^rat, 
y-afxai, V-vcm, fj-arat, for -Sfiai, -haac, -hrat 

Plpf. eirecppd-a/Jb^v, eirecppa-ao, iirecppa-aro for -Bfirjv, -Sao, -8ro. 
In order to avoid the concurrence of three consonants (s N 19. 2), in 
the further flexion of this Perfect and of the Pluperfect, the a. of 
the endings a6ov, aOrjv, a6e, aOac, adco, etc. is dropped, e. g. 
2 pers. Du. and PL rerv-cpdov, rerv-cpde, for -iraOov, -nave. 
Inf. ireifke-^Oai, rerd-yOac, for -Kauai, -yaOav. 
Imper. 2 pers. ireirei-aOw, 7re(ppd-a6co, for -^a6a, -oaOco, see n. 1. 
Instead of the 3 pers. Plur. in vrac and vro, a periphrase with the 
verb elvai to be is commonly used ; e. g. TeTvpybkvoi (-at) ela'iv, 
and in 1he Plupf. rervpLpbevoi (-at) rjaav. 

Note 1. For the sake of uniformity, we assume in respect to Unguals, 



* The Homeric -Ketvvffaai is only a metrical doubling of the a instead of -TreVya-at, 
Plat. Prolag. p. 310 b. 



§ 98. VERBS. PERFECT AND PLUPF. PASSIVE. 137 

that, e. g. in the 2 pers. Dual nzTcm-a-Bov, not the radical J "before <r3ov has 
been dropped; but first the a- in ScrOov has fallen away, and then by rul6 
Bdov becomes o$ov, § 24. 2. 

Note 2. For the Ionics the periphrase of the 3 pers. Plur. is not neces- 
sary ; since instead of -vrai -vto, they can put -arat -aro ; in which the 
Attics sometimes follow them in these tenses. For the details, see § 103. 
m. 22. § 105. n. 9. 

3. If the characteristic of the verb be a voivel, the endings of 
the Perf. Pass, fiai^ aai, rat, etc. are appended directly to the 
voivel of the Future. The 3 pers. Plur. is then also regularly 
formed in -vrat, -vto ; since there is no longer a concurrence of 
three consonants ; e.g. 

7roL€co, F. 7roir)(Ta), — ireiroirj-iiai^ aaiy rat, — ireTrol^vrai. 

veco, F. vevcrw, — vivev-ficu, <rai, rat, — vevevvrai. 
The few instances, where the quantity of the vowel in the Perf. 
does not accord with that in the Future, have already been noted, 
§ 95. n. 4. 

Note 3. The alternate o for e does not pass over into the Perf. Pass. e. g. 
KAe7rra) (KenXcxfia) k e k\ e p p a i, avWeyai (o-weiXoya) <rvve i\ey fiat. See 
the exception in epic poets under Anom. io-dta, \ 114. The three verbs 
rpeVco turn, rpe(fi<x> nourish, o-rpe'(pco turn, have in the Perf. Pass, a peculiar 
alternate vowel a ; thus rerpappai, rerpayj/ai, etc. rkQpappai (from rpecpco, 
$p£y\ra)), earpappat. § 27. 1. 

Note 4. Some verbs change the diphthong ev, which they have in the 
Present or assume in the Future, into v in the Perf. Pass. e. g. reu^co (re- 
revxa) rervypai. So also (pevyoo, (revoo, 7T€v8opai ; comp. neirvvpaL in Anom. 
7rve(t>, § 114. In xco (x^vcrco) this takes place even in the Perf. Act. kc^kce, 
Kexypai. 

Note 5. The lingual usually changed into a before p. in the Perf. Pass, 
is in the epic poets found unchanged in some few forms ; as KGicadp.ai, nk- 
<fipa.8p.ai, from KAAQ (see Anom. Kaivvpai), (fipdfo- also K€Kopvdpai from 
KOPYGJi^ Kopvo-o-a. 

Note 6. The cr is however assumed by many verbs which have no lin- 
gual, but a vowel as their characteristic; e. g. 

a.Kova> fj Kova pai, KeXeuco Ke KeXeva pai. 
So also TTpia>, X/° tc0 ' TraXcuco, nrald), Tvaia, pcu'oo, cetco, Xeuco, S^pavcc, i/muco, 
vco, /3uco, £va. Then too all those noted in § 95 n. 3, which do not lengthen 
the short vowel of the Future (except dpo'co § 114) ; e. g. reXeco (reXecrco) 
rerfXeo-juat ; anaa eanraa-pai. Some are variable ; e. g. of those just cited, 
KeXeuco, xP ia> i &P a v<& ; also koXovoo, Kpovai, \|/-dco, etc. See the complete list of 
verbs, which either assume this euphonic cr in the Perf. and Aor. 1 Pass, 
as also in the verbal Adjective ; or admit of both formations with and with- 
out o-; § 112. 20. 

Note 7. When yy would come to stand before p, one y falls away; the 
other endings remain regular ; e. g. 

eXcyx 00 (eX^Xeyya) — e\rj\ey pai, i\rp\ey£ai, y/crai. 
o-(fiiyy<s> — eo-<fiiyp.ai,f y£ai, y/crai, iacplypedov, etc. 

* That this 3- is a radical letter, is confirmed by the substantive /cJpvs, Gen. 
-vQos ; otherwise it might be regarded as inserted in the ancient manner, instead 
of cr, as K\av6p6s, 6pxyQp6s, § 119- n. 3. 

t There can be no doubt, that this single y then retains the nasal sound ng ; 
comp. § 4. 4. 



138 VERBS. THIRD FUTURE. $ 99 

Note 8. So when the Perf. Pass, must have [Xfi, and there comes in ad- 
dition another \i from the root, one of them of course falls away ; e. g. 
KajU7rra>, — KeKafifiai, hut KeKaptyai, KeKafinrai, etc. 
7re/z7rco, — 7re7refi/xat, /m/rat, /i7rrat, 7re7re/ifie#a, etc. 

4. The Subjunctive and Optative are in general not made at 
all ; partly on account of the difficulty of their formation, and 
partly because they are so little needed. Instead of them the peri- 
phrase with ehcu is employed ; e. g. rerv jjl pivot (r), ov) <w and elr^v. 

Note 9. That is to say, these moods are formed only when there is a 
vowel before the ending, which readily passes over into the endings of the 
Subjunctive, and likewise unites itself with the characteristic t of the Op- 
tative : e.g. Krdofiai, KeKTrjfJicu 

Subj. K€KTH>/xac, 77, rjrai, etc. 

Opt. K€KTT}IJ.r)V, KeKTflO, K€KTT)TO, etc. 

All the examples of such a formation, however, which are now extant, 
consist of a few single forms of Perfects of three syllables, all belonging to 
anomalous verbs. Thus Plato has Subj. eKTerfXTjaBov from refivco rkT\xt]- 
fiai; Andocides has Subj. dia[3e(3\r)cr8e from /3aXAco /3e/3A?7 /zcu. See also 
K€K\rj[j.aL and fjLefjLvrjfjLai under the Anom. KaXeco and fjufivrjaKU), § 114. — So 
when the stem-vowel is 1 or v, the Optative may be formed by absorbing 
the characteristic 1, by which means the radical vowel becomes long ; but 
the Homeric XeXvro Od. o\ 238 from Xva> XeXv/xai (§ 95. n. 4), is probably 
the only example extant.^ — For the Opt. forms Ace/maro, /xe/xvea)To, see 
Anom. KTao/iai, fxijxvr]aK(£) y § 114. 

§ 99. Third Future. 

The Future 3 or Paulopost-future of the Passive, is derived 
from the Perfect Pass, both as to its form and signification; 
§ 138. It retains the augment of the Perfect, and substitutes 
the ending g-o/ulcu instead of the ending of the Perfect. From the 
2 pers. of the Perf. in om, (yjrcu, %ai,) therefore, it is only neces- 
sary to change au into ojjlcll, in order to form the Fut. 3 ; e. g. 
reTUfi/nac {reru^rat) — reTvyfrofiat 
TerpafMfiao (rerpayjrao) — Terpd^ofjuat 
Tiray/jLCU (rera^at) — rerd^o/iac 
nreireicriiai (7T€7retcrat) — TreireicroiMU 
7re<f)i\T)/jLcu (7refyiX7)o~aL) — TrecJMXrjcroficu. 
Note 1. In those verbs where the vowel of the Fut. 1 is shortened in tne 
Perfect, the Fut. 3 assumes again the long vowel ; e. g. Betyaroiicu, XeXvo-o- 
fj.ai, rerev^o/xai ) see § 95. n. 4.f 

Note 2. The Fut. 3 is never found in the verbs Xpvp; and very rarely 
in verbs which have the temporal augment ; e.g. rjTip.axropai, jjprjcropat. 
from drifioco, alpeoo. — For the periphrase of this tense, see § 138. 4. 

* I remark further, that while some have preferred to write /ceKT7}TO£, AeAuTo, etc. 
with the circumflex, (see esp. Gottling p. 65 sq.) I have adopted that accentuation 
which is found in a portion of the manuscripts, and which alone is supported by 
analogy. Thus K^Krafiai and kekttito must have the same relation to KeKTrificu, and 
also AcAuto to AeAt/juat, that TinrTcofAcu and tvtttoito have to rvirrofiau See § 107. 
m. 33, and the Ausfuhrl. Sprachl. 

t It must not be inferred from this, that the Fut. 3 is formed from the Fut. 1 
Mid. with the i*eduplication : for whether the Terpa^ofAcu above given really oc- 
curs, is more than I know; but the forms which are actually found, fie^K-qaouai, 
K€K\r}tToixaiy (see Anom. j8aAA«, KciAew,) hold us to the Perfect. 



$ 100. VERBS. AORISTS PASSIVE. 139 



t 100. First and Second Aorist Passive. 

1. Ail verbs form the Aorist of the Passive either in ^tjv, or 
simply in rjv ; many have both forms at once. The former is 
called Aorist 1, and the latter Aorist 2. § 89. 3. 

2. The Aor. 1 Passive appends ^yv to the characteristic of the 
verb. If the characteristic be a labial or palatal, (a P or ^T- 
sound,) it is of course changed (§ 20) into the aspirate </> or % ; e. g. 

XetVct), ayu,et/3o), <7Tec/>&), — iXetydrjv, ^fieifpUTjv, iarecpOrjv 

tvtttg) (TTnn)—iTV(pe V v 

tcl<T(T(0 (TAttl) — ird^driv. 

If the characteristic be a lingual (or T-sound), it is changed to 

cr, according to § 24. 2 ; e. g. 

7rel0o), Perf. Pass. TreTreio-fiai^ — eirelorOrjv 
ko/jll%cq, Perf. Pass. KeKOfiia/iai, — eKOjxla-drjv. 

If the characteristic be a vowel, the ending ^tjv (like y^at in Perf 

Pass.) is appended directly to the vowel of the Future ; e. g. 
Troikas (ttoiiJctco ireirolrnxai) — eironfjOrjv 
Ti/Jiaw (rifirjcra) Terifi^fiai) — eTifx^Oiqv 
<f)(0pd(D ((jxopdo-a) rre^copafiai) — i(f)(opd67]v. 
Note 1. The few verbs in eco and vco, in which the vowel of the Aor. does 

not accord with the Future, see in § 95. n. 4. 

3. In other respects the Aor. 1 Pass, conforms mainly to the 
Perf. Passive. Thus, in the same circumstances, it assumes a ; 

e.g. 

aelco {aecreio'iJbai) — eo~ela6r)v 
rekico {reTeKeajJiai) — irekiaOrjv. 
In most instances, also, it changes the vowel of the preceding syl- 
lable in the same manner as the Perf. Passive ; e. g. 
rev^co (rirvyfiai) — irv^Orjv. § 98. n. 4. 

Note 2. A few verbs which have a vowel for the characteristic, assume 
cr in the Aorist 1 Passive, although they do not have it in the Perfect 
Passive; e. g. 7rauco, ireTravpai, Aor. 1 l-nav6r\v and iTrava-Orjv) also pvdopai, fxk- 
fxvTjfiai, Aor. 1 ifivfjadrjv ; see generally the complete list of verbs with the eu- 
phonic o- in the Pass. § 112. 20. — That on the other hand ia-coQ-qv from 
crd>£co does not take the cr, arises from a double form; see crco^w in § 114. 

Note 3. Those which without being verbs X \i v p, change in the Perf. 
Pass, their e into a (§ 98. n. 3)., retain here their e ; e. g. orpec/)co (ecrrpap- 
pai) — iarpe(p6r]v • rpena), irpi(p6rjv • rpecpco edpecpdrjv. — But the Ionics and 
Dorics have eTpd(p6r]v, €arpd(p6r]v. 

4. The Aorist 2 Passive appends t\y to the simple characteris- 
tic of the verb ; and follows in this respect all the rules given 
above under the Aor. 2 Active. Hence it is only necessary tc 
form this latter tense, whether in actual use or not, and then 
change ov into 7}v ; e. g. 

TU7TTOJ, ervirov — Itvit7]v ' rpeircOj erpcuTrov - — erpdin]V, 
Note 4. In the Passive, it is impossible to confound the Aor ° wi* the 



140 VERBS. AORISTS PASSIVE. $ 100. 

Imperfect, which is so easily done in the Active ; and therefore such verbs 
as cannot for this reason form an Aor. 2 Active (§ 96. 3), have nevertheless 
the Aor. 2 Passive. In such instances, this tense can be formed directly 
from the Imperfect Active, just as elsewhere from the Aor. 2 Active ; ex- 
cept that according to the rule, the long vowel becomes short in the Aor. 2. 
E. g. 

ypdcpio (Impf. eypacpov) — iypdcprjv 
rp//3co (Impf. erplfiov) — irpi^rjv (short i). 
Note 5. For the same reason, most of those verbs, which (without being 
verbs \p,vp) have e as the stem- vowel, do not in the Aor. 2 assume the 
alternate a, viz. /3Xe7rco, Xe7rco, Xeyco, $Xeyco, ^eya>, and commonly 7rXeKco : 
hence efSXerrqv, eheyrjv. Part. truXXeyei'y, eVAe/c^i/ (also eVXd/c^i/), all of which 
verbs form no Aor. 2 Active ; and consequently their Aor. 2 Pass, must be 
formed after the Imperfect. Only Kkenrco and rpe7rco have always a ; the 
latter because it is the only verb which forms at the same time both the 
Aor. 2 Act. and Pass, (and Mid.) and therefore takes in the Act the alter- 
nate a to distinguish it from the Imperfect. The same analogy _s followed 
by AcXeVrco and in part by 7rXeKco. Comp. § 101. 8. n. 

5. So far as it regards usage, it may be taken as a rule, that 
with the exception of rpeirw just mentioned, (note 5 ; comp. also 
ayyeWco in marg. note to $ 101. 8, and re/ivco in § 114,) all verbs 
which actually have in use an Aor. 2 Active, with or without an 
alternate vowel, can in the Passive form only the Aor. 1. 

Note 6. On the other hand, from many verbs which have no Aor. 2 Act. 
there exists an Aor. 2 Pass, as a weaker or smoother form, along with the 
x'Yor. 1. E.g. €Kpvj3T]v, ervTrrjVj e/3Xa/37;i/, eppicprjv, irpdcprjv, iKkairqV) which in 
prose are perhaps more common than €Kpv(pdt]v : edpecpdrjv, etc. But these 
latter fuller and antique sounding forms are preferred by the poets, espe- 
cially the tragic poets. 

Note 7. The only example in which the long vowel of the stem is re- 
tained, is iiiKr]yqv ) see Tik^aaca § 114. 

Note 8. The verb -v/z^co commonly assumes y in the Aor. 2 Pass, as 
tyvy-qVj *>\rvyr)vai. See § 114. 

Note 9. The characteristics S, £, r, are not found in the Aor. 2 Passive. 
There are also no examples of a vowel before the ending, except eKar^v 
from kou'co, and these three, which have an Active signification, viz. eddrjv, 
eppvrjv, ecpvrjv', see the Anom. AA-, peco, <fiv<o, § 114. All other verbs in 
co pure and contracted, and all verbs in Sco, #co, £co, have only the first Aor. 
Passive. 

Note 10. Finally, there is an obvious coincidence, both in form and 
flexion, between the two Aorists Passive, and the Active forms of Verbs in 
pi. Compare the Aorists Pass, in the paradigm of tvttt<£> with the Imper- 
fect and subordinate moods of the Present of r'i6r\p.i. 

§ 100 a. Table of Changes in the Characteristic. 

i. For the purpose of easier survey in respect to the formation 
of the tenses, the whole number of regular verbs may be divided 
intone classes ; four of which have already been clearly brought 
into view in the preceding paragraphs, from k 95 onward. The 
classes are as follows : 

1) Verbs with a labial or P-sound as their characteristic: 
e. g. \el(3o), TV7TTCO. 



$ 100 a. VERBS. CHANGES IN THE CHARACTERISTIC. 



141 



2) Yerbs with a palatal or K-sound as their characteristic ; 
e. g. Xeyco, rdacrco. 

3) Verbs with a lingual or T-sound as their characteristic; 
e< g. aSco, koiil^o). 

4) Yerbs with a vowel as their characteristic ; e. g. Tifido) s 
(fiiXeco. 

5) Yerbs ~K/jLv p, or liquid verbs, ver&& liquida. 

2. In the many changes, which take place in the characteris- 
tic in order to form the tenses (§§ 95-100), it is hardly possible, 
but that the learner should sometimes fall into mistake. The 
following table therefore is introduced for the purpose of easier 
inspection and to aid the memory. The learner will here per- 
ceive the regularity and close analogy of the changes in the four 
main characteristics, so far as it respects the second series of 
tenses in $ 93. 1. The Perf. and Plupf. Pass, as presenting the 
most difficulties, are inflected throughout. 



Labia] as Char. 
,3, 77, </>, and 7rr 



Fut. 1. 
Aor. 1. 
Perf. 1. 
Plupf. 1 

Perf. 



Palatal as Char. I Lingual as Char. 
y, k, x, also (jo-, £ | S, r, £, also £, acr 

Active. 



Vowel as 
Characteristic. 



"ijra 

(j)6LV 

fjbjiai 
yjfa.1 



yeiv 



Passive. 



y/iao 



era 
Ka 

K6LV 

<Tiiai 



ivrai 

<p0ov 
(pBov 

&0e 



Krai 
yfieOov 

xdov 

yfieda 

X 6e 



Plupf. 



fJLfirjv 



yfirjv 



Fut. 3. 
Aor. 1. 
Fut. 1. 

Fut. 1. 
Aor. 1. 



77TO 

Hfxedov 

(fidov 

(f)dr)v 



tyoflCU 

(J)6t)V 

^Orjaofxai, 

"tyoyuai 
^IrdfiTjv 



KTO 

yfiedov 
y6ov 

X0rjv 

yfieda 



%0/juat, 

^07]crofiat, 

Middle. 
%o{iac 

£afjL7]V 



crai 

arai 

a-fieBov 

crOov 

o~6ov 

(T fie 6 a 

o-Oe 



<Tfl7]V 

(TO 
<TTO 

cr/iedov 
o~6ov 
orOrjv 
afieda 



ao/nac 

crOrjv 

aOrjcroixai 



cro/iac 
ad{JL7]v 



aw 
era 
Ka 
/ceiv 



fiat 
<rat 
rat 
fieOov 
(jBov 
crdov 
fie6a 
<r6e 
vrai 

fxrjv 

(TO 
TO 

fiedov 

crOov 

adrjv 

fieda 

a6e 

VTO 
(TOfJbaL 

^crofiat 



aofzai, 
adfj,r]V. 



142 VERBS IN X fl V p. § 101. 

§ 101. Verbs in X/mvp. 

1. Verbs whose characteristic is one of the letters X, /jl, v, p, de- 
viate so often from other verbs in the formation of their tenses, 
that it is here necessary to bring the whole together into one view. 

2. These verbs do not commonly form the Future in aco, or 
Fut. 1 ; but always take the Future 2 in ay, Ion. eco ; § 95. 7, 8, 
11. Thus 

vefiw, Fut. Ion. vepuew, coram, vefico 
fievco, Fut. Ion. fxevew, comm. fjuevco. 
The further flexion is, ve/mcx) et? et* ovjuev ecre ovatv Mid. odfiat 
el eiTcu, etc. See the Paradigm of aryyeXXco. This whole form 
of flexion is also to be compared with that of contract verbs in 
eco, $ 105. 

3. The syllable before the ending, if long in the Present, is in 
this Future made short, e. g. 

Kplvw, a/jLvvco — F. fcplvco, afwvca 
^rdXXco, (rreXXw — F. ^rdXo), crreXco. 
The diphthong ai is changed to short a, and ei into e ; e.g. 
cralpcD, KTelvcQ — F. arapo), KTevco, Ion. Krevico.^ 

4. These verbs form the Aorist 1 in like manner without cr, 
and simply in a. They retain in this tense the characteristic as 
it is found in the Future ; but make the syllable before the end- 
ing again long. This is done however independently of the Pres- 
ent ; either by simply lengthening the vowel of the Future, e. g. 

tlXXo) (tiXco) — eriXcc Kpivco i^KpivSi) — eicpiva 
a/nvvco (afJLVVO)) — rjfivva, 
or by changing e of the Fut. into et, and a commonly into 7) ; e. g. 
jjuevay, <tt£XX(d, relvco, 

(fievto, o-reXco, revco) — efietva, ea-reiXa, ereiva 
-tyaXXw, (palva), 

(i|ra\co, (f>avco) — e-yfrrjXa, e(j>r]va. 
Several verbs, however, which have at in the Present, take long 
a in the Aor. 1, when i or p precedes ; e. g. 

irepalvco, irepavSi — eirepdva Inf. irepavoa 
iriaivco, iriavS) — eirldva Inf. iriavat. 
Exceptions are rerprjuat and fj.irjvai } from TirpaiW, puaivio. 

Note 1 . We may also account for this shortening and lengthening of the 
vowel in the Future and Aorist in this manner, viz. that the Future, as 
belonging to the series of second tenses (§ 93. 1), must he first formed from 
the simple stem. As now this latter is found in the Present long, either 
by doubling the X or by lengthening the vowel, the original short vowel 
everywhere re- appears in the Future. Hence the two Futures re/xw and 
Kap.ovp.cu, from Anom. repveo and Kapva (Present forms with strengthened 

* The Ionic forms, e. g. ayyeWa) F. ayyek4a>) Kplvloo, Kreueco, (paveca from (paivoc, 
trXvvecti from 7rAww, etc. Plur. eo/xeu etc. are of course explained from § U- r >. 8. 10. 
For the Doric-Ionic forms with the contraction eo into ev, e. g. (3a\ev/j(i>, PaXevua^ 
see $ 95. n. 17. 



$ 101. VERBS IN XfJbV p. 143 

characteristic for TEMJ2, KAMA, like tvtttu> TYIIQ), appear as formed regu- 
larly from the simple themes. On the other hand, in the Aorist 1, as being 
one of the first tenses, the long vowel again appears. But as these tenses 
are also formed from the simple characteristic (§ 93. 2), though for the 
most part after some change ; so the Aori'st 1 does not return to the strength- 
ened form of the Present, but prefers such a mode of lengthening as gives 
more prominence to the simple stem; e. g. rlXcu, ^rrjXai. 

Note 2. Most verbs in atVco and alpm are found among the Attics regu- 
larly with rj • e.g. crTjpaivco o-rjprjvai ) x a ^ e7r W al 7 Xvp-r/vaadai, etc. e^^atpco 
f^drjpaiy KaBrjpai, etc. — Exceptions nevertheless are KoiXdvai, XevKavcu, TveTra- 
vai, Kcpdavai, 6pydvai y laxvavai. Later writers, or the kolvo'l (§ 1. 9), form 
also many others with long a, as arjpdvai, ex^apai, and again according to 
rule paavai. The Dorics of course always do the same ; while the Ionics 
almost everywhere have their rj. — The verbs aipo> take up and aXXopai leap, 
w;th initial a, have a in the Aor. 1 ; which in the Indicative only, because 
of the augment, passes over into 77 ; thus rjpa, apca, apas, etc. rjXdpw, &Xa- 
crdaiy etc.* 

Note 3. The early language and the iEolics formed the Future 1 and 
Aorist 1 from these verbs with cr ; Horn. eKep<ra, Theocr. i'repaa, from Keipco, 
reipco. This remained the sole form in some verbs even in the common 
language, as KeXXco land, e/ceXo-a ; cpvpco knead, (pvpaai. See also the Anom. 
dpapicrKQO, Sepopai, Kvpeco, opvvpi, § 114. 

5. The Aorist 2 retains the vowel as it is in the Future, e. g. 

fidXkco (/3aXw) — e{3a\ov 
(palva) (<jka/&) — A. 2 Pass. icf>dvr)v 
k\lvcq [Kklvoi) — A. 2 Pass. ifcXlvrjv (short t) ; 
excepting that e in the Fut. of dissyllabic verbs, passes over into 
a ; see in 8 below. 

Note 4. The Aor. 2 Act. is in use only in the smaller number of these 
verbs ; and where both Aorists are found, the Aor. 2 is chiefly poetical ; 
thus eKTavov-, fjyyeXov, is less frequent than eKreiva, rjyyiXa. See for fjyyeXov 
the next marg. note. — In the Passive, on the contrary, the Aor. 2 is far 
more common in verbs of two syllables than the Aor. 1 • which last, when it 
retains the consonant before the # (see 9 below), is commonly peculiar to 
the poets, as is so often the case in the mute verbs (§ 100. n. 6) ; e. g. (palvoa 
£(pdw]v, otcXXg) idTakrjv, o-(pdXX(i) eacpdXijv, Treipoa irrdprjv. — Still ai'pco and all 
verbs of more than two syllables, have only the Aor. 1 Passive; except dy- 
yeXco, from which come rjyyfX-qv and rjyyeXOrjv. 

6. The Perfect 2 of these verbs is already included in the rules 
above given, $ 97. 3, 4. E. g. 

^dWco — reOrjXa ■ (palvco — irec^rjva. 
These verbs have the peculiarity, that the diphthong ei of the 
Present passes over in the Perf. 2, not into ol, but into o ; be- 
cause, as appears from the Future, this diphthong ei arises not 
from a radical vowel 1, but from e ; \ 97. 4. c. E. g. 

kt€lv(o (fcrevco) eKTova* cpOeipco ((pOeptb) ecpOopa. 

7. The Perfect 1 Active, the Perf. Pass, and the Aorist 1 

* It is here necessary to caution the learner against two errors. First, nothing 
is more common, than to find ypa, apcu, 4/j.iyva, etc. written with t subscript ; which 
is incorrect on the same grounds as above in the Perf. 2 (§ 97. 4. marg. note). 
Secondly, we often find in otherwise good editions the accentuation ireirdvcu, cr\p.6.- 
vcu, etc. the incorrectness of which is sufficiently apparent from the above, and 
from § 11. 



144 VERBS IN X a v p. k 101 . 

Passive, follow in lute manner the general rules, and annex the 
endings tea, puai, ^7]v, etc. to the characteristic, retaining the 
changes of the Future ; e. g. 

<rcf)aXX(D [cr<paXco) — eacpaXfca, eacpaXpai, 

(palvoy (<f>ava)) — irefyayica, ifyavOrjv, (Perf. Pass, see n. 7, 8.) 
atpco (apco) — rjptca, rjppuaL, Part, i)ppbevos 

Aor. 1 P. r}p6r)v, Part. apOefc. 
Here too the Perf. Pass, drops the cr of the endings crOcu, a9e, 
etc. as in k 98. 2 ; e. g. 

eacjyaXp.ac, 2 Plur. eacpaXOe 
(pvpco, iricjivppLai, Inf. irecfivpOaL. 
It is to be noted, that verbs in puco (yepuco) and strengthened fivco 
(ripveo, fut. repiS), n. 1) cannot form these tenses at all in the 
manner specified ; see n. 9. 

8. When the Fut. has e, verbs of two syllables assume the al- 
ternate a in most of the tenses derived from the stem of the Fu- 
ture ; except in the Aor. 1 Act. and Mid. the Perf. 2, and Plupf. 
2 ; that is to say, in the Aor. 2, Perf. 1, the Perf. Pass, and Aor. 
1 Pass, and the tenses derived from these ; e. g. from areXXw, F. 

Aor. 2 Act. (earaXov) — iardXijv, (TTaXij(7op,aL (iaraXopbiqv) 

Perf. 1 ecrraXfca — icrrdXKecv 

Perf. Pass. earaXpai — io-rdXp.rjv 

Aor. 1 Pass. iardX07]v — aTaXOrjaopuai. 
So too from iretpco, F. 7repco, 

Perf. 1 ireirapKa, Perf. Pass, irkirapp.ai, Aor. 2 Pass. iirdp7)v. 

fcrelvcD, F. Krevco, — Aor. 2 etcravov, comp. 9 below.' 
On the other hand, verbs of more than two syllables retain their 
* in all these tenses ; e. g. from dr/yeXXo), F. dyyeXco, 

Aor. 2 Act. rjyyeXav,* Pass, rjyyeXrjv, Perf. 1 rjyyeXica, Perf. Pass. 
rjyyeXpat, Aor. 1 Pass. rjyyeXdrjv. 

Note 5. Those verbs only of two syllables which begin with e, retain it, 
as above; e. g. eekfiai, eep/xai, from Anom. etkco, eipco, § 114. — For the use 
of the Aor. 1 and 2 Pass, see n. 4. 

9. The following verbs in tveo, eivco, vvco, viz. 

Kplvw, fcXlvco, relvco, ktclvco, ttXvvw, 
drop the v in the Perf. 1, Perf. Pass, and Aor. 1 Passive, and as- 
sume the short vowel of the Future ; but in such a way, that 
those in eivco change the e into a, as in the preceding rule ; e. g. 
Kpivco (fcpivcb) — fce/cpifca, KeicplpLaL, eKpl6r)v 
reivca (revco) — rerd/ca, rerdpLai, irdOrjvf 
7tXvvcd (ttXvvco) — ireTrXvKa, nrk'rrXvp.ai, hrXvQrpv. 

* The existence of this tense (ijyytAov) has been doubted by many critics, in 
spite of its frequent occurrence in manuscripts ; because it needed only the casual 
omission of an i or A. in copying to produce this form instead of the Aor. 1 or Im 
perfect. See Ausf. Sprachl. § 114 in ayyixXw. If this tense was actually in use, 
then ayyeXXca is a second instance corresponding to rpeirca in § 100. n. 5. 

t Compare also the Anom. *£NH irecpafiai. It is not necessary to have recourse 
to obsolete themes, as TAXI, KTAX\ <£AX1. 



} 102. VERBALS IN T60S AND TO?. 145 

So too Inf. Perf. Pass. fce/cplo-Oai, TerdaOau ; but 3 Plur. again as 
asual, /eiicTuvTat,, KeKpLvrai Xen. 

Note 6. In the Aor. 1 Pass, the v is often retained in poetry, in order to 
ibrm a position; e. g. KravOels, biciKpivOeis, eickivOr}, iivkvvOr) ) sec n. 4. The 
same occurs in the prose of later writers. 

Note 7. Verbs which retain the v occasion some difficulty in the Perfect 
Passive. They retain it however unchanged as follows : 

a) In the 2 pers. Sing, where it remains even before ar: e. g. cpaivoo — 
7re<pav<rcu. 

b) Before the endings which begin with ad; where however (Text 7) 
the ar is dropped before the j/j e. g. Inf. necpavdaL' rpa^uj/co, Inf. rerpa- 
■yyvQai. 

c) In the 3 pers. Sing. e. g. Trecpavrcu he- has appeared, nap^vvrai he has 
become angry. 

Whether the 3 pers. Plur. was also formed in this latter manner is doubt- 
ful ; e. g. KtKpavTai Eurip. Hipp. 1255 from Kpaivco, where consequently an v 
nust have fallen away. The periphrase is more certain ; as \e\vpaarphoi 
Icrlv Demosth. 
Note 8. Before the endings beginning with p. in the same tense, there is 
threefold usage in respect' to the v; which, however, in certain verbs 
-oes not seem to have been entirely fixed : 

a) The v is regularly changed into p : e. g. r\o-yyppai from atcrxww, II. o- 
180. But we find further perhaps only grjpaivco [i^pappai Athen. 3 
p. 80. d) and o£wco. 

b) Most commonly o- is assumed instead of v } e. g. (paiva necpaapai, po 
\vv(o pepoXvcrpai. So too with most other verbs in atVco and vvm : but 
this <x never passes over into the Aor. 1 Pass. 

c) Less frequently the v is dropped and the vowel made long ; e.g. re- 
Tpa^vpevos Aristot. H. A. 4. 9. So too some other verbs in wco; see 
Ausf. Sprachl. 

These last two modes may likewise be explained from the circumstance, 
that the endings aivas and vvco are originally lengthened forms from dm 
and vd).^ 

Note 9. Generally speaking, in verbs in vu> the regular formation of the 
Perf. Pass, as also of the Perf. Active (in jko) is very rare ; inasmuch as 
the verbs in vco are for the most part lengthened Present-forms (e. g. t'lvco) : 
and hence make these tenses from another theme upon other principles. — 
Further, verbs in poa and p,va>, which regularly can form neither these 
tenses nor the Aor. 1 Passive, pass over into the formation ea> ; thus vtve- 
prjKa, eveprjdrjv; Terpnua, etc. See Anom. Verbs § 114; also $ 110. 11. 



$ 102. Verbals in reos and tos. 

1. With the formation of the tenses, it is necessary to connect 
that of the two Verbal Adjectives in reos and tos ; which, in sig- 
nification and use, approach very near to the Participles. See 
note 2. 

2. Both these endings always have the tone, and are appended 
immediately to the characteristic of the verb ; which therefore 

* The Perfect 1 Active also fluctuates between the two modes cf formation, in 
7«<x and «a; because it was so seldom required (§ 97. n. 6), that writers probably 
formed it mostly according to the ear. We find, though not in the earlier writers, 
Tre<payKa, pcpiayKa, and ifSefipaSvxei, /ce/ce'/>5a/ca or -77/ca. See anom. KepSaivcs * 1 14. 

K 



146 PARADIGM OF BARYTONE VERBS § 103. 

must be changed, according to trie general rules, just as before 
rat of the 3 pers. Sing of the Perf. Passive. But when the Aor. 
1 Pass, deviates from the formation of the Perf. Pass, in respect 
to the stem-vowel or otherwise, these Yerbals always conform to 
the Aorist; except, of course, that where the Aorist has <f>6, %#, 
they take 7rr, kt. 

3. Thus there is formed from 

7r\e/c<D (ireirXetcTai, iirXevQrjv) — 7rXe/creo?, TrXefcro? 
Xeyco (XeXe/CTaL, eXe^O^v) — Xcktos 

ypd(f>(o [yey pairrai, iypdcfcOrjv) — ypairros 

(TTpecfxo {eaTpairraL, icrr pecpdrjv) — arp67rr6^ 
(f)copdco (TrecfrcoparaL, i(f>copddrjv) — <pcopaT6o<; 
(ptXeco (irefyiXrjTCLL, icfyiXrjOrjv) — (f)iXr)Teo$ 

alpico (r/prjrai, ypeOrjv) — alperos 

iraoco (ireTravTat, eiravaO^v) — iravaTeo^ 
crreXXco (earaXraL, ecrrdXOriv) — crraXreos 

relvo) (rerarai, irdOi^v) — rareos 

%i(o [ickyyTai, i^yOrjv) — -)(vt6<s. 

Note 1. In the earlier Ionic and Attic, the o- in many verbals in ror is 
sometimes dropped; especially in compounds like ayvaros, aba^iaros, Utiktos, 
ndyKkavros: The poets could even form Savnaros, from Savpafa. 

Note 2. For the use of these Verbals in general, see Syntax § 134. 8 sq. 
Here it need only be noted, that both are Passive, as follows : 

1) Those in to? express possibility, corresponding to Latin adjectives in 
His; and indeed they often become simple adjectives. E.g. ar pernor, 
one who can be turned about ; Lat. versatilis. 

2) Those in reo? express necessity, corresponding to the Lat. particip. in 
ndus: e. g. o-rpeTrreo?, one who must be turned about, Lat. vertendus. 

3) The Neut. in riov with earl corresponds to the Lat. periphrase with 
the Neut. particip. in ndum; e. g. arpenriov io-ri vol, Lat. tibi verlen- 
dura est, thou must turn about. 

\ 103. Paradigm of Barytone Verbs. 

1. The conjugation of all the above verbs, and likewise the 
details of flexion by persons and moods, will now T be brought 
together and exemplified, first, in a general example of an ordi- 
nary barytone verb with a strengthened Present- form, viz. tvtttgi. 
But it must be borne in mind, that all which is here exhibited, 
is by no means found in actual use in these verbs ; and for tvtttco 
especially see Anom. k 114. Then follow some other examples out 
of different classes ; and last of all, an example from the class in 
X pLV p, viz. dyyeXXco. 

2. A Barytone Verb is properly the verb in its natural state ; 
since in this the ending of the Present is always unaccented. It 
stands in opposition to those verbs which contract the last two syl- 
lables, and whose ending therefore has the circumflex, viz. Con* 
tract Verbs ( Verba contracta orperispomena), for which see $ 105 

* For the a euphonic, so called, in these forms, see § 112. 20 



* 103. BARYTONE VERBS. 147 






rS S W « K . K _S> 



<g 3 b § | s fe ^1 ^ 



v e i e e e e c re 






m 

S . • 

B s* -t | Ii J- sa § I fffP § M I 

§ v e s I re *e e.. .-c e e e e s e e e 

jgj — 

H T • 

^o 3 s & a- §18 ,, l^s 



A a. 'ffl ~ S. _ * a. 



Ir.i i. 



b p u C> C~^-p p fe pu C l?-p fe^p E- jj- p 

h»« t"m h"w hiiu ** I- "* t- "* t"m t"n |. k- "w 



g c£ <2 -< <* 8 £rHCq « 0* 

'S^ S3 N ^^N^ <£ g rH +, Cq +a CO »H +a Cq ^ 

a^ Ph Ph fin [jh fu p_i Ph h h fe fc 



L48 



BARYTONE VERBS. 



♦ 103. 



Pres- S, 
ent. 

D. 

P. 



Indicative, 
tvttto) I strike 
Txnrrevs thou strikest 
TV7rrec he, she, it strikes 

TVTrreTov ye two strike 
TVTTT6T0V they two strike 
TV7TT0/uLev we strike 
rvTrrere ye strike 
tvtttovctl (v) they strike 



ACT- 

Subjunctive. Optative. 

TUTrToijjLL I would 
TV7TToi<; [strike 



TinrTco I strike 
TVirrr) 



TV7TT7)T0V 
TV7TT7]TOV 
TVTTTCDjJbeV 
TV7TT7)T6 
TV7TTCOO-1 (v) 



TWTTTOITOV 

TV7TTOLT7JV 

TV7TTOLfJi6V 

TVTTTOlTe 

TVTTTOLeV 



Im- S. 6TV7TTOV D. P. eTV7TTOJjL€V 

per- ervTrres irvirrerop irinrTere 

feet. €TV7rre(v) irv7rr€T7]v ervirrov 



I struck or was 
striking, thou 



Per- S. 
feet 
1 

D. 



rirvcfya I have struck, 
T€TV(f>a$ [etc. 

T6TV(j)e (v) 

T€TV(f>aTOV 
T6TV(JXIT0V 

T€TV<fia/Aev 

T€TV^>aT6 
T€TV<f>a<Tl (v) 



T6TIKJXO 

like the Subj 
Present. 



like the Opt. 
Present. 



Plupf. S. irerixpeLV D. — P. 6T€tv(J)€L/jl€V ) 

1 irervifieLS irervcfyeiTov irervcpeire > / had 

irervepet iTeTvipelrrjv irervipeio-av or eaav ) 

Perf. 2 rervira, through all the moods like the Perf. 1. 
Plupf. 2 6T€TV7reiv, like the Plupf. 1. 



Fut. 1. S. rinjrco I will strike 


Subjunctive 


TVtyobfU 


like the Present. 


wanting. 


like the Pres. 


A or. 1. S. eTinjra I struck, or have 


TV^CD 


TV^CU/U 


eTu^ra^ 


[struck, etc. 


like the Subj. 


rv^aa or 






Present. 


Tvtyeias* 


ervyjre (y) 






rinjrai, or 


T) 






rvtyete (v) 


irv^rarov 






TvtydLTOV 


irinjrdTTjv 






TV^raiT7]V 


P. irv-^ra/iev 






Tv^ai/jueu 


erv^rare 






Tvyfraire 


ervyjrav 






rv^jracev or 


Aor. 2. ervirov 




TV7TCO 


TVTTOlfJLL 


like the 


Imperfect. 


like the 


) Present. 



* See below, § 103. m. 14 



J 103. 



BARYTONE VERBS. 



149 



IVE, 



Imperative. 



TV7rr€ strike 

rvTTTeroi let him, her, it strike 

Tvirrerov strike {both) 
TVTrrercov let them (both) strike 



Infinitive. Participle. 



TVTTTeiV 

to strike 



TVTTTWV 

TVTTTOVGCL 

TV7TT0P 

striking 

Gr. TV7TTOVT05 



tv7tt€T6 strike ye 

\rv7TT6Tcoaap or tvtttovtcov let them strike 



didst strike, etc. 



(rerv(f)e) 

like the Present. 

For this Imper. see § 137. n. 13. 



rerv(f)ivac to 
have struck 



T€TV(fxD$ having 
T6TV(f>vLa [struck 

T6TV(j)6<Z 

Gen. 

T6TV(J)6tO$ 



struck, etc. 



Imperat. wanting 


TVljreLV 


Tirtywv, ovoa, ov 
Gr. ovtos, like Pr. 


Tifyov strike 


Tvijrat 

to strike 


rv^racra 

TV^aV 

Gen. 

rvyjravTOS 


rwjrarov 






rirtyare 

Tv^rdrwa-av or rvtyavrcov 






TV7T6 

like the Present. 


rvirelv 


TV7T<bv, ovaa, QV 
Gr. (Wo? 



150 



BARYTONE VERBS. 



5 103 



PASS- 





Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Optative. 


Pres- 


S. TvirTOfjucu I am struck 


TvirTWfiai 


TV7TTOifl7]V 


ent. 


rvwrrj or ei* 


TVTTTr) 


TV7TT0L0 




TV7TT6Tat, 


TV7TT7)Tat, 


TV7TT0LT0 




D. TVTTTOfjLeOoV 


TV7TT(bjJL€0OV 


TVTTTOlfJLedoV 




TV7TT6G0QV 


TV7TT7](T0OV 


tvtttoigOov 




TV7TT€<T0OV 


TVTTT7](J0OV 


TV7TTOL(T07}V 




P. TwirTOfJLeda 


TV7rT(6fJL60a 


TV7rTOL/jL€6a 




TVirTecrOe 


TV7TT1)Cr6e 


TVTTTOLdOe 




TVTTTOVTai 


rinrrcovrat 


TV7TT0LVT0 



Im- S. 
per- 
fect. 



6TV7rr6fi7]v D. ervTTTOfieOov P. IrvTrTOfxeOa \ 
irwrrov ervTneaOov erviTTecrOe S I was 

€TV7rTecrdr)v eTVirrovro ) 



ervirrero 



Per- S. 
feet. 

D. 

P. 



See § 98. 4. 



rervfi/jLai I have been 
rirvyfrac [struck 

T6TV7TTaL 
T€TV/JL/U,60OV 
T6TV(j)0OV 
T€TV<p0oV 

TeTVfJbfjLeOa 

rervcjiOe 

3 pers. wanting ; for it rervfi^evoi [at) elcriv 



See § 98. 4. 



Plupf. S. ireTV/ji/jiTjv D. irervfifjieOov P. irervfjifieOa I had been 
eT6rmjro irervcpOov irervcf)06 

iT6TV7TT0 6T€TiKJ)0r}v 3 pers. wanting ; for it re- 



Fut. 1. Tvj>6rjaofiaL I shall be 
rv(f)0ijo-r) or ei, [struck 
like the Present. 



Subjunctive \rv(p07]croLfjLr)v 
Tv<p0i]croLo etc. 
like the Pres. 



wanting. 



Aor. 1. S. 
D. 
P. 



6TV(j)07]v I ivas struck 

iTV<j>07)<$ 
6TVCJ)07] 

irv<j)07)TOV 

€TV(f)07]TrjV 
iTV(j)0r)fJL€V 

€TIKJ)07]T€ 



€TV<p0r)(7av 



rv(j)0co 
TV<f>0r}<; 
TV<j)0f) 

TV(j)0r)TOV 
TV(f)0f)TOV 
TV<f>0CO/16V 

TV(j)07]T6 

TV(j)0(JO(7L (v) 



TV<f>0€l7)V 
TV(p0ei7]<i 

TV(f)0euri 

TV(j)06L7)TOV 
TV(j)0€L7]T7JV 
TV<f>0€l7}fjLeV 

TV(j)0el/jL€V 
TV(f)06Lr}T6 

TV^>0€LT6 
TV<f>0€i7]<7aV 

Tud)0€i€V 1 



Fut. 2. 


TV7T7]CrOfiai 


through all the moods 


Aor. 2. 


iTV7T7)V 


like Aor. 1. 


Fut. 3. 


rervyjrofiai, 


through all the moods 



* See § 103. m. 18. f The syncopated form is more commonly used in the 



k 103. BARYTONE VERBS. 


151 


IVE. To be struck. 




Imperative. 
TwrTov be thou struck 

TVTTTeadcO 


Infinitive. 

TV7TTe<T0ai to 

be struck 


Participle. 

Tf7TTO/XeW9, 7), OV 

being- struck 


TVirreaOov 
TVTrricrdcov 






TvirreorOe 

TWirrecrOooo-av or tv7tt€(t6(ov 






struck, etc. 


rerv^ro 

T6TV<j)9c0 


T6TV(f)0aL to 

have been 
struck 


TeTVfJLjjLeVOS, 7], OV 

having- been 
struck 


T6TU(f)0OV 
T€TV(f>0CDV 






reru(p06 

T6TV(p0(ocrav or rerv^Ocov, see § l 1 


33. m. 15. 




struck, etc. 




rv/n/jb€vot {at) rjaav 




Imperat. wanting 


TVCJ)07](76a0at 


TV(j)07]O-6fl€VO<i, 
7], OV 


TV(f>07)Ti, be thou struck 

TV<fi9r)TCQ 

TV(f)07]TOV 
TV(f)07]TCOV 


Tv^>0r\vai to be 
struck 


TV<fi0eLS 

TV<p0€lo-a. 

TV(f)0€V 

Gren. 

rv<j>0evTO$ 


TV(f>07jT€ 


• 




TV(f>07]To)(raif, see § 103. m. 15. 






like Fut. 1. 


TVTTr)9i, TV7rtfT(D, etc. 


like Aor. 1. 


like Fut. 1. 





* and 2 person; in the 3 pers. almost always. 



152 



BARYTONE VERBS. 



103. 



M I D. 



To strike 



Present and Imperfect, Perfect and Pluperfect, 



Indicative. 


Subjunct. 


Optative. 


Fut. 1. TV^OIACU 


wanting. 


Tvty0l/jL7)V 


like the Pres. Pass. 




like the 
Pres. Pass. 


Aor. 1. S. irvyjrdfirjv 


TV^COfiat, 


Tu^jraifirjv 


irv^jrco 


rv-^rr) 


rv^jraLO 


irv^lraro 


TV^\rr)Tav 


TV^rairo 


D. irv^rdfiedov 


Tvyjrco/nedov 


TvfyaiixeQov 


irv^aaOov 


TV^f7}(jBoV 


TV^aiaQov 


eTvy\raa6r)v 


tv^tjctOov 


TV-^raiaOrjV 


P. erv^dfieOa 


Tvijrd)fjLeda 


TV^jraLfi€0a 


irv^lraaOe 


TU^Irrjcrde 


TV^raicrOe 


irv-^ravro 


TV^rcovrai 


TV^raivro 



Aor. 2. eTVTrofjuTjv 

like the Imperf. Pass. 



TVircojxat 
these two 
Pr 



\TViroi\xr\v 
moods as in the 
es. Pass. 



Verbal Adjectives (§ 102) 



DECLENSION OF 



Sing. 
N. rv^as 
G. TV^ravros 
D. TV^ravrt. 
A. rv^ravra 
V. rv^as^ 

Dual. 
N . rv^ravTe 

G. TDxlfOLVTOlV 

Plur. 
N. rvyp-avre? 

G . TV\}fdvT(dV 

D. TV^rdat 
A. Tv^ravra^ 



Aor. 1. Act. 




Sino- 


Aor. 2. Act. 




rv^racra 


rv-^rdv 


TVTTOiV 


TVTTOvcra 


TV7TOV 


TV\jfd(TT]? 


TvyjsavTos 


tvttovto? 


Trovcrr)? 


ITOVTOS 


TV\j/dcrn 


rvyj/avTi 


TVTTOVTl 


Tvovcrrj 


TTOVTL 


Tvy\racrav 


Tvyjrav 


rvTrovra 


rrovaav 


7TQV 


rv^acra 


Tvyjrav 


TVndiV^ 

Dual. 


Tvovcra 


TTOV 


Tvyfsdcra 


rv\j/avT€ 


TVTTOvre 


irovaa 


Tromt 


rv^daaiv 


TV\jfdvTOlV 


TVTTOVTOIV 

Plur. 


7rovaa.1v 


7TOVTOIV 


rv^aaai 


Tv\j/avra 


rvnovres 1 


TTOvcrai 


7TOVTO. 


Tvyjfacrcjv 


TV\j/dvTU)V 


TVTTOVTCOV 


TTOVCTteV 


TTOVT&V 


rvfydaais 


Tv^rdai 


TV7TOV(Tl 


novcrai? 


TTOVCTL 


rvyj/daas 


TvyjravTa 


TVTTOvras 


ivovcras 


TTovra 




* See § 45. 


1. 







I 103. 



BARYTONE VERBS. 



153 



DLE. 

oneself, (See Hdot. 2. 40. extr.) 

are the same as the Passive. 



Imperative. 
wanting 


Infinitive. 


Participle. 
Tvtyofievos, rj, ov 


rv\jrat 
TV^rdaOco 




rvtyacrdac 


rv^rdfievo? ], ov 


Tvy\raa6ov 
TV^rdaOcov 








rv^rdaOcoa-av or 


TV^jrdcrOcov 







TV7T0V 

rvireaOov 

Tvireo-Qcov 

TvirecrOe 

Tvireadcocrav or TVireaOwv 



TVirkaOai 



Tinro/jLevoi i , ov 



TVTTTOS, TU7TTeO?. 



THE PARTICIPLES. 





Perf. 1. Act 






Aor. 2. Act 




Sing. 






Sing. 






reTvefxas 1 


Ttrvtyvia 


Tervcfio? 


Tv<fide(.? 


rvcfi Sclera 


rv(f-0ep 


T€TV(f)6TOS 


(frvia? 


(froTO? 


TVCpdeVTO? 


ScLerrjS 


ifevros 


T€TV<pOTl 


cfiviq 


<j)OTL 


Tvcfidevri, 


Seierrj 


Scvn 


T€TV(pOTa 


cfivlav 


0or 


TV<fi0€VTa 


Scleral/ 


Scv 


T€TV(f)a)^ 


(fivla 


<fio? 


rvcpdeis^ 


Sclera 


6kv 


Dual. 






Dual. 






T€TVCJ)6t€ 


<j)vla 


(jiore 


TV(f)6eVT€ 


Sclera 


Scvrt 


TeTV<f)OTOLV 


(fiviaiv 


(f)OTOlV 


TV(p0eVTOLV 


Scleraiv 


Scvrou, 


Plur. 






Plur. 






TeTV<fioT€? 


(pvlai 


(f)6ra 


TvejidevreS' 


Scleral 


Scvra 


T€TV(})6ti£>V 


cfivi&v 


(froTGOV 


TVCpdtVTOlV 


Sciercov 


Sevrmi 


rervcpoai 


(pviais 


<poai 


TV(pdel(Tl 


Sclerals 1 


Scleri 


TSTVt^OTaS 


<f>vi.a? 


(pOTd 


TV(pdevTas 


Scleras 


Scvra 






* See 


4 4,3. 1. 







154 



BARYTONE VERBS. 



* 103. 



EXAMPLES OF OTHER BARYTONE VERBS, 

as they are actually in use. 



Traihevw bring' up {a child). Middle, cause to bring up. 



ACTIVE. 



Pres. Ind. 


Subj. 


Opt. 


Imp. 


iraihevco 


naibeva 


TraidevoLpi 


natdeve 


Traidevei? 


iraibevrjS 


TvaibevoL? 


TraifteveTco etc. 


Traibevei etc. 


7raibevr] etc. 


Traibevoi etc. 






Inf. 7raiSeveiv Part. iraibeixciv, 


ovcra, naidevov 



Imperf. eTraihsvov, es, e(v), etc. 



Perf. Ind. 
ireTraihevKa, 
a?, c(v), etc. 



Subj. 7T67ratSev/ca) Opt. TrenaidevKoipt 

Imp. not in use. Inf. TTena.ihtvK.hai 

Port. 7re7raid€VKa>s; via, 6s 



Pluperf. iireiraihevKetv, etr, «, etc. 



Fut. TrcLiheiKTW I Opt. naideva-otpa Inf. rraibevaeiv Part, iratSeu'crcop 



Aorist. 
iirathevaa, 
as. e(v), etc. 



Subj. 
naibevo-oi 



Opt. Imp. 

7rai8€vaaifAi Traidevaou 

J]?, rj, etc. TTaibevcrais or eias etc. naidevaaTw etc. 

j Inf. Tratdevo-at Part, naidevcras, aaaa, Traibevo-ai 



Pres. Ind. 
wcuBevofiai 

Traibevj] or ei 
Traideverai etc. 



PASSIVE. 

Subj. Opt. 

naibevcopai 7rai8evoLfj.rjv 

Traibevrj etc. iraibevoio etc. 

Inf. iraibeveaOai Part. 



Imp. 
naidevov 
7rai8evea8a> etc. 
Traidevopevos; rj, ov 



Imperf. e7raLSev6/17]V, eVcuSeuoi', eVatoVvero etc. 



Perf. Ind. ireiraihevfiai D. TreTraidevpedov P. 7r«rcu8eu/te0a 

7T€7ra[d€vaai TreTralbevo-Qov Trenaibevo-Qe 

7reTral8evTai 7T€7rat$eva6ov TrtTraibevvTai 

Subj. and Opt. wanting. Imper. nerraLdeva-o, 7roreuSew#co etc. 

Inf. TTZTraihevardai Part. 77f77aiSei; / ue:/or 



Pluperf. iTreirathevfJu^v 



€7r€7raiO€vao 
iTreTTalbiVTO 



D. e7T€7rai8evp.edov 
iTreTraibevcrOov 
€ire7raidevadr]v 



P €7re7rai8€Vfxeda 
eTreTTaidevade 
iu eTraibfvvro 



Fut. Jurf. 
TrcuSevOrjcrofiaL 



Opt. TTaihevBrjcroipnv I n f- T7aibev6r]crea6ai 

Part. TraihevOrjO'ojxevos 



Aor. Ind. 
iiraihevO'rjv 



Subj. 7rai8€v6a> Opt. naibevdeivv Imp. iraibevQrjTi 
Inf. uaidtvdriuai Part. Traidevdei? 



Fut. 3. Ind. 
ireiraihevaoiJiai 



j Opt. 7T€nai8€vcroijj.riv Inf. neTraibevcrecrdat 

Part. 7re7ratSeuo'o/xei/oy 



* 103, BARYTONE VERBS. CT6L0), X6L7TCO. 155 



Fut. Ind. 
ira&evcrofiai 



MIDDLE. 

Opt. 7rai$ev(roi[JLT]v Inf. iraibevcrecrOat 

Part. 7rca$€V(r6iJ.evo? 



Aor. Ind. 
e.7rcu$evcrdfir)v, 
or oo, craro, etc. 



Subj. Opt. Imp. 

TraidevcrcdfAai iraidevcraLfirju Traidevcrai 
7], TjTai, etc. cuo, airo, etc. Traibev<Tacr6(Si i etc. 

Inf. 7rai$evcracrdac Part. Tvai§ev<ra}ievo$ 



Verbal Adjectives : iraihevreo^, irai^ev to<z. 



o-elco shake ; Mid. move myself violently. 
ACTIVE. 

Pres. (T61CD, etc. (Imp. creie, o-eterco, etc.) 

Impf. eaeiov Pf. akcreiKa Plupf. icrecreiKetv Fut. aelaco 
Aor. ecretcra Subj. cra'tro) Opt. creicrcu/u Imper. <rei(rov, aTco, etc. Inf. arelaiu 
Part, crelaas, (retaraara : ae7<rav 

PASSIVE. 
Pres. aelofiai Imperf. ia-eco/irjv 

Perf. a 6(761(7 flCU D. creo-eicriieOov P. owacrfie&z 
creVetcrai crecreicrdov creareiarde 

creo-eujTai arecreiadov 3 pers. wanting. 

Sw6/. and Op?, wanting. Jrap. creVeicro, o-e<m'o-#G>, etc. 
Jji/*. (reareicrdai Part. aeaeKrjAevo? 
Plupf. 6(76(761(7 yi/tyv D. eVeo-eicr/ze^oy P. eveo-eio-fieda 
eaecreicro iaecreicrdov iaeaeiade 

eVeo-ettrro i(re(rei(rdr)v 3 pers. wanting. 

Fut. aeiadrjao^aL Aor. iaelaOrjV Fut. 3 aeaelaofJLaL 

MIDDLE. 
Fut. crelao/jLai, Aor. laeiaayaqv (Imperat. o-eio-ai) 
Verbal Adjectives : aecareo^, creiCTO?. 

\ei7rco leave ; Mid. poetical, remain behind. 
ACTIVE. 
Pres. XetTTco Impf. ekeiTrov 

Perf. (2) Xekonra Plupf. ekekolireLv 
Fut. Xetyco Aor. (2) ekiirov Subj. XiVoj, etc. 

PASSIVE. 
Pres. \ei7ro/j,at Imperf. ekeiir6fi7}v 

Perf. \i\6LfJLfiai, -fyai, nrac, etc. Jrap. AeAei^o, XeAeic£t9a>, etc. 

7w/. \e\el(f)6ac Part. Xektififxevo? 
Plupf. i\ J e\elfjLfAr)v, -v^o, 7rro, etc. 
Fut. "\et^>9rjcrofiai Aor. ekei$6r]v 

Fut. 3 XeKeu^rojJbai 

MIDDLE. 
Fut. Xetyoficu Aor. (2) eXiTrufjvrjv Subj. XiVco/xat, etc, 

Verbal Adj. Xenrreos, Xet7TTO?. 



156 BARYTONE VERBS. Ctp-)(W, (TKevrifo. § lOo. 

ap%co lead on, rule ; Mid. begin. 

ACTIVE. 
Pres. ap^co Impf. rjp^ov 
Perf. (r)px a ) an< * Plupf. (rjpx^v) scarcely occur 
Fut. apfft) 

Aor. rjp^a Subj. up£co Opf. ap£aip.i, ap£ai?, ap^ai, etc. 

Jrap. ap£ov, ap^ara, etc. In/, ap£at Pari, apt-as 

PASSIVE. 
Pres. ap^o/icu Imperf. y]px^V v 
Perf. rjpy/JLai, D. fjpyp.e6ov P. rjpyp.e6a 

\p£ai vpx0° v ypx& € 

rjpKTai ypx6° v ^ pers. wanting. 

Sm6/. and Op£. wanting. Imp. ^p£o, rjpx^i G ^ Q - 
Inf. rjpxdai Part. ^pypeVo? 
Plupf. rjpy/jLrjV D. rjpyp.edov P. rjpyp.eda 



vp£° ypxQ° v 


fax& 


rjpKTO fjpxOrjv 


3 pers. wanting. 


Fut. apyQr\<joiiai 




Aor. rjp^drjv Subj. dpxO(o 


Opt. apxOeirjV Imp. apx^rfTi 


Inf. apxdrjvat 


Part. dpxOels 


Fut. 3 wanting, see § 99. n. 2. 





MIDDLE. 
Fut. ap^ofLai 

Aor. r}p%dfjLT]V Subj. apg<£>p,ai Op£. dpgaip.r]v Imp. apgai y dadoo, etc. 
Inf. apt-aadai Part, dp£dp,evos 
Verbal Adj. (in the sense of both Act. and Mid.) apfcreos, ap/cros. 

o-tcevdfo prepare. 

ACTIVE. 

Pres. a/cevd^co Imperf. ia/ceva^ov 

Perf. icrfcevafea Subj. iaKevaKoa Opt. eo-KevaKoip.i Imp. not in use. 
Plupf. icr/C6Ua/C€LV II Inf. eo-KevaKevai Part. eaicevaKoiS 

Fut. crfcevdcra) Aor. eaKevaaa Subj. o-Kevdo-co 

Opt. aKevdaaip.1 Imp. o-Kevaaov Inf. o-Kevdcrai Part, o-Kevdo-as- 

PASSIVE. 
Pres. (TKevdtpfjLaL Imperf. i<r/c€va£6/i7}V 

Perf. icr/cevdcrfiaL, aarai, aarai, etc. (comp. aeia) 

Imp. io-Keuaao, eaKevdadco, etc. Inf. eo-Kevdadat Part, eaicevao-fievos 
Plupf. i(T/C€vd(T/jL7)V, aao, ao-ro, etc. 
Fut. (TKevacrOrjcrofiai Aor. i<JKevda6r}V 
Fut. 3 (eo-K.evdo-op.ai) does not occcur. 

MIDDLE. 
Fut. afcevaao/jLcu 
Aor. €crK€Vacrd/JUrjv Subj. erKeudVcopai Opt. o-Kevaaralp^v 

Imp. o-Kevao-ai, o-Kevao-daBco, etc. Inf. o-Kevdo-acrQai Part. o-Keva.o-dp.evos 
Verb. Adj. cr/cevacrTeos, atcevaGTos. 



& 103. BARYTONE VERBS. KOfJbl^CO, <j>v\dcr<TG). 157 

ko/jl%(0 bring; Mid. receive, 

AOTIVE. 

Pres. kojal^cd Fut. KOfiLcrco 

Fut. Att. KOfMw D. — P. Kofjuov/xep 

ico/Aiel? KOfMietrov Ko/neire 

Ko/juel KOfxulrov Kop.iovcn[v) 

Opt. Kojiioifii, oty, etc.* Inf. Ko/xLelv 
Part. KOfiLcov, ovcra, ovv G. ovvtos 
Aor. eKOfiiaa Subj. /co/ito-co Inf. KOfxiacu 

Passive, see o-tcevdfa. 

MIDDLE. 
Fut. KOjJLio-ofJLai 

Fut. Att. KO/jLLOV/jLCU D. KOfx.iovp.edov P. KopiovpeOa 

KOfxielf Kop-ielaBov KOfueluOe 

Kopielrai KopteicrOov Kopiovvrai 

Opt. KOfxcoLfiTjv, KOfitoio, etc.* 
Inf. Kop-Leladai Part. Kop.wvp.evos 
Aor. 6K0fJiLadfJL7]V Subj. Kopiocopai, etc. 

* See Opt. Pres. of voi4u § 105. f See note below, m. 18. 



(pvkdcraco guard; Mid. guard myself. 

ACTIVE. 

Pres. (pvXdcrcrco Impf. i(j>v\aa<Tov 
(jyvXarrco icpvXarrov 

Perf. ire^vka^a Plupf. iire^vXa^eLV 

Fut. <f)v\d%co Aor. i(f>vXa^a 

PASSIVE. 

Pres. (frvXao-cro/jLat, Imperf. i(f>v\acra6/JL7]V 

^vkdrrofiai icpvXaTTopLrjv 

Perf. 7T€<pv\ayfiaL D. TreqbvkdyixeOov P. 7re(pv\dy/i^6a 

7re(f)v\a^aL 7T€(fivXa)^dov necfivXaxde 

necjiiikaKTai 7re(pvXaxdo> 3 pers. wanting. 

Sw6/. and Opt. wanting. Imp. iretfivXago, 7re<j)v\dx6<£>, etc.- 

Inf. Trecfrvk&xdai Part, irefyvhaypevos 

Plupf. eTTecpvkdyjjLTjV D. eirecjivXdypedov P. irreqb>v\dype6a 

€7r€(f)v\a£o €7re(f)v\a.x6ov enetyvAaxde 

eTreipvXaKTc e7re<fiv\dxdr)v 3 pers. v/anting. 

Fut. (jyvXa^OrjcrofjLai Aor. i^vXd^Orjv 



Fut. 3 7T6(j)vXd^o/iat 

Ut. (fivkd^O/JLCLL 

Verb. Adj. (f>vkcucTeo<;, fyvXcucros. 



MIDDLE. 
Fut. (f)v\dj;o{Mai Aor. i<j>vXa%d{ir)V 



158 



BARYTONE VERBS. dyyeXXd). 



nos 



EXAMPLE OF VERBS X fi v p. 



dyyeWco I announce. 



ACTIVE. 



Pres. Ind. 
ayyeWoo 



Subj. dyyeXXa Opt. dyyiXXoipu Imp. ayyeXXe 
Inf. dyyeXXeiv Part. dyyeXXcov 



Imperfect 
rjyyeWov 



Subj. rjyyeXKco Opt. rjyyeXKoip.1 Imp. not in uso 
Inf. TjyyeXKevaL Part. rjyyeXKa? 



Perf. Ind. 
rjyyeXfca 



Pluperfect 
rffyeXfceiv 



Future (2) Indie, 
ar/yekco D. 

dyyeXel? 
dyyeXel 



dyyiXelrov 
dyyeXelrov 



Optat. 
S. dyyekoifU 
dyyekoi? 
dyyeXol 



D. — 

dyyeXolrov 
dyyeXoLTTjv 



P. dyyeXovfiev 
dyyeXelre 
dyyeXov(ri(y) 



P. dyyiXoi}X€V 
dyyeXoire 
dyycXoiev 



or Attic 



dyyeXoirjv, oi^r, 017; • — , oltjtov, oit)tt)v • ol-qpev, oirjre, olrjaav 

see below, note II. 3. (m. 13.) 

Inf. dyyeXelu 

Part. dyyeXwVy dyyeXovcra, dyyeXovv Gen. dyyeXovvros 



Aor. 1. Ind. 
r/yyeiXa 

~ A.or. 2. Ind. 
rflyekov* 



Subj. dyyciXco Opt. dyyeCXaifxi 

dyyeiXais or -etas 
dyyeiXai or -«?, etc. 
Imp. (iyyeiXov, drco Inf. dyyeTXai Part. dyyttXas 
Subj. dyyeXio Opt. dyyeXoip.1 Imp. ayyeXe 
Inf. dyyeXelu Part. dyyiXcov 



* For the use of this tense in this particular verb, see the mar<i. ncte to 5 J 01. 8 



* 103. 



Pres. Ind. 
(uyyiXkofJbai 



BARYTONE VERBS. ayyiWcO. 15l> 

PASSIVE. 
I am announced. 

Sllbj. ayyeXXcOjtzai Opt. dyyikXoip.r)v Imp. dyyiKXov 
Inf. dyyeXXeadai Part. dyyeXXofxevo? 



Imperfect rjyyeWo/JLrjv 



Perf. 7]yy eXfiat D. rjyyeXfxedov P. rjyyeXfxeda 

fjyyeXaai rjyyeXOov rjyyeXQe 

Tjyyekrai ijyyeXBov 3 pers. wanting. 

Subj. and Opt. wanting. 

Imp. fjyye\cro, ^yyeX#co. etc. Inf. rjyyeXdai. Part. ^yyeX/xeVor 



n lupf. rj>y<ye\fjLr)V 
fjyyihcro 
rfyyeXro 



D. Tjyyikfiedov 
rjyyeXOov 
T)yyeX6r]v 



P. Tjyyekfieda 
fjyyeXOe 

3 pers. wanting; 



Fut. 1. ar/yeXOrjaofAai, etc. 



Aor. 1. Ind. 
r)yyek6r)V 



Subj. dyyeXOco Opt. dyyeXQeirjv Imp. dyyeXdyri 
Inf. dyye\$jjvai Part. dyyeXOeis: 



Fut. 2. 6jyye\r]aofJLai } etc. 



Aor. 2. Ind. 
rjyyeXrjv 



Subj. dyyeXco Opt. dyyeXelrjv Imp. dyyeXrjBi 
Inf. dyyeXrjvai Part. dyyeXeis. 



Fut. 3 wanting, see $ 99. n. 2. 



MIDDLE. 



I announce myself, i. e. promise for myself 



Future Indie. 
ayyeXovfiai, 
dyyeXfj or el 
ayyeXelrcu 

Optat. 
S. dyyeXol^inv 
dyyeXoio 
dyyeXoIro 



D. dyyeXovjieOov 
dyyeXeicrBov 
dyyeXetadov 



P. dyyiXovp.eda 
dyyiXeiarOe 
dyyeXovvrai 



D. dyyeXoifjiedov P. dyyeXoi[j.eda 

dyyeXolodov dyyeXolcrOe 

dyyeXoicrOrjv dyyeXdlvro 

Inf. dyyeXelcrQai Part. dyyeXovjj.ei/0?, rj, ov 



Aor. 1. Ind. 
r)yyei\dfA7]V 



Subj. ayyeiX co^tai Opt. dyyeiXaifxrjv, ayyeiXcuo, etc. 
Imp. ayyeiXai, arco, etc. 
Inf. dyyeiXacrBai Part. dyyeiXdfxevos 



Aor. 2. JftG?. Sttfey. ayye'XcOjuat Opt. dyyeXoifi-qv, eXoto, etc. 

r}yye\6fjL7}V Imp. ayyeXov Inf. dyyikeadai Part. dyyeX6p.evo?. 

Verbal Adjectives ■ lyy eXreos, ayyeXros. 



160 BARYTONE VERBS. $ 103. 

NOTES ON ALL THE PARADIGMS. 
I. Accent. 

1 1. As the foundation for all rules respecting the tone in verbs, it is to be 
assumed, that the tone is regularly thrown as far back as possible. Con- 
sequently, in forms of two syllables, it is always on the first, 

tvtttco, rv7TTe : Xet7rco, Aet7re, 
and in those of three or more syllables, on the antepenult, when the nature 
of the final syllable permits, 

TVTTTOfiev, Tinrrovai, reTV(pdo-i y Timrojiai 
eru7rre, ert»\^a, eiraidevov, e(pv\a£a, 
and the Imperatives 

cpyXarre, (pvka^ov, <pvkaf~ai. 
On the other hand we find ttcuoVuco, (pyXdrreiv, etc. on account of the long 
final syllable. — Hence, forms of two syllables in composition throw back the 
tone upon the preposition, whenever the final syllable permits it (but see 
below, m. 10) ; e. g. 

cpepe, Xelire — npoacpepe, a7roXei7re. 

2 2. When in the dialects an accented augment falls away, the accent al 
ways passes in simple verbs to the next syllable of the verb ; e. g. ej3ake, 
ecpevye — /3aXe, cpevye ; but in compound verbs, it passes to the preposition; e. g. 
<?W/3aXe, ivpoarefi-q — epfiake, Trpoa^r). Here it is to be noted, that in the first 
case those monosyllabic forms whose vowel is long, always take the tone 
as circumflex; e. g. e/3^ — /3j). 

3 3. Apparent exceptions to the above fundamental rule, are the instances 
where a contraction lies at the basis; consequently, besides the contract 
verbs which are hereafter to be exhibited, we must here reckon the follow- 
ing portions of the ordinary conjugation : 

1) The Fut. 2 and Attic Fut. of every kind, § 95. 7—11. 

2) The Subjunct. Aor. Pass. Tv<p6S), tvttc*, which come from the Ion. -ecu, 
'€j}S , see below m. 38, and § 107. m. 29. 

3) The temporal augment in trisyllabic compounds ; e. g. avarr™, avrj-rrrov, 
§ 84. n. 4, and m. 10 below. 

4 4. Real exceptions are the following : 

1) The Aor. 2, in order to distinguish it from the Present, takes the tone 
upon the ending, in the following forms : 

a. In the Inf. and Part. Act. and Inf. Mid. always; e. g. 

TVTrelv •* TVTTOov, over a, 6v • rvneadai. 

b. In the Sing, of the Imperat. Aor. 2 Mid. commonly ; e. g. yevov, Xadov ; 
but Plur. yeveaOe, XddeaOe.f 

c. In the Sing, of the Imperat. Aor. 2 Act. only in the following: erne, 
ik6e, evpe, and in the more accurate Attic pronunciation also \aj3e, l§e. 

The compound Imperatives follow the general rule ; e. g. emXddov, aireXBe, 
e'iaide. 
3 2) The Inf. and Part, of the Perfect Passive are distinguished from all 
the rest of the Passive form in respect to the tone also, which they al- 
ways have upon the penult : 

rervcpOai, T€Tvp.fievos ; 7r€7roir}o~dai, TveTTOirjyievos. 

* The Inf. Aor. 2 Act. might be reckoned among the apparent exceptions under 
3 above ; because the Ionics formed this also, like the Fut. 2, in ieiv, e. g. Xafieeiv 
for Aa/3e?i/, see below, m. 38. But here the process is probably reversed. The tone 
was thrown upon e«/ for the same reason as upon d>v and eadai ; and the Ionics, in 
their fondness for vowels, caused this accent to pass over into the prolonged 
double sound; see § 28. n. 3. § 105. n. 10. 

t On the other hand we find written : 'Ixov Eurip. Or. 1231 ; irvQev Hdot 3. CS. 



V 103. BARYTONE VERBS. NOTES. 161 

3) All Infinitives in vat, except the dialect-form in pevat (m. 33), have 6 
the tone upon the penult; e. g. rervcpevai, rv<pBrjvat, rvn-rjvat. See also 
the Infinitives of Verbs in pi. 

4) The Inf. Aor. 1 Act. in at, and the 3 pers. Opt. Act. in ot and at, al- 7 
ways have the tone on the penult^ even when they are polysyllables; 

e. g. 

Inf. (pv\d£at, Traidevaat 

3 Opt. (puk&TTOi, (pvXd^ai, TraiSevaat..^ 

5) All Participles in cor and eis have the acute upon the final syllable ; 8 
as rervepas, rvepdeis, rvrreis. So in Verbs in pi the participles in eis, as, 
ovs, vs. 

6) When the masculine of a participle has the tone on a particular syl- 9 
lable, the other genders retain it on the same, without further regard 

to the nature of the syllables; thus (pvkdrrcov, cpvXaTTovo-a, cpvXdr- 
tov Tififjaow, Tifxrjcrova-a^ ti/jlt) a-ov • rervcpaiS, rervcpvla, rervepos. 

7) In compound verbs the accent can never go further back than the aug- 10 
ment; e. g. dvecrxov, dvearav. But if the augment is dropped, the case 
falls under note 2 above, as Trpdq-firj. 

II. Ionic and Attic Peculiarities. 

1 . The Ionics have in the Imperfect and both Aorists a form called the 1 1 

Iterative in -ctkov, Pass. -o-Koprjv, 
which is used to denote a repeated action. These forms are found only in 
the Indicative, have usually no augment, and are to be made after the 
model of tvtttg), e.g. 

TVTTTeaKOV.) TVTTTeCTKOfXrjV, from 6TV7TTOV, 6prjV 

Tv^racrKOV^ TvyjraaKoprjv, from eVui/m, dpy\v 

TVTreaKov, TVTrecrKopwv, from ervnov, oprjv. 
The aorist Iteratives belong rather to epic poetry. In the Ionic prose 
(Hdot.) those from the Aor. 2 occur but seldom ; and those from the Aor. 
1 , not at all. See also the notes to the contract verbs and verbs in pi. — There 
are some remarkable epic forms of this kind, which unite the a of the Aor. 
1, with the characteristic of the Present and Imperfect: piirraaKov, <pv- 
irraaK€, poi^aaKev, dvao-o-eiaa-Ke Hymn. Apoll. 403. See on these words and 
on this whole subject, Ausf. Sprachl. § 94. 4. 

2. The Pluperfect (1 and 2) Active in eiv, is formed by the Ionics in the 12 
1 pers. in ea, and in the 3 pers. in ee or eev ; as irervepea, irervepee or -eev. 
From this there is an Attic contracted form, of which the first person is tj, 
from ea, e. g. 

€7T€7r6vdr] for €7re7r6vdeiv. 
This was the usual form among the earlier Attics. But the second person 
in rjs from eas, and the third in eiv (before a vowel) from eev, — as ireiroiQeiv 
for iireivoidei Aristoph. Nub. 1347 ) earrjKeiv II. -*//>. 691, (comp. 3 Impf. fjaKeiv be- 
low in § 105. n. 3,) — were perhaps less usual even among the Attics. Hitherto 
at least all the examples which have been brought forward of these forms, 
as well as of a third person in rj instead of ei, (except from the Plupf. fjdeiv, 
see in olda § 109. III. 2,) rest only on the authority of some single passages, 
and the somewhat indefinite assertions of the ancient Grammarians. See 
Ausf. Sprachl. § 97. n. 14 sq. 

* By this accentuation, and from the circumstance that the 3 pers. Opt. never 
takes the circumflex upon the penult (§ 11. n. 3), are distinguished the three simi- 
lar forms of the Aor. 1 ; e.g. 

Infin. Act. 3 Opt. Act. Imperat. Mid 

Traifievaai 7rai8eutrai iraiSevcai. 

But see the same forms in the Parad. of <rela>, Kop.l(ca, rvwra. 



162 BARYTONE VERBS. NOTES. $ 103 

13 3. Instead of the Opt. Act. in oipi, there was a secondary form in oirjv, 
olr]S ) oirj, Plur. oirjpev, oirjre, oirjaav, which is called the Attic form. It is 
found for the most part only in contract verbs (§ 105), and consequently in 
the circumflexed Future; e. g. ipoirj for ipol from Fut. £pa>, Xen. Cyr. 3. 1. 
11 ; cpavoirjv Soph. Aj. 313. Besides these instances, it occurs in barytones, 
only in the Perfect; e. g. irefavyoirjv, iXrjkoBoirjv ) and in the Opt. of the 
anomalous Aorist evxov, crxoirjv; see § 114 e^co. 

14 4. Instead of the Opt. Aor. 1 Act. in aipi, there was an iEolic form in eta, 
as Tvyjseia, etar, eiei>, etc. of which the three endings exhibited above in the 
paradigm of rinrrco, viz. 

Sing. 2 Tv-^eias 3 rvyjseie (v), for -ai9, -at. 
Plur. 3 rvy\reiav for -auv, 
were far more usual than the regular forms. 

15 5. The form of the 3 Plur. of the Imperative in -vr&v, Pass, -admu, is 
called Attic, because it was, among the Attics, the most usual form ; al- 
though it is found in the other dialects. In the Active, this form is always 
like the Genitive Plur. of the Participle of the same tense, except in the 
Perfect; e. g. Perf. 7re7roi6er<oo-av or TrenotQovTozv — Part. nenoiQoT&v . Hence 
also in the Aor. Pass, which is inflected like the Active, it should end in 
evrcov; and it is actually once so read, and without variation, e. g. 7re/x- 
cpOevTcov Plato Legg. p. 856. d. But see Ausf. Sprachl. § 88, and comp, 
Tt6evT(£>v, ovtcov, Iovtcov, from Tidrjfii, el/XL, eifu. For the same pers. in the Perf, 
Pass. Plato for instance has the periphrase Treireio- pivot earcav Rep. 6. p. 502, 

III. Second Person Sing. Passive. 

16 1. The original ending of the second person Sing, of the Passive, o-at and 
ao (§ 87. n. 4), has been retained only in the Perfect and Plupf. of the or- 
dinary conjugation, and in Verbs in pi, § 106. n. 2. The less cultivated 
dialects perhaps continued to say in the 2 pers. TV7rrecrai, ervirreao, Imperat. 
rv7TT€ao, Aor. 1 Mid. irv^ao-o, — Subj. TiiTfrrjo-at, etc.* 

'7 2. The Ionics dropped the o~ from this old ending, and formed eat, ijai; 
eo, ao. The common language contracted these endings again into rj, ov, 
co ; e. g. 

Ion. Comm. Ion. Comm. 

2 Pres. Ind. Tvnreat tv7ttv. Imperat. rinrreo tvtttov 

Subj. TVTTT-qai TVTTTrj. 2 Impf. eTVTTTeO €TV7TT0V 

2 pers. Aor. 1 Mid. Ion. eruyj/ao, comm. eYityco. 
In the same manner in the Optative, instead of oiao is formed oto, which 
remained as the common form, because it cannot be contracted. — In the 
Perf. and Plupf. on the contrary, the a is never dropped, except in IWuo; 
see Anom. creuco § 114. 
8 3. The Attics had the further peculiarity, that instead of y contr. from 
eat, they wrote et. This form, which also is noted in the paradigms, was 
the usual one in the genuine Attic writers, the tragedians excepted ; and 
also in the common language. In the verbs (3ov\opat, o'iopai, and Fut. 
oyjsopat (see Anom. Spdeo), this form of the 2 pers. became the only usual 
one, viz. 

fiovXet^ o'iet, o\\ret, 
so that fiovXrj and o'lrj can only be Subjunctive. — This form in et is also very 
common in the Attic or circumflexed Future; e. g. /3aSteI, oAei. 
l& 4. The Dorics and Ionics, instead of eo or ov, have here ev } as eYv7rreu, 

* The 2 pers. Present Pass, of the contracted verbs seems most frequently to 
have occurred in this form in the later common language; e. g. in the New Test 
Rom. 2, 17. 23, navxacrai for komx^oa, comm. Kat>x<? contr. from Kavxdrj ; see 
Ti(xdu § 105. Also aTro£evovcrcu, etc. 



$ 103. BARYTONE VERBS. NOTES. 163 

tmperat. tvtttcv, see § 28. n. 5. The epic writers could in the Imperative 
lengthen the e into et, which however rarely occurs; e. g. epeio for epeo 
from epofiai, II. X. 611 ; also cr7reto from enofiai, II. k. 285. 

IV. Ionic Form of the 3 pers. PZttf . Pass, in drat, aro. 

1. In the 3 Plur. Pass, of the Indie, and Opt. but never in the Subjunc- 20 
tive, the Ionics changed the v into a, and wrote, e. g. 

Opt. TVTTTOIO.TO for TV7TTOIVTO 

Perf. Trenai^evarai for neTraidevvrai 
— KacKiaraL for Ketikivrai. 

This is sometimes imitated by the Attic poets, for the sake of the metre. 
See also below under verbs in eco and aa>, § 105. n. 9. 

2. The ending ovro is sometimes treated by the Ionics in the same man- 21 
ner, but with a change of the o into e] e. g. 

ifiovkearo for ifiovkovTO. 
On the other hand, the ending oi/rat (rvirTovrai, rv^rovrai, etc.) and the end- • 
ing (ovrai of the Subjunctive, are never changed. See § 105. n. 9. 

3. By the help of this Ionic ending, the 3 Plur. Perf. and Plupf. Pass. 22 
can be formed, when the characteristic of the verb is a consonant; and this 

is done sometimes even by Attic prose writers, as Thucydides, Plato, etc. 
(§ 98. 2, and n. 2.) E. g. 

Tervppat, (rervepa) — TfTiKparai 
reraypai (reVcr^a) — eTera^cLTO 
earahpai, ecpdappai — eWaXarai, icpBaparai. 

In an'marai, Ion. for dcpiKarai (see the Anom. iKveopm), instead of ^, the 
characteristic of the verb remains unchanged. The like case in pure verbs 
see in § 105. n. 9. 

4. In verbs where the characteristic is a lingual (or T-sound), the simple 23 
characteristic always reappears before the endings arai, aro; e. g. 

7rei8a> 7 7T€7reicrp.ai, 3 PI. it en el darai 
ipeidco, eprjpeurpai, — i pr\ pedarat Horn. 

Here the diphthong is shortened because of the Attic reduplication ($ 85. 

2). So with a restoration of the 8 which is contained in £ (§ 92. n. 6), 
i<TK€vd8aTai, Ke^Gopi'Sarat, from crfcevafa, ^(opl^(o. 

5. In the editions of Homer we find some other verbs formed in the man- 24 
ner last mentioned, which have neither § nor £ in the Present. Of these 
the form ep pddarai, from paivco, eppaapai (§ 101. n. 8. b), can be derived 
from a secondary form PAZ12, from which also pdcra-are occurs in Homer. 
The other examples, however, are too uncertain for any grammatical use.* 

V. Miscellaneous. 

1. Some of the less cultivated dialects, especially the Alexandrine (§ 1. 2*. 
n. 8) gave to the 3 pers. Plur. in all the historical tenses and in the Opt. 
the ending aav ; hence especially in the Greek version of the Old Testa- 
ment the frequent forms ecpaivoaav, e<pvyoaav, \el7r0Laav, for ecpaivov, e<puyoi>, 
Xclttouv, etc. also contr. iyevvaxrav, €7roiovaaVj etc. 

* II. p. G37 aK7)X*$aTai from a/djxe/"" ( see Anom. aKaxK®)) an( ^ O^L V' 86 iAr]- 
A&Saro from e'Aaa>, iX^Kafxai ; both with various readings of sufficient authority to 
excise suspicion. See JLusf. Sprachl. § 98. n. 13. marg. 



1(34 BARYTONE VERBS. NOTES. $ 103. 

26 2. The Dorics and poets, on the other hand, have in some instances, in- 
stead of the tense-ending of the third person o-av, a syncopated form in v 
with a short vowel. This takes place in barytone verbs only in the Aorists 
Passive : 

3 PI. ervcfideV) ervnei/, for -rjcrav. 

Other instances belong to the conjugation of verbs in p,i. — This syncope is 
never into -rjv; as to the Homeric p.idv6j\v, see the Anom. juiaiz/co, § 114. 

27 3. The dialects mentioned above in 1, by a still greater anomaly, gave 
to the 3 pers. Plur. Perfect, instead of den, the (historical) ending av ; hence 
in the New Testament eyv&Kav, etprjKav, Batrachom. 178 eopyav. — For a 
similar change in the 3 pers. Dual of the historical tenses, e. g. II. k. 364 
dio)/cerov instead of -ttjv, see in § 87. n. 7. 

28 4. The 3 Plur. of the primary tenses, instead of <riv or o-t, has in the 
Doric dialect commonly vti [\ 87. n. 3) ; thus 

tvtvtovti, rervcpavri, for rimTovai, rervcpdcriv 

Sub). TVTTTOOVTl for TVTTTOXTIV 

Fut. 2 fxeveovri, fievevvn, for (fieveovai) fievovaiv. 

This form does not take the movable v. — Another Doric form is tvtvtokti 
for rvTTTovcri. 

29 5. Further, in the participial endings ovara and as, dcra, the long sound 
arises from the dropping of v or vr, which is found in the Gen. of the mas- 
culine. Instead of these long sounds, the Dorics employ always oi and at, e. g. 

TVTVTOicra for Tinrrovcra • Aor. 2 Aa/3oi<xa*' for \a(3ov<ra 
Aor. 1 rv^ais, Tv\jsaicra., for rv^as, acra. 

30 6. The epic poets sometimes lengthen the accented o in the oblique cases 
of the Part. Perf. Act. e. g. rerpLycoras for -oras. 

31 7. The Dorics introduced their long a into the endings irvn-rop-av, eTervp.- 
fiav, TV7TTo[fxav, etc. for -pr\v ) in those of the Dual, KTrjo-dcrBav, lTxor\o-drav : 
and also into the ending of the Aor. Pass. e. g. ervnav Theocr*. 4. 53. This 
last however occurs only in the later Doric. 

32 8. The 1 Plur. Act. in p.ev is made by the Dorics in p.es, as rvTTTop.es, irv- 
■^apes; and in the 1 Plur. and Dual Pass, in p,eda, p,edov, the Dorics and 
all poets insert cr. 

TVTTr6p,eada, rvn-rop-ecrOov. 

33 9. The Infinitives in eiv and vai had, in the ancient language and in the 
dialects, forms in p.evai and p.ev ; thus 

TV7TTep,evai, rvTrrep-ev — for rinrreiv 
T€TV(pep,evai, Terv(pep.ev — for rervcptvai 
rvTTTjpewi, TV7rr)p.€v — for TVTTTJvai. 

Sometimes there was also a syncope, as edp.evai for e8ep.ei>ai from ebeiv ; see 
the Anom. eV#tco, § 114. 

34 10. The Dorics, in particular, fosm the Infinitive in ev or r\v instead of 
eiv, without either drawing back or changing the acute accent ; e. g. pe- 
piadev, evdev, deidev, for p.epi£eiv, evdew, deidetv ) Aor. 2 dyayiv for dyayeiv ; 
also x a ^PV v f° r x at P elI/ > not x a * , PTI v ' — ^or the Infinitives in -vai also there 
was an iEolic and Doric form in -rjv (and -tiv) with the accent drawn back; 
as fxeOvu-Q-qv, SeSvKrjv, yeydicetv. For this last form see espec. § 111. n. 1. 

* Not AajSeOca, because there is here no contraction; see § 105. n. 13, marg. 
note. 



§ 104. USUAL AND UNUSUAL TENSES. 165 

11. It is under the same analogy that we find among the Dorics the .sec- '6b 
ond person of the Present Act. sometimes formed in e? instead of eir, with- 
out change of accent; e. g. a/xeXyer for a/xeXyety, Theocritus. 

12. The old language had in the second person of the Active form, instead 26 
of y, 

the ending ada, 

which in Homer and other poets is often appended in the Subjunctive, ana 
sometimes in the Optative* e. g. eBekvaOa for iOtkrjs, KkaioiaQa for KkaLois. 
In the common language, however, this has been preserved only in some 
anomalous verbs ; see below in §§ 108, 109, ilpt, etfu, (prjp.1, and olda. 

13. In the earliest language, the three endings which are now regarded 3* 
as peculiarities of the conjugation in pi, viz. 1 Sing, pi, 3 Sing. <n, Imperat. 
Si, probably belonged to the verb in general. Hence the Imperative in Sty 
not only in the Aor. Pass, but also in the syncopated Perfects (§ 110). The 
first person in pi has been preserved in the ordinary conjugation only in 
the Optative ; but the earliest epic writers had it also in the Subjunctive; e. g. 

iKcopi, ay dy topi, for Ikco, dydyco. 
Finally, the third person Singular in at or aiv is also in the epic language 
very common in the Subjunctive; e. g. 

TV7TTT](riVy eXflVh f° r TVTTTT], 6)0. 

For the 3 Sing. Indicat. in r\cri instead of the usual form, see § 106. n. 9. 

14. The circumflexed forms are by the Ionics either resolved, or pro- 3S 
longed into the double sound (§ 105. n. 10). Thus the Inf. Aor. 2 Active 

in fiVy into eeiv, e. g. 

cpvyeeiv for cpvyelv from ecpvyov, 
see marg. note to m. 4, above. So likewise the Subjunctive of bot'n Aorists 
Pass, in a>, into eco, epic euo, see m. 3, above ; thus 

Subj. A. 1 Pass. evpeOeco for evpeOco from evpedrjv 
Subj. A. 2 Pass. ru7re'cD, epic run-aco, for rvnco. 

In those personal forms of this Subjunctive which have n in the ending, the 
usage of the epic writers varies between this mode of lengthening the pre- 
ceding e into €i, and the doubling of the rj ; e.g. (iddjxrjv, dapco, dap,eia>y) 
dapeirjs, dafiiiij II. y. 436. ^. 246; (ecrdir^v, (rana), ora7retco,) acnrr]r] II. r. 
27. Compare the forms of the dialects under verbs in pi, since these must 
here also be assumed as the basis of such changes. For the orthography 
of da/ieir)?, dapeiy (Subj.) see § 107. m. 43. marg. 

15. The Subjunctive loses sometimes in the epic writers its long vowel, 39 
and takes o and e instead of co and 77; e. g. tofiev let us go, see in elpi Subj. 
'loo, § 108. V; eyeipopev for -copev II. /3. 440 ; epvcrcropev for Subj. Aor. 1 
ipvcnopev 11. a. 141; Ipeiperai for -rjrai Od. a. 41; vavTiXKerai Od. 6\ 672. 
See also e'&opev under olda § 109. III. 6. This occurs most frequently in 
the form just adduced of the Subjunct. Aor. Pass. e. g. dapeiopev, dapeure : 
and hence it clearly appears that the other forms are not Indicatives, as 
some suppose. Indeed, all the above passages require the Subjunctive. 



§ 104. Usual and Unusual Tenses. 

1. To determine in respect to every verb what tenses are act- 
ually in use, and what not, is not a matter of definite rules ; and 
must therefore be left to the lexicons and to the fuller lists of 
verbs ; see h 114 and App. F. 



166 CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. § 105 

2. Thus much, however, may be noted from the mass of par- 
ticulars : The second tenses, so called, viz. the Aor. 2. Act. the 
Perf. 2, and the Aor. 2. Pass, occur almost exclusively and alone 
in primitive verbs ; which however often have in the Present a 
strengthened form ; e. g. those in -dvco. As however these primi- 
tives, when they thus form the second tenses, are all enumerated 
in the said lists of verbs and in the course of this whole division 
on the Verb, the learner may assume, that all verbs, in which 
such forms are not expressly specified, follow the other formation, 
i. e. have the first tenses. To these belong then almost all deriv- 
ative verbs.^ 

3. We can indeed assume it as a rule, that all derived verbs 
of three or more syllables, which have the following very com- 
mon derivative endings, 

d^CO, L^CO, CLLVCO, VVCO, 6VCD, 00), d(D, €0), 

e. g. (JKevdfyo from cricevr), vo/jll^co from vo/jlos, (TTj/jLaivco from ar/fia, 
evdvvco from eu#u?, irathevco from irals, BovXoco from BovXos, ri/Jidco 
from TLfJbif), (pcXeco from (/n\o?, form throughout only the 

Aor. 1 Active, Perf. 1 (in tea), and Aor. 1 Passive. 

See also § 96. 4. 

Note 1. Of these endings also, some in certain verbs are not derivative 
endings, but serve merely to lengthen out a verb • i. e. they belong to the 
strengthened forms of the Present (§ 92), by which the whole becomes 
anomalous; e. g. dXircuVco, Aor. 2 tjXitov ; Sa/iaco, Aor. 2 eSd^i/, etc. 

Note 2. Under the same head belong those derived verbs, which are 
formed from nouns by means of such endings as aaa>, tttio, XXco, etc. § 119. 
4. Of these dXXdo-croo is the only one which forms the Aor. 2 Pass. r]X\dyr)v. 



§ 105. Contracted Conjugation. 

1. Verbs in eco, dco, and oca, correspond entirely, in their gen- 
eral formation, to the rules and examples given above ; and in 
the sections which treat of the formation of the tenses, we have 
everywhere had reference also to these verbs. But in the Present 
and Imperfect of the Active and Passive (and Middle) forms, 
where the vowels a, e, o, stand immediately before the vowels 
of the personal endings, there arises in the Attic and common 
Language a Contraction, which in the Ionic dialect is often neg- 
lected ; see below in note 1. 

* Precisely as in English, by far the greater number of verbs and epecially de- 
rivatives, have the regular form of the Imperf. and of the past or Passive Participle 
in ed, as ask, asked, asked ; love, loved, loved ; while comparatively few, and those 
primitive, have the monosyllabic Imperf. and the Part, in en or n, as speak, spoke, 
spoken; give, gave, given, etc. 



} 105. CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. fc*»7 

2. This contraction conforms throughout to the general rules 
in $ 28 ; except in some endings of verbs in oco. In these verbs, 
instead of contracting oet into ov, and orj into w, according to the 
general rule, the l of the second and third person Sing, becomes 
predominant, so that the endings oet? and 077? are contracted into 
oh, and the endings oet and 077 into 01. Thus 

2 pers. Ind. Act. ina66ei<; ) , a „ 
1 c , . n' \ contr. lucruots 

— Subj. — /jLto-uoys ) r 

3 pers. Ind. Act. incrOoei ) , a .„ 
r , . /i' [ contr. iiiaooi 

— feubj. — [Jbiaooy ) r 

2 pers. Ind. and Subj. Pass. fiLo~66r) contr. [itaOoi. 

Since now 601 is also contracted into ol, the three moods, Indie. 
Subjunct. and O/tf. become in these two persons in the Active 
entirely alike. — The Infin. in oetv is regularly contracted, e. g. 
fALcrdoeLV contr. /jUctOovv. 

3. Verbs in dco, which everywhere follow the general rules of 
contraction, have the whole Indicative and Subjunctive in both 
Active and Passive alike ; inasmuch as both ae and arj are con- 
tracted into a ; aei and ay into a ; and ao, aov, aco, into co. 

4. "Where there is an c or 1 subscript in the ending, the con- 
tracted vowel (a, 7], co) usually and by rule takes 1 subscript. 
But in the Infin. Pres. of verbs in dco, the omission of the 1 sub- 
script (-av) is perhaps more common than its insertion.^ 

* Comp. Jtusf. Sprachl. § 105. n. 17. The 1 in the ending- of the Infin. is not se 
essential as in the second and third person of the Indicative ; hence also in uurGoa 
we have in the Infin. the contraction jwrdovv, but in the Indie. fxicQols, faadoi. Com- 
pare also the Doric Infinitive-ending -ev, $ 103. m. 34. § 105. n, 15. 



168 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. 



§105 



Is "35 ^G 
b b b 

3. 5. 3. 



2i ^ A 

o o s S" rf 

(S3 (S3 (S3 <S (S3 

o o o o _o 

<3} ^ <^> ^ 1} 

b b b b b 

3. 3. 3. 2. 5. 



.'-, v _ (~» 

(3 _p o 

<3> "35 <3} 

b b b 

3.3.3. 



<3 c3 



a. £ b 

3 <3 <3 



I ^ <^) ^ ^3 ^li 
b b b b b 

3.3. 3. 3.3. 



A 5* ?> 



iK? 



3 £ £ 

-o -o v o , v o v o v o v o v o 

^3 ^} ^S I ^3 ^D ^3 ^> ^i 

bbb'bbbbb 

3.3.3. 



vu O 



a. a. a. a. a. 



* S 



O O .1 «3 u 

3 r; Rs c- s> 3 c- 3 
-o ^c v o . v o -o v o v o v o 

^} ^3 ^3i *3i ^3 *3i ^ti ^3 

bbb I bbbbb 

3.3.3. 3.3.3.3.3. 



H 



p 



<3 <B-<3» 

3-3-3- 
t- h t. 



(C <B (3 ce (3 

33-3-3-3- 
t> t- t- t> t> 



# 6, 

(3 (B-ie- 

3 3 3- 
h P h 



° O ^ <" K 

(3 (B '3 <B <3- 

3-3333 

b h £ t- S 



o o 



3 S 5 

^B V B V B 

3-33- 
t- I- h 



V B v 3 "3 v 3 -B 

3 3 3-3 3- 
C S S K E 



3 sx Bs 



t- t- 



. . a.£ b 

sr- 3 s=- 3 

-B -3 v 3 -B -B 

3 3-3 3 3- 

? P f J S 



<3<£<£ I 

•O -J -J I 



Pin 
it <» (S <» 

Ku O vu O 

S O O O 

b b b b 



o o ^ <*> g 



b b b 



O O 3 O O 

b b b b b 






o o 
b b 



b b 



3 bs.Rs 



b b 



^ * £ -^ 

O O S U> k 

t< i- a. i. o 

^Sr- sr- 3 C- 3 

S S S v i IS 

o S o o o 

b b b b b 



ilOo 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. 



169 



J? J? rS 

<3i ^D <3i 
b b b 



^ ^ ^ 

^O <3i "Qi ^O "3i 

I b b b b b 



b- b 



o 3 



a. a. a. a. a. a., a. a. 



a. oj m 

o c o 

v O v O v o 
^ <3S <3i 

b b b 



^ ^ ^ 

o o o o o 

v o o v o v o v o 

^i ^S ^} ^} "-15 

b b b b b 



o «. 

,. t- to 

■*t O i o 



3 ^ O vs <S ^P ^ 

_p o o o o o b 

^U <3i ^ 'Qi ^ ^ti ^ 

^b b b b b b a - 

i a. a. a. a. a. 



a 3 

o b 



t- > 



a. a. a. a. a. a. a, a. 



O O v 3 o v o 
"^> "3} ^D ^ <3i ^ ^ 

s b b b b b b - 

^a. a. a. a. a. a. 



a. ^ S fc a. {: c 

<3-«3-<3- <3-»3-<3-<3-<3- 
a_ a. a, ' a. a, a. a. a, 



i- t- t- t- t- 



i- b 

'3- 3- v 3- 



5 3 

S, b J 

3 to 3 -3 

i- t- t- i- t- a. 

a -a <a -s <a ^e r» 
.a. a. a. a. a. a. b 
w C E h E h 



3 o 



«2 
O 
•-i 




3 - 

<l-3- 


f 


11/ 

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*3- 


s 

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| 




$_, 






o 






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^ 




H 




A ^ A c- 




Uj 


- 1- 


> 


3- a 


b ^b 3- b is a. 




■A. 

^3- 


< 


O O O 1 


o o o o o £ 
v a a v a v e v a t " 






O 


v a v a v a 








< 


3-3-3- ' 


3-3-3-3-3- 










t- t- h 


h i- ^ i- t* 






Sh 












fc 



e e v s a -s 



Si 



-3-3-3-3-3-3- 
S C S C K K 





A 2> A 




- — . 




O C- ^ to a 




=> w 


a. c 


b-bcS-ibcS 




t- b 


t?i-* t-» 






S 2 2 1 


1 '§ 2 2 2 2 




o o o 


00000 




"00^ 


b b b 


b b b b b 










^ 















■(-a 


R-^- C 






< 


v o ?^o 






;_, 


^ 




a A 5* 





J- s 


■o 

3- a - 


fc^lfS 




S a. 

^ 










s o N S v o 


1 00000 

1 is ^ is 12 is 




b ^0 










o o o 


00000 






b b b 


b: b b b b 







3§3 



a 3 
a v- 

3 o 



a 3 



o 
b b 



S- 



170 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. 



§ 105. 



1 

a. 



o o 
b b 



CO 



O CS 

v o o 

B « 

P b 



3 ,1 

b b 



^> ^D 15 

b b b 
»-j •»«» ^-j 



*G ^5 <35 

^b ^b ^b 



a & a 

c» »3 Q <S £ 
O c o O r: 

<3i "^t> <3i < 3Q ^ 
b b b b ^b 

-3--1--3--2--S- 



a ^ =• 

to v to O to o 

IP c *o v o c- 

Mi <Q^ <3i ^D ^ 

b b b b ^b 






t> v. 



3 
=4. 






-a ^3 

3- a. 



CO 



^§<3 

a 
b a" 

^ - 
3 ^ 
-§ '3 

a. a. 



5 »> 

3 a a 
a- v a.^a_ 



» * £ 
a. a. a. a 

c c n p 



Ch — I 



—, a & ? 

O to to to v to C to 

a a a i v e a v a * a 

-3-ok3- I 3- 3- 3- 3-. 

C £ £ t.- u E S 






§ 6 
h v 3 

b~ ■ 






8 



fell 

h ^ h 



do 



o Cr- 
ib. fc ._ 

o o o o 



a. fc * 



> -^- fe >^.^ 



•S3 

p- CD 

-a 

ks3 



-o |> 






— A ft a 









a • 










b K 










O <P 










^to o 


- — . ^ 




«u 




a ^ 

vS <3 


a o> - — - t- 
O to to to 
to to W 1 v to 


















O O O 1 O 




o 




2 S 


„b>„b > 


«o 


fe 


^ 


t: b 




£> 




P^ 






'-2 




•«^ 


i-2 


CO Q 








J- 




S 










* 

^ 




e 


o 






^ 







3- C * 



c o o o 



O) ^ © 



fc-5 






6 105. CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. 171 






oooooooo 



<3 ( o <3 ^3 <3 <3 -3 <3 <3 3 o o c o o S 



^^^^^^U^^^ ^j}^^^^^^^^ ^<3i^li^3i^Ti"3iT5^c>"qi £ 
bbbbbbbbb bbbbbbbbb febbbbbbbbco 

13.13.112.15. 3.3.12.3.3.3.3.3. 3. 3. 3. a. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. •»- 



oRiw-oSw-owo 3 Rs c--3 sr- t=--3 c- 3 o o o o o o g o c 

v o v o v o o v o v? o v o v o -o v o v o o -o "o o v o N o o va 20 o 20 o o 1° 19 

"q^^^^T}^^^*!} ^^^^"^"Cti^^^C) ^ti<3i'Qi , 5i < T3^>^^C(' : Ii 

bbbbbbbbb bbbbbbbbb §bbbbbgbb 

3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3. 3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3. 3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3. 



30 

id 
l&^« „ # I a a a „ ^ j= £ * a . '-' 

• 3. ? 3. D b 3. b £ 3. g3.bbS.bS io (• 4 b. b ib:S. o 

pq (3 ca-cS -3 <a ca -3 <a <3 <3 <a.<a -3 <a <a -3 <a <3 c3.<3-«3--3-<3--3-'-a-<3««3- « 

3-3-3-5-3-5-3-3-3- 3-5-3-5-5-5-5-3-3- 5-5-5-5-3-5-5-5-5- 
P"« Kh^i-CC-i-t-h £££££££££ S£i-Si-i-£C£# 



02 

Ol 



! g lb b lb ^ |. Sa.bba.bS v3-2b.3-fe^.5-SS 

ftp.i..»o(»u , oii/0 3 R; c— 3 c- c--3 kt-3 ooooooooo 

a v e v e a v a v a *a v e v a a v e ^e a v a v e a v e v e a v a a a v a v a 

5-5-3-a.a.a. 3-5-3.3.3.3.3.3.3. 3-5-5-3-5-5-5-3.3. 



3-5-5- 



SS'-iS^S *® * <R;cc— 3 <c-<r— 3 <g- c 3 ooooooooo 
ooooooooo OOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOO 

bbbbbbbbb bbbbbbbbb bbbbbbbbb 



3 - . J a a. ^ 



1 



as3<§<i<H*g I 8«W8 loetlflle 

1 ° E 3. b b 3. b £ |. g3. bb a. b | .a.2^^3.b v b v 3.b s 

o v R: v *u v o v vi> v vu v o ^vu v o v 3 n r; v e— 3 v R\C— 3 v sr- v o o v o v o o v o o g x o v c 

OOOOOOOOO ^OOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOO 

bbbbbbbbb. § bbbbbbbbb .bbbbbbbbb 

A Q Pk gW Q Pu -§CO Q PU 

^ 1 



172 CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. § 105. 



Q 3 ^ 



^^^^^ V § ^ 3 3. ° 3- b b lb 

b b b b b _P b a. »s(3Q^(i>avao 

o o o o o o boo ^ <3> ^> <q^ <^ ^ <^> ^> 

k^^^^^ 3. ^ ^ bbbbbbbbb 

obobbb^- b -3>j»j~>^>^>«iS«» 

a. a. a. a. a. a. a. a. "to "to "to "to "to "to "to "to "w 



a b a 

. a b !K ^ o^^CJ 

3|3,S^ 3 § l-o^^^^^P 

=>^^^ b ^ S I? ° a. b b a. b ^ 

P> b b b b b «* b ..a. ^o o to v o to N »u v o u* o 

O N *u W v vu U/ v vu a. *" O O v O v O O v O O O v O v O 

^P J? ^9 -P iP J? . 2? ^S ^ ^ ^ 'Qi <35 ^C> ^d <^i <3S 

^^^S 5 <g bbbbbbbbb 

3.3:3.3.13. 1 1 ^S-4-^-2-^^5-4 



* a b <d^ <* o a a a 



2 SJ 2^2 3- ,2 3- -3<3<e-3 



'3 ^a <a v e <a v a s <a -3 



C -d <U -C "3 <C 



w v 2 2 a.a.a.a.a.a.a.a.3. 



3- 3- 3- 3- ^ -^ ^ ^ 

P P K S 



-»^ _b-_t- t- I— t- t- t- t- 

"^ "^ - W "^ ^ ^ ^ "^ 



o 
a b 1— 1 ^ 

o S Q . Q S 3 O a ^E> O J=-^> to o 

a b b b b o *- o a. ^oovu v ow v w v ou/0 

.2 x £ J£ S nS S J-. vi v g a v e v a a v e a a v e ^a 

1111.1a. 1 1 3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3- 



3 o 3 u* 3 b a ^ c- - u» ^§ *s «S «§ 

..b.b.b.b b g b v f- -ao<b^<2.S-a\S 

O t~» $ O O to O to to O to 



\S 



■e ^ 000000000 

~PPPF-K B K "to "to to to "to to to "to to 



a b a 

^^"g^^^g 5 § ^ 5 £a.bba.bt 

S-i-^^S^O ^ 5^ OOCoOCOOO 

£22225 2 -2 bb.bfefcfcbbb 

B B B b b t5 • b ^ b "to "to 'to "to "* "to "to "to "£ 






105. 



CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. 



173 



The following tenses suffer no contraction : but we exhibit 
here the Perfect and Pluperfect Passive fully inflected, in order 
that the analogy of these forms, in comparison with the same 
tenses from Trcuhevw, may be clearly seen. 



Indie. S. nreiToiriiiai 

7re7TOLT]crai 

TT€7TOir)TClL 

D. 7r€7roir)fxedov 
TreTToi-qcrOov 
7re7roiT]a6ov 

P. 7T€7roLr][xe8a 
TrenoirjO-de 
7T€7roi,r]VTaL 



Infinit 
Par tic. 



neTTOirjcrdai 
7re7roir)iJ.6vo? 



Subjunct and Optat. are wanting 
see § 98. n. 9. 

Imper. S. irtTro'irfcro 

7re7roir]crdco, etc. 



S. €7r€7TOLr)/J,7]V 
iireiroirjcro 

€7Ve7TOLr)TO 
D. €7T€7rOLr]fie0OV 

e7T€7roir]crdov 
€7T€7roLr}crdr]v 

P. €7T€7rOiTjfJL€0a 
€TT€7rOLr]O~0€ 

ineTrotrjVTO 



Perfect. 

TeTLfirj/JLai 
T€TLfJLT](rai 

Terlfirjrai 
rerifxrjfJLedov 

T€Tlfir](T0OV 
T€TlfirfO'8oV 

TeTifj.rffj.e0a 
reTLfirjaBe 

TeTlflTfVTai 

rerifjiTJadai 

TeTlfXTffXeVOS 

. For the few verbs 



reTLfX7]ao 
TeTifxr)ar0oo } etc. 



Pluperfect. 

eTeTifJbrjfjbrjV 
erer//xjycro 

€TeTLfXrjTO 

eTeTifJ.rjfj.e0ov 
€TerifMT]<j6ov 
eTerip.r](rdr]u 
eTeTip-Tj/JLeda 

ireTifinvTO 



fjuefitadoofJiaL 

fj.efiLo-0u>aai 
/xe/xiV^corat 
fj,efJiia0a>[j.e0ov 
fie filer 6 coo- 0ov 

fl€fXLO-0(x)O-0OV 

fxefiia8cofj.€0a 

fi€fx[o-0a>a0e 

fi€fj.LO-0a>VTai 

I fjLefiia05>a0ai 
I fiefiio-0a>fievos 

which can form them, 

I fj.€fxla8oiao 

J fiefJUo~8a>o~8ci) i etc. 



ifl€/XLO~6d){jLr)V 
€fj.efJLia0a>cro 

€fieflLO-0(£>TO 
€fJL€fJLLO-0a>fJLe0OT/ 

ifi€fiio-0<£>o-0ov 
ifiefJLio-6ccso-0-qv 

€[XeflLO-0U>fJL€0a 

€fjL€filo-0a>o-0e 
efxefxia0covro 



Fut. 1. 
Aor. 1. 
Fut. 3. 


7roi7]0TJcrofiai, 

€7roiij6r]V 

TreTTOLrjaojUiaL 




TL/ArjOrjaofAaL 
€TLjJbr)6rjV 

T6TLfM]CT0fAaL 


fJLLaOcodrfo-ojJLai 

e/jLLo-6co6r)v 

fxefMLaOcoaofUaL 


Fut. 1. 
Aor. 1. 


TTOLrjaofiaL 

€TrOL7]Crd/jL7]V 

TTOLrjTeos 

TTOLTJTOS 


M 


I D D L E * 

TLfArjaofjiaL 
eTL[H)crdjJLr)V 


fjucrOcDcro/ULaL 
i/juo-6cocrdfJ,r)v 




Verbal Adjectives. 

1 TL/jL7)T€0S 
\ TLjJLTjTOS 


fiLaOayreo^ 
/hlo-0cdt6<z 



* Tloiu<rdcu to make for oneself; n/xaaOai to honour, as in the Active ; uia6od(T&eu 
to cause to let to oneself, i. e. to hire. 



174 CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. NOTES. § 105 

Note 1. The older Grammarians taught without any limitation, that the 
uncontracted forms of these verbs were Ionic forms. They may be more 
correctly called the old or the ground-forms ) and it is only in ^eros in eco 
that they are in the proper sense Ionic, i. e. such as are usee 1 by all Ionic 
writers. They belong however exclusively to the later Ionic prose ; for 
the epic writers very often used the contracted forms, and sometimes also 
employed the lengthened ela> instead of eco ; e. g. oKvela, irkeUiv, venceUaKe, 
etc. — The uncontracted form of verbs in dec is only so far to be called Ionic, 
as the epic writers sometimes avail themselves of it: althoagh in only a 
few words and forms: e. g. doioidet, irtivdovTci, vcuerdovaiv, etc. — Verbs in 
oco are found uncontracted only in this first psrs. Singular ; elsewhere they 
are always either contracted, or take the double sound peculiar to the epic 
writers; see notes 10, 11. — In the Ionic prose, verbs in da and 6a> never 
occur, except either in the usual contracted form (as above in the Att. Fut. 
§ 95. n. 11), e. g. in Herodot. vlkclv, ivinav, viKaev, elpaTa, (3ia for /3iaou ) also 
brjXol, ip.iadovvTo, erepoiovvTo : or else with the peculiarities of formation and 
contraction which are given below, in note 7 sq. 

Note 2. In the Attic and common language, none of the contractions 
which occur in this conjugation were ever neglected ; not even in Attic 
poetry, i. e. in the dramatic trimeter. The only exceptions are the shorter 
verbs in eco, whose present Act. in the uncontracted form has only hvo syl- 
lables, as rpeco. These admit only the contraction in ec ; e. g. rpeei rpet, 
erpee erpei, ttvUiv irveiv:^ ill all other forms they remain uncontracted; 
e. g. pea>, yeo/zai, rpeop,ev, Trveovcri, nvejj, etc. There are to be excepted 
nevertheless 8eiv to bind, e. g. to dovv, tu> dovvn Plat. Cratyl. 419, 421 ; (6) 
dyadcov Aristoph. Plut. 589 ; 8iadovp.ai, etc. On the contrary 8eiv to need, 
leant, has commonly to deov, 8eop.ai, for the sake of. distinction.! 

Note 3. The movable v is taken by the 3 pers. Smg. Impf. only in the 
uncontracted form, as Horn, eppeev, fjreev, and even Xen. Hell. 6. 2. 27 
€77\eeu; but not in the contracted one. Yet Homer has once fjaiceiv from 
do-K€ti). Comp. the Plupf. in § 103. m. 12. 

Note 4. The form of the Optative, known by the name of the Attic Op- 
tative, which is in a measure peculiar to contract verbs (§ 103. m. 13), is 
fully given in the paradigm (p. 169), in order that the analogy of it may 
be clearly understood. It is however to be observed, that the Attic usage, 
which was governed only by a regard to euphony and clearness, preferred 
certain parts selected from each of the forms, viz. 

1) The Plural of the Attic form was less used, because of its length, 
especially in verbs in ea and 6a', least of all the 3 pers. Plur. in olrj- 
crav, arjaav. The Attics said almost always Trocolev, Tifiaev, p.io~6olev. 

2) In the Singular, however, the Opt. in olr\v from verbs in ea and 6a, is 
far more usual than the other form. 

3) In verbs in da the Attic Opt. (Tifiarjv etc.) is in the Sing, used almost 
exclusively ; and also in the Plur. (with the exception of the 3 pers.) 
far more frequently than in the other two classes of verbs. 

Note 5. Some verbs in da are contracted in the Doric manner into n in 
stead of a (see note 15) ; viz. 

gyp to live, xpw@ a <> to use, 
neivjjv to hunger, 8i\{/rjv to thirst, 

* Likewise in the Imperat. e. g. irAee, 7rAer Aristoph. Av. 598, and often. Bm 
also d7r^x 6 e Dig. Laert. II. 77. 

t But see the Anom. Sew. — In the verb x^'w we must take care not to confound 
the 3 Sing, exee from Aor. 1 ex«* (see Anom. x««>) with the same person of the 
Impei feet; the latter is contracted, ex ee eyet, the former not ; e. g. Aristoph. Nub 
75 KOLTexeeu. 



* \{)5. CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. NOTES. 175 

from £dco, ypdco, ( see D °th in § 114,) ireivaa , St\|/-aoo. These make ^r, £/;, 
efn, xPV Tai -> etc - The following verbs also, so nearly related to each other 
in their signification, viz. 

Kvdco scrape, apdco stroke, -v/mco rub, 
are contracted in the same manner, at least in the genuine Attic.* 

Note 6. The verb piydco I am cold has an irregular contraction, viz. into 
co and co instead of ov and oi ; e. g. Inf. piycbv, Opt. piycprjv. But this pecul- 
iarity is not always observed, at least in our editions. — In the verb ibpoco 1 
sweat, which in signification is opposed to the preceding, the same rule 
holds in the Ionic dialect ; e. g. idpebaa II. S. 27 ; idpcorj Hippocr. do Aer. 
Aq. Loc. 17. 

Dialects. 

Note 7. Since the Ionics form the 2 pers. Pass, in the ordinary conjuga- 
tion in eat and eo (§ 103. m. 17), there arises in verbs in eco an accumulation 
of vowels in this person, which the Ionic prose writers retain, as iroueai, 
eVaiveeat, etc. The epic writers contract sometimes the first two vowels, 
e. g. pvQeiai, like pvdeerai pvdelrai. Sometimes one e is elided, and in eeo 
always ; e. g. pvdeai from pvdeopac Od. |3. 202 ; (fiofieo from (pofteopai Herod. 
9. 120; aheo, e^rjyeo, etc. The form dvaKoivio (Theogn.) from a verb in 6co, 
stands alone. The forms of this 2 person in erj, drj, 6rj ; eov, dov, 6ov, which 
we have placed in the paradigm for the sake of uniform analogy, never 
occur. 

Note 8. Verbs in dco, as we have seen (note 1), are not commonly used 
by the Ionics in their proper uncontracted form ; but many of them are so 
resolved that the a passes over into e; e. g. 

opeco, Speopev, for opdeo, opdopev 

(poiTeovres for (poirdovres 1 

^peerat, p^yaz/eecr&u, for arm, do~6ai 
and the like. Sometimes they change ao into eco (§ 27. n. 10) ; e. g. prj 
Xavecovrai, ^pecopai, oppecopevos, opscovres, etc. Others, as vlkclv, avbav, etc. 
never take this change of a into e. 

Note 9. In the 3 pers. Plur. where the Ionics change v into a (§ 103. IV.) 
and put -earo for -ovro, they sometimes employ in these verbs the same 
ending for -eovro, where of course there is an elision of one e; but this is 
done only in verbs in dco, as epijxavea-o for -dovro, -eovro, comm. epijxavcovTO. 
— In the Perf. and Plupf. they not only change vvtcli and oovrai into rjarai, 
coarai, e.g. TreTroT^arai, /ce^oXcoaro, Homer ; but likewise commonly shorten 
the 77 into e, e. g. 

01/cearat, ireTipiaro, for cpKrjvrcu, ireriprjvro. 

Note 10. The old Ionic of the epic writers sometimes contracts the 
forms, and sometimes not. In verbs in dco however, which are seldom em- 
ployed in their primary uncontracted form (note 1), the Ionic allows these 
poets the peculiar license of again resolving the vowel or improper diph- 
thong of contraction into a double sound, by repeating before it the same 
sound, either long or short, according to the necessities of the metre (§ 28 
n. 3). Thus a in 

(opdeiv) opav — opdav : on the t subscr. see n. 15. marg. 

(acryaXdet) acrxaXa — dcrxaXda 

2 pers. Pass, [pvarj) pva — pvda 

dyopdaBe, pvacrdai — dyopdaade, pvdacrdai. 

* Two other Infinitive forms, pakKirjv and ovpfv, from pa\Kidco to be cold, numb, 
pnd ovpc«. may with tolerable certainty be shewn from grammarians to be A.ttic; 
see Jus/.' Sprachl. p. 487, 



176 CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. NOTES. $ 105. 

Further, o or co in 

(6pda>) 6p£> — opdo) 
Imperat. Pass. (aXdov) 6X5) — dXo'o) 
((3odov(rt) (3oS>(ri. — fiooaxri 
Opt. [alridoLTo) alrioZro — alriocoro 
(dpdovat) dpaxri — Spcococri 
Part. Fem. (r)(3dovcra) fjfioocra — rifiwaxra.. 
In the Ionic prose this species of resolution occurs seldom : Hdot. t]yop6covTo 
6. 11 ; Kop-ocoo-L 4. 191. — Sometimes the o is placed after co, e. g. 

fjfiaovTe?, f](3<i>oip.i, for 7]/3a>vTes, rj^cpp.1, from -dovres, doipi. 
and for ye\a>vTe? may stand either yeXocovres 1 or yeXeoovres; as the metre may 
require. From these forms we can understand, how in some verbs this 
doubling of the sound by means of co, passed over into a peculiar formation. 
-coco, d>€is, ooei; see the Anom. £dco, MAO, and p,vd<s> in p,ip.vr)o-icco. — A peculiar 
anomaly is the Homeric Particip. Fem. vaierdcotra for - dov era or -oca era; also 
crdco, see crco£co § 114} and the form p,evoivqrjo- i II. o. 82 ; for which how- 
ever another quite as early reading is /xevoiv^o-eie Opt. 

Note 11. All forms with the double sounds oa> and coo are also common 
to verbs in 6a> ; though in these they can arise neither by regular resolu- 
tion, nor by doubling the vowel of contraction; e. g. 
(dpoovcri) dpovcri, epic dpdcotrt 

(brfioovro, drj'iooiev,) brfiovvro, drj'ioiev, epic 8 r)'i 6 cov to, b-q'iocoev 
(vrrvoovTas) vrvvovvras, epic inrvcbovTas. 
Note 12. The iterative Imperfect in ctkov (§ 103. m. 11) is more seldom 
employed by the Ionics in these verbs ; e. g. cpCkeecrKov Hdot. fiovKokeeo~K.es 
Homer. This form was never contracted ; but was sometimes syncopated 
in the earlier poets by dropping e ; e.g. fj-^eo-Ke for ^eecr/ce from ^x ec0 ; eao-Ke 
from edco j and so with a doubling of a, vaierdacrKov from vaierdco. 

Note 13. That the Dorics contract eo into ev instead of ov, and that this 
is followed by the Ionics when they contract, has already been mentioned, 
§ 28. n. 5. Thus e. g. from ttouco they make 

iroievp-ev, 7roievp,ai, Troievvres, eno'iew. 
But in verbs in do likewise we often find in Herodotus and others ev, con- 
trary to analogy, instead of ov contracted from oo; e. g. 

ebiKaievv, ebiKalev, TikrjpevvTes^ from diKaioto, TrXrjpoco. 
And this same contraction takes place, through the change of a into e (note 
8), in verbs in dec, e. g. 

elpcorevv, dyanevvres^ from eipcordco, ayairdco. 
Finally, ev stands not only for eou, and consequently for aov, but also for 
oov; e. g. 

iroievcri, (piXevcra^ for rroieovcn, oucrt, cpCKeovcra, ovcra 
yeXevaa for yeXdovaa, cocra 
diKaievcri for biKaioovcri, overt. 
Closer observation must teach, which of these different forms occurs most 
frequently in each of the two dialects. But it follows of course, that the 
3 Plur. noievon, yeXevat can be only Ionic ; because the Dorics form Tvoievvn? 
yeXevvri. Comp. § 103. m. 28. 

Note 14. In another mode of contraction, which is rather iEolic than 
Doric, o is often absorbed by a preceding a, which thereby becomes long; 
e. g. (pvo-avres for (pvadovres, 3 PI. neivcouTi or ireivavn. 

Note 15. When the Ionics sometimes change the a and a of contraction into 
7/ and 77, e. g. opfjv, cpoLrjjv, Irja-Bai, etc. this coincides entirely with the nature 
of their dialect; but it is done only by a part of the Ionic writers, e. g. 

* The Doric ecu cm can be contracted only into evcra, and not into o?<ra, which 
occurs only in the Particip. Aor. 2 \a/5o?cra, where there is no contraction ; set 1 
$ 103. m. 29. 



§ 106. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fJLL. Ill 

Hippocrates. Herodotus has opav, vikclv, and from xp" 00 even xpdadai. xpd, 
etc. On the contrary, among the Dorics, who everywhere else employ long 
a instead of rj, this contraction into -q instead of a is a peculiarity, (where 
too in the contraction from aei they omit the i subscript,*) e. g. oprjv, eprj for 
ipa, ToXfirjTe for roX/^iare, etc. Nevertheless, in flexion, they say, Inf. aor 
Tohixao-ai, etc. They have the same contraction in the Infill, of verbs in eco 
e. g. K.oarfxrjv for Koo-jxelv. 

Note 16. The epic writers avail themselves in like manner of 77 as the 
vowel of contraction ) but only in some forms from dec and eco, chiefly in 
the Dual in ttjv, e. g. 7rpoorav8rjrr)v, op.aptyyvqv, from aibdoo, op-aprta] and in 
the lengthened Infinitive forms in rjvai, r]p.evai, instead of elv and av) e. g. 
(poprjvai from cpopeco, (^CKrjp,evai, yorjp,evat for yoav.f 

Note 17. From verbs in 6<x> the epic Inf. dpop-p-evai for dpovv, is a solitar> 
example. 

Note 18. Other rare'iEolic forms are. the Infinitives in y from verbs in 
dco and 6co with the accent drawn back ; e. g. yekais, ityot?, § 27. n. 4. Also 
Part. fern. yeXaiaa for yeXdoio-a, -ovcra, comp. § 103. m. 29. 

A Catalogue of the Verbs Contract see in Appendix F. 



Irregular Conjugation. 
§ 106. Verbs in fit. 

1. We commence our account of the Anomaly of the Greek 
verb, with that which is called, from the ending of the 1 pers. 
Pres. Indicative, the Conjugation in fit. This does not, like the 
two preceding forms of conjugation (barytone and contract), con- 
tain a multitude of Greek verbs; but only a limited number, 
Which differ from the regular analogy of the great mass of verbs 
in some essential points. 

2. All verbs in \xi have one root or stem, which in the ordinary 
formation would terminate in co pure (§ 28. 1) ; and chiefly in 
eco, dco, oco, vco. It is therefore usual in grammar, to trace back 
this less usual formation to the other more familiar one ; and to 
say e. g. that the verb TL07)fu comes from a simpler form 0Ef2. 
— There is only one example from the stem- vowel X, viz. elfit from 
Tif2, for which see below in k 108. V. 3. 

3. The peculiarities of the conjugation in /m are confined to 
these three tenses, viz. 

Present, Imperfect, Aorist 2. 

* For this omission of the i subscript see § 105. 4, and 103. m. 34. Some of tho 
Grammarians always omitted it in the double sounds, e. g. dpdav, opdas. 

t Here belongs dprjai, for which see the marg. note to § 106 n. 9 ; and frr]<Tdcu, 
see the Anom. ©AH. Comp. also e0rj7jTo under the Anom. &dop.ai. Both modes of 
contraction, (that into ?j, and that into et and 5,) which in the development of the 
language became the property of particular dialects, were unquestionably, in the 
earliest language, like so many other forms, in common fluctuating usage. Of the 
form in 17 some examples {Cw, etc.) always remained common ; and no wonder 
that we find in the epic language still more instances of this kind, which have been 
retained on account of some special euphony. 

M 



178 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fit. § 106 

The essential feature in all these peculiarities is, that the endings 
of flexion, e. g. fiev, re, v, fiat, are not annexed by means of a 
union-vowel (opev, ere, ov, o/icu), but are appended immediately 
to the stem- vowel of the verb, e. g. 

rlOe-fiev, icrrchfiati BlSo-re, eSel/cvv-re, edrj-v. 
How far this may be regarded as a syncope of the union- vowel, 
and also for the syncopated formation in general, see below in 
notes 6, 7, 8, and § 110. 

4. There are moreover some peculiar endings, viz. 

fii — in the 1 person Pres. Sing. 

en or (tlv — in the 3 person Pres. Sing. 

S-t — in the 2 person Imperat. Sing. 
Further, the Infinitive of the Pres. and Aor. 2 always ends in 
vai ; and the Masc. of the Participle in the Nom. ends, not in v, 
but always in 9, before which v has been dropped ; on which ac- 
count the stem-vowel is lengthened before the ? in the usual 
manner, a?, a?, oi/?, £?, Gren. vto$. These endings of the parti- 
ciple always have the tone, in the form of the acute accent. 

Note 1. In the Imperat. of the Aor. 2 Act. some verbs have nevertheless 
instead of Si a simple s; as $es, Sdr, es; see ridrjfii, dldapi, trjfxi, and comp. 
aye? and cppes in anom. ex<o and cpptco, §114. 

5. The Subjunctive and Optative unite the stem- vowel of the 
verb with the vowel of their endings into a mixed vowel or diph- 
thong, upon which they regularly always have the tone. The 
mixed vowel of the Subjunctive, when the stem has either e or 
a, is ft> or 77 : 

w, $9, Vi wpev, ijre, 6j(ti(v) ; Pass, wfiai, fj, etc. 
But when the stem has o, the Subjunctive has always co : 

co, C09, co, cofjiev, o)T6, £)cn(y) ) Pass. oijJLai, co, etc. 
The mixed sound of the Optative is a diphthong with c, to which 
in the Active the ending yv is always joined; in the Pass, as 
usual, fJLTjv: 

rcd-elrjv, [(TT-atrjv, SlS-oltjv; Pass. rid-eifjLrjv, etc. 
See § 107. m. 29 sq. — Yerbs in v/11 form these two moods most 
commonly from the ordinary conjugation in -vco. 

6. Several of the shorter stem-forms receive a reduplication, 
which consists in repeating the initial consonant with 1 ; e. g. 

A Ofl SiScofiL, OEfl TiOrjfiu 
But when the stem begins with err, 7rr, or with an aspirated 
vowel, it merely prefixes the 1 with the rough breathing : 

ZTAJ2 torrifii, TIT Aft farafuu, 'Eft vqju. 
It is only in such words that the Aorist 2 is possible in this form 
of conjugation ; since it is chiefly by the want of this reduplica- 
tion, that this tense in the Indicative is distinguished from the 
Imperfect ; and in the other moods, from the Present ; see h 96 
n. 2. E. g. 
Pres. TiOrjfXi (Subj. tl0(o) Impf. irlOrjv Aor. Wi\v (Subj. ^w). 



i 106. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fU. 179 

7. The short stern -vowel (e, d, o, v), in its connection with the 
endings of this formation, always becomes long- in the Sing, of 
the Indie. Active in all the three tenses. Thus we have from 

e ) ( (@E) riOrj-jjn, erldrj-v, e0r)-v 

a ) "' l (%TA) Lorrj-fii, Z&Tty-i^ ecrrrj-v 
o — co, (AO) BlSco-fJLt, iBiBco-v, eBco-v 
v — v, deLfcpv-jMj eBelicvv-v. 

And so too X becomes et in the verb el fit,. In the Plural of the 
same tenses, in the other moods, and everywhere in the Passive, 
the vowel appears most frequently in its original form as short ; 
e. g. Ttde/Jiev, eOecrav, riOevcu, rlOerc, rl^e/xac, etc. Yet the fol- 
lowing are exceptions from this rule, and retain the long vowel : 

1) The Dual and Plural, as also the Infin. and Imperative, of 
the Aor. 2 of lorrjfii, ; thus earr^fiev, etc. The same flexion 
is followed by nearly all syncopated Aorists, h 110. 

2) The Infinitives Aor. 2 of BIBcd/m and rldrj/jbc (ltj/lu), which 
change e into ev, o into ov ; thus ^elvai, Bovvai. 

Other exceptions, as Kiyftvai, Bityj/jLat, see in § 114. 

8. Verbs in vv/u strictly form a special class of the verbs in 
fit. For the w which precedes the personal endings does not be- 
long to the pure verbal stem, but is a mere strengthening of the 
latter ; and hence these verbs can form no analogous Aor. 2, i. e. 
in vv ; see note 4. That is to say, certain verbs append to the 
stem of the verb the ending wju or wvfii ; viz. the former, vv/al, 
when the stem ends in a consonant or diphthong, as BeiK-vvya, 
oty-vvfii, Bai-vvfjui ; and the latter, vvv/m, when the stem ends in a 
short (or simple) vowel, as fcopi-vvvfu, tl-vvv/hi,. Before the latter 
3nding o is lengthened into oj, as %a>-wvfu from %c&> ; and also 
by transposition, as (TTp(b-vvv/jLC for o-rope-vvvfja, h 110. n. 7. See 
the examples § 112. 15. 

Note 2. Since the ending of the 2 pew. Pass, in the ordinary conjuga- 
tion (rj, ov) comes from carai, earo ; and since in the conjugation in \ii this 
union- vowel (e) falls away; the ending of this 2 pers. Pass, in these verbs 
is simply crat, o~o, e. g. riOe-crai, iride-cro, tara-crai, etc. just as in the Perf. 
and Plup. Pass, of the ordinary conjugation. Still, a similar contraction 
occurs here with the stem- vowel, in some verbs more, in others less fre- 
quently; see marg. note on p. 184. 

9. AH the other tenses are derived as in the ordinary conjuga- 
tion from the simple theme, and without the reduplication ; e. g. 
TiOrj^iL (QEfl) Fut. ^rjo-o). Nevertheless, some of the verbs which 
belong here have, as anomalous verbs, peculiarities in these tenses 
also. These however must be separated from the peculiarities 
of the formation in fit ; and, so far as they are common to several 
of these verbs, we proceed to exhibit them here in one general 
view. 

10. The two verbs tarT7]fit and BlBco/it shorten the vowel in those 
Passive tenses which belong to the ordinary conjugation : 



ISO IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fll. 4 106. 

Act. (tttjctco Perf. earrjfca Pass. Perf. eard/Jbai, Aor. icrrddrjv 
— BctxrcD — SeScofca — — SeSoficu — ehoOijv. 
The verbs tIOtj^l and irj/M (•§ 108. 1.) do the same, but only in the 
Aorist Pass, and in the Future which depends on it : 
iriOrjv (for eOiOrjv, from GEfl), TeOrjcroficu 
i0ek Part. Aor. 1 Pass, (from 'Eft). 
In the Perfect of both Act. and Pass, these two verbs change the 
stem-vowel into ei : redeiKa, TeOeifiai • eltca, el/mac. 

11. The three verbs rlOrjfu, trjfii, SlBg)jm, have a peculiar form 
of the Aor. 1 in tea, e. g. 

edrj/ca, r]tca, ehcoKa, 
which must of course be distinguished from the Perfect. On the 
other hand, Zonifii has regularly the Aor. 1 ecrrrjaa, io-Trjad/jLijv. 

12. Yerbs in vvfil or vvvfii form all these tenses quite regularly 
from the simple unused form of the Pres. in co. Thus Set/cvvfii 
from AEtlK.fl, Seltjco, ehel^O^v * Kopevvvjii from KOPEfl, /copio-co, 
k£ko peer fiat, etc. 

Note 3. In the more current dialects, no verbs in rjfxi and cofxi are to be 
found, which, exclusive of the reduplication, have more than two syllables J 
excepting perhaps aqju and some deponents in rj/xm (instead of e/xai), a/iai, 
and ojxai (from -dec) ; which, as also arjfxi, are to be sought under the anom- 
alous verbs; e. g. dlfyfxai, dvpayai, ovofxai. See the details, § 112. 15. 

Note 4. Instead of the Aor. 2 of verbs in v/xi, which is wanting, the 
syncopated Aorist of some verbs in va is employed ; e. g. edvv, from Anom. 
Suco. — In order to know at once, where the v is long or short, we have only 
to compare i'o-r^/u ; thus beiKw/jn is long like taTrjfxi; deUw/xev is short like 
Hcrrafiev ; Aor. 2 edvpev (see the Anom. 8voa) is long like tarrjjxev, etc. 

Note 5. All verbs in /n increase their anomaly still more by the circum- 
stance, that the Present and Imperf. in many single persons and moods, 
forsake the formation in jxi, and are formed in the ordinary manner from 
eo), da, do), i. e. like contract verbs, retaining nevertheless the reduplication; 
consequently as if from TI9EQ, etc. Those in v\ii are also formed from vco. 
Meanwhile, in order to have a full view of the whole analogy, it is necessary 
to inflect them throughout according to the formation in fxi; and where the 
other formation predominates in common usage, we shall point it out in the 
notes. On the whole, the formation in yn belongs to the more genuine Attic. 

Note 6. That the learner may form a correct judgment of the formation 
in /it, we premise further some general remarks. There are, in most lan- 
guages, two modes of appending the endings in the inflection of the verb, 
viz. either with or without a union-vowel; something as in English, e. g. 
in blessed or blessed (blest). On general principles, it is difficult to determine 
which of these two modes is the oldest in any language ; but in grammar 
it is more natural — when not opposed by a stronger analogy — to assume 
the longer form as the original one, and then to consider the other as Syn 
cope from it. Comp. also § 95. n. 15 and marg. 

Note 7. The syncopated form is the most natural, when without it two 
vowels would come together in pronunciation. While now in the greatest 
number of Greek verbs of this kind (verbs pure) the full form was preferred, 
which then passed over into the contracted form (cjuXeo-fiev, c^lXov/jlcv) ; in 
some others the syncopated form was retained (Se-pev). This syncope could 
not have had place in the endings of the ordinary conjugation, which con- 
sist only of a vowel sound (3e-a>, $e-ei, Se-e) ; and these are precisely the 
instances where another form of the ending, /it, ai, Si, has been retained; by 



* 107. 



IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN jM. 



181 



which means, in these persons also, a consonant came to stand immediately 
after the .stem-vowel. This vowel too was in part lengthened; and thus 
arose e. g. from the root #e- the forms Srj-pi, idrj-v, Se-pev, Se-6i, etc. — The 
reduplication probably only served to strengthen these shorter verbs in the 
Present ; and thus were distinguished a shorter form (edrjv) for the Aorist, 
and a longer one for the Present and Imperfect, ridrjpi, £rL6r)v. — An anom- 
alous reduplication see in dvlvrjfit, § 114. 

Note 8. From this view of the subject it is evident, that the formation 
which at present constitutes the essential character of verbs in pi, could 
just as well occur in single parts of any verb ; and that therefore it is 
entirely unnecessary to assume an appropriate 1 pers. Present in pi, for 
every single tense or form in which this flexion appears. Indeed., we shall 
find below (§ 110. 10) forms of the Perfect, whose Plural, etc. is made in 
this manner; and also (§ 110. 6) second Aorists of this kind (hence called 
syncopated) from some verbs, which have in the Present either the ordinary 
form, as /3idco, bva> — A. 2 e/3iW, edvv ) or a form entirely different, as /3a/- 
v(£>, yiyvaxTKco — A. 2 efirjv, eyvav. 

Note 9. Some branches of the Doric dialect, however, actually formed 
the 1 pers. Pres. of many common verbs in pi instead of <x>; e. g. Spy pi, 
cpiXrjpi, instead of opdco, cpikeca; and likewise the 3 pers. in at, e. g. Kpi- 
vrjcri for Kpivet. Of this there are still some traces extant in the early epic 
writers ; e. g. a'ivrjpi in Hesiod ; and hither the Grammarians refer some 
Homeric forms, viz. the 3 pers. in 770-1, e. g. II. e. 6 napcpalvrja-i; II. 1. 323 
n-pocpeprjo-i j* and the 2 pers. Pass, op-qai Od. £. 343, as if from Pass, op-qpai 
(for -apai) from Spaa, oprjpi.f 



§ 107. Paradigms of the Conjugation in fit,. 





ACTI* 


VB. 






Present. 




set, put 


placet give 


show 


(from OEfl) 


(from 2TAI2) (from AOfl) 


(from hencvvco) 


indicative. 






S. rldrjpi 


larrjpi 


dldoopi 


delicvvpi 


Ti6rjs 


io~rrjs 


Sl'StOf 


deiKvvs 


TL$T](n(v) 

D 


l[(TTr)cn(v) 


oidioai(v) 


beiKVVai{v) 


rlderov 


icrrarov 


dldorov 


be'iKvvrov 


rlderov 


tararov 


8it)orov 


t)€LKVVTOV 


P. riOepev 


tarapev 


t)l8opev 


deiKvvpev 


rldere 


to-rare 


dlbore 


deiKvvre 


ridedo~i(v) 


iardai{v) 


8i86aai(v) 


t}eiKVVao~l(v) 


or 




or 


or 


Ti6a.cn 




didovai 


deiKvvai 



* It is however to be considered, that this form occurs in Homer only after a 
relative (offre, as, etc.) and therefore ought everywhere to be written, as is now 
actually done in most of the instances, with 1 subscript, r)<ri. It is thus to be re- 
garded as a freer use of the Subjunctive. 

t A part only of the ancient Grammarians accent the word thus, ofyqcu ; others 
write oprjai, which is nothing more than a contraction of dpdtai into 77 instead of a, 
uccording to § 105. n. 16. In this case, the 77 was probably preferred for the sake 
of euphony ; since Homer has elsewhere regularly dpdrai, opdro, etc. 

t For the anomaly in the signification of this verb, see the notes under II, below. 



182 



IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fll. 



Iff 



Note I, 1. The 3 Plur. in aai{v) is alone usual in good Attic; in the 
ancient Grammarians it is called Ionic, because it was erroneously consid- 
ered as the resolved form. In usage however it is so far from Ionic, that 
on the contrary only the circumflexed form, Ti6ei<n, didovai, beiKvixri, is to 
be found in Herodotus. The earlier Attics have the same ; and later it was 
regarded as belonging to the common language. 

Note I, 2. The contracted form TiOeis, lards, etc. (§ 106. n. 5,) is in the 
Present least used by the Attics. From Si'Sco/n Homer and the Ionics have 
didois, didoi; Homer also 2 pers. didoiada. 



Infinitive. 








Tidkvai 


loravat, I hihovav 


Seifcvvvcu 


Participle. 








TiQeis (evros) 


lords (dvros) 


Sibovs (ovros) 


deucvvs (vvros) 


riBelaa 


lardaa 


dibovoa 


SeiKvvaa 


riBkv 


loTCLV 


diftov 


beiKvvv 


Subjunctive. 








S. Ti0a> 


Iot£> 


8iS5> 




Tldfjs 
Tl6fj 

D. — 777-01/, rjrov 


io-rfis 

tOTfl 


didcZs 
8t8<5 


from 
deiKvCoa 


— 777-01/, 777-01/ 


(OTOV, WTOV 




P. cofxev, 777-6, £>ai 


cofxev, Tjre, coat 


eofiev, are, GHTl 




Forth 


ese Subjunctives 


see notes under III. 


Optative. 








S. TiOeirjv 


larairjv 


8l$OlT]V 




TiOeirjs 


IcrairjS 


8*8007? 




riOeirj 


toTat'77 


dldoiT) 




D. — 

Tl6ei7)TOV 


larairjrov 


8i8oir)Tov 


from 


Tl6eiT)TT]U 


lcrTairjT7]v 


8180077-771/ 


P. rtdeirjfiev 


i<TTairi}iev 


81801'77/iei/ 




rideirjre 


larairjre 


84801777-6 




TiBeirjaau 


larairjaav 


SeSoi^crai/ 





Note I, 3. We find also 8180)771/; but this is a corrupt orthography of the 
later writers ; as is also the Aor. 2 80)771/. 

Note I, 4. This is strictly the proper form of the Opt. in verbs in fit, 
with which the Aor. Pass, in the ordinary conjugation agrees. There exists 
however here, as well as there, a very common syncopated form of the Dual 
and Plural, which especially in the 3 Plur. has almost entirely supplanted 
the longer form, viz. 



D. TldeiTOV 


laTCUTOU 


didolrov 




Tidevnjp 


iarairrjv 


818017-771/ 




P. ridelfxev 


laraifxev 


8l8oi/l€V 




Tidelre 


laraire 


diooire 




Tidelej/ 


iaraiev 


didoiev 




perative. 








^tIOgti 


^taradi 


%didodi 


^deiicvvdi 


eYco, etc. 


aro), etc. 


otoj, etc. 


vt<£>, etc. 


?1. rider coaav 


lardroaaav 


bidorcoaav 


beiKvvrooaav 


or riOevrav 


Or t(TT<l>T(OV 


or bibovroiv 


or deiKj/vvrcov 



3 



Note I. 5. For rUfart instead of n&eBi, see § 18. 3. — The 2 Sing, in $1 is 
little used, (Homer with the stem- vowel lengthened, oidaBi, e/HrwrXi/flt,) bui 
instead of it the apocopated form, with the stem- vowel lengthened, viz. 

ridei I iarr] [ Biaov 1 dclicvv 



♦ 107. 



IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN JM. 



18a 



Imperfect. 



s. 


^iridrjv 

iridrjs 

iriBrj 


Icrrrjv 
Harris 
to-TTj 


U. 


erlflerov 


ICTTCITOV 


P. 


iri6irr)v 
irldtfiev 
erldere 


la-rdrqv 

?<TTClfXeV 

to-rare 




iri6e(rav 


Horraarav 



ebil 



Lbav 
•cor 



eoioeo 

ididorov 

£8i86rr)v 

£dl8o[xev 

edidore 

ebibocrav 



^efeucvvp 

ebeiKvv? 
edeiicvv 

ibeiKvvrov 

ibeiKVvrqv 

edeiKWfxev 

edeiKuvre 

ideUvvcrav 



Note I, 6. The Singular of this tense, except in io-ttj/lu, is most commonly 6 
formed after the contracted conjugation, and from the form va> : 



idel 



IKVVOV, €$, € 



W- 



Perf. Tedeaca 
Plupf. ireOelfcew 



€(7T7}Ka 

e(TTr)K6iv or 
elarrjKecv 



SeScDfca 
iSeBco/ceiv 



from 
AEIKI2 



Note I, 7. In this Perfect and Plupf. of to-rrifiL, we have to remark : 7 

1) The Augment; since contrary to the custom of other verbs (§ 82. 5), 
the e which stands here instead of the ordinary reduplication of the 
Perfect, takes the rough breathing; and the Plupf. often increases this 
augment by the temporal augment it. 

2) The syncopated forms, e&rapev, etc. which are commonly used instead 
of the regular forms ; see below note II. 3. 

3) The difference of signification, see notes II. 1, 2. 



Fut. Snfaw 


GTr)(T(D 


$(b(T<0 


from 


Aor. 1 edrj/ca 


€(TT7)cra, 


eBco/ca 


AEIKn 



Note I, 8. This irregular Aorist in *a ($ 106. 11), in good writers, is 8 
used principally in the Singular; in the Plural, especially in the 1 and 2 
pers. the Attics generally preferred the Aor. 2. — The other moods and par- 
ticiples never occur from the form in *a; except the participle of the Mid- 
dle; see under the Middle form below, note I, 17. 



Aorist 2. 



Indicative. 








S. #IV like the 


ea-rrjv 


*eoav like the 


n&is 


Impf. 


ea-rrjs 


*eSooy Impf. 


D. — 

€0€TOV 




ea-rrj 


^e8(0 




e&rrjTOV 


eoorov 


iderrjv 




ia-rrjTTjv 


ioorrjv 


P. ZBciuv 




ea-rrjfieu 


ebofiev 


Were 




ea-rrjre 


edore 


Wecrav 




€<rrr)crav 


edoarav 



wanting. 



Note I, 9. The Aor. 2 eo-rrjv deviates from the analogy of the Impf. and 9 
of verbs in fit in general, by its long vowel in the Dual and Plural ($ 106. 
7). — The 3 Plur. to-rrjo-av has the same form with the 3 Plur. Aor. 1, and 
can therefore be distinguished only by the connection ; the two tenses hav- 
ing different significations ; see notes II. 



184 



IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fU. 



$107. 



10 Note 1, 10. Of the Aor. 2 %Bi\v and %8av, the Sing. Indie. Act. has not 
been retained in actual use. The remaining parts, however, are usual} 
some as the sole forms, and others on the ground of preference j see n. 8. 

3 1 Note I, 11. The Aor. earvv serves also as model for the syncopated Aorists 
so called, § 110. 6. 



13 



Inf. Selvai 
Part. Sets, Selaa, Sev 
Subj. 3co, Sfjs, &fj, etc. 
Opt. Seirjv 


arrjvai 

error, ardcra, crrdv 

arco, crrfjs, crrf}) etc. 

o-Tairjv 


dovvai 

8ovs, dovcra, 86v 

8a>, 8a>s, 8a, etc. 

8oirjv 


The Subj. and Opt. are declined like the Present. 


Imperat. (Sen) Ses 

Qerov, Seroov 
Sere, S^ercoaav or 
Sevroav 


(TTTJOl 
aTTJTCO 
(TTrjTOV, 0~TT)T(DV 

arrjre, o-Tr)T(Ocrav or 
trrdvrav 


(8661) 80s 
86ra> 

86rOV } SoTCtiV 

bore, 86ra>aav or 
86vra>v 



Note I, 12. For the Subj. and Opt. the same holds good here, that wa? 
said of these moods in the Present ; only that in the Opt. the longer form 
is here more frequent than there, SeLrjpev, 8oir]re. Also of the 3 pers. 8oirjarav, 
etc. several examples are found. 

Note I, 13. The monosyllabic Imperative, #er, 80s; etc. (§ 106. n. I, 1 
throws back its accent in composition, but not further than the penult syl 
lable ; e. g. rrepWes, dnodos. 

Note I, 14. The Imperat. arrjdi, in composition sometimes suffers an apo 
cope, as Tvapao-Ta. So also firjdi, see the Anom. (Sauna, § 114. 





PASSIVE 






Present. 




Indicative. 






S. ride pat. 


larapai 


8i8op.ai 


8etKvvpai 


ridecrai } poet. 


1o~racra.i 


dldoarai 


deiKvvo-ai 


ridrj^ 








rlderat 


lararai 


8i8orai 


detKvvrai 


D. ri.6ep.e6ov 


icrrdpedov 


8i86p.e6ov 


8eiK.vvp.e6ov 


rl6eo~6ov 


!o-rao~6ov 


8i8ocr6ov 


8eiKVVcr6ov 


ri6ea6ov 


icrraadov 


8i8oo~6ov 


8eiKvvo-6ov 


P. n6epe6a 


lorrdp.e6a 


8i86pe6a 


8eiK.vvpe6a 


rl6e<rde 


lo-racrOe 


8i8ocrde 


8eiK.vva6e 


rWevrai 


taravrat 


8l8ovrai 


8e'iK.vvvrai 


Injin. rl6ea6ai 


taracrdai 


8l.8oa6ac 


8eiKW0-6ai 


Part. ridepevos- 


lo-rdpevos- 


8i86p.evos- 


8eiKvvpevos 



* The second persons in cat sometimes, and those in go often, have the contrac- 
tion with the stem-vowel. But the longer form in <rai is more certain in the Attic 
prose. Of 'icTTq for 'icrrao-ai there is only one example, viz. in iEschvlus, i-xlo-rcf, for 
iirto-Tacrai ; and as the Ionics after dropping <r change the stem-vowel a into e (see 
notes IV), they then write iirrt) for 'iffreai. From dvi>a/j.cu the tragic poets and later 
prose formed 2 pers. ovvp, see § 114. But the forms in ov and w, as irlOov, eQov, 
e5''5ny, edov, 'io~Ta> (Indie, and Imperat.), e5iW, were in very common use, especial' j 
in the Aor. 2. Mid. 



* 107. 



IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fU. 



185 



Subjunctive. 






S. TidoifJLai 


iarrmfiat 


8t8a>fiai 


T10TJ 


Icrrfj 


818$ 


TiOrjrai 


IcrTrJTai 


8i8£>to.i 


D. Tidd>fiedov 


l(TTG)fJ,edov 


8i8a>fi,€0ov 


Ti6rja-0ov 


l(TTr}(r6ov 


8i8£)o-0ov 


rcdfj(r3ov 


ia-Trjadov 


8i8a>o-0ov 


P. Ti6a>}ie6a 


l(TTa>ixeQa 


8i8d>ix€0a 


ndrjade 


i(TT7](rBe 


8i8a>a0e 


riBcovrai 


io-Tcovrai 


8i8a>VTat 



from 
)eiKvv<o 



For some irregularity in the accentuation of this Subjunctive, sec m. 31 
32, below. 



Optative. 








S. Tideifxrjv 


io-Taljxrjv 


8l8o[fJLT]V 


from 


Tiduo 


iaraio 


818010 


8euivv 


Tt.6a.TO 


Io-tcuto 


81801TO 




D. Ti0ei\iz0ov 


lo~Taifiedov 


8i8oifx.e0ov 




Tidetcrdov 


IcTTaicrOov 


8i8o7crdov 




Tideicrdrjv 


lo~Taio-6r]v 


8c8oio-0r}v 




P. Tidei/xeda 


io-Taifieda 


8t.80ifJi.eda 




Ti0eio-0e 


lo~TOLO~de 


8i8o2(rdt 




TiOeivTO 


Iottcuvto 


8l8o1vTO 




For the Attic Opt 


itive TidoiTo, tcrTa 


to, SiSotro, etc. see m. 32 below. 


Imperative. 








riOecro or 


io~Tao~o or 


81800-0 or 


8eiKvvcro 


TL0OV 


IOTO> 


8l8ov 




TiOiaBco, etc. 


lo-Ta.o~d<o, etc. 


81860-6(0, etc. 


8eiKvvcr6(i), etc 




Imperf< 


30t. 




S. eTide/jLrjv 


lardfjLTjv 


eSiBofjLrjv 


iSeifcvv/Arjv 


iTidecro or 


tcTTaaro or 


e8l8oo-o or 


£8eiKvvo-o 


£tL6ov 


tOTO) 


£8l8ov 




iriOeTO 


"lO-TOTO 


t8l8oTO 


€8eiKVVTO 


D. eTidefxedou 


lo-T&fieOop 


£8i86iJ,e6ov 


£8eiK.vi>fiedov 


eTideo~dov 


LcrTaadov 


e8i8oo-6ov 


ibtiKvvcrOov 


€TL0eCT0T)V 


IcrTa.o'Brjv 


i8i86o-6r)v 


£8eiKVV0~6r)v 


P. €T10€/J.€0a 


iCTTafieOa 


i8i86fxe6a 


£8eiK.vvii€6a 


erldecrOe 


icrraaOe 


i8i8oo-6e 


£8eiKvvo-6e 


eriOevTo 


LCTTaVTO 


£8L8ovro 


£8eiKvvvTO 


Perf. TeOeijjbai 


earafiai, 


BeSo/JLCu 


from 


Tedeicrai, etc. 


eo-Taaac, etc. 


8e8oo-ai, etc. 


AEIKQ 


Plupf. ire6ei[i7)v 


ea-rd/jtrjv 


iheSofirjv 





Note I, 15. As to the other moods, etc. of the Perfect, it is easy to form It* 
the Inf. reOelaOai, 8e86ir0ai, Part. reBeiuevo?, Imtfer. Z'crTacro, etc. The Subj. 
and Opt. do not occur. 



Fut. 1 redrjao/xac 
Aor. 1 iredrjv 



(TTaOTJaofjLcu 
icrrddrjv 



SodtfcrofjLaL 
i&odrjv 



from 
AEIKQ 



136 



IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fit,. 



f 107. 



16 Note I, 16. In eredrjv, redr]o-op.ai, the syllable re must not be taken for a 
reduplication j it is the radical syllable $e, which becomes re because of 
the £ in the ending, according to $18. n. 2. The form is therefore for i0e- 
6t)v, 3edr)o~opai, 

Fut. 2 and 3, also Aor. 2, are wanting.* 



Fut. l 
Aor. 1 



^rjaO/jLCU 

i6r)Ka.jxrjv 



MIDDLE. 

ScacrofjLai 
edcoKdprjv 



(TTrjcrojjLai, 
iarr}ordfjL7)v 



from 
AEIKQ 



17 Note I, 17. The Aorists idrjKdp.rjv, edcoKaprjv, with their participles, be 
long solely to the Ionic and Doric dialects ; the other moods do not occur. 
The Attic prose uses, from these verbs in the Middle, only the Aor. 2. 
Comp. the remarks on the Aor. Act. notes 8 sq. above.— The Aor. 1 eorr]- 
va\u)v is, on the contrary, very much used- see notes II. 



Aorist 2. 



Indicative. 



13 



19 



20 





eOepnv 
(edeo-o) € 
etc. 


Sov 


^eo-Tdfxrjv 
see m. 20. 


edoprjv 

(e&Wo) e§ov 
etc. 






Declined like the I 


nperf. Passive. 


Infin. Sea6ai 
Part. Sepevos 
Subj. Sfofiat 
Opt. Seiprjv 
Imperat. (Secro) Sov 




^o-rdo-Qai 
^ardpevos 
^orcojuai 
^o-Taiyj]v 
^oracro, o~to> 


boaOai 
dopevos 
dapai 
doiprjv 
(docxo) 8dv 



wanting. 



Note I, 18. All these are declined throughout like the corresponding 
forms of the Pres. Passive. — For the Attic forms of the Opt. and Subj. 
(npocrOoiTO, rrpoo-Oaipai, etc.) see notes III. 

Note I, 19. The Infinitive retains the accent even in composition, as 
dno6ea6at. y dnohocrOai. The Imperative retains it in the Singular in com- 
position, only when the preposition has but one syllable j e.g. npoo-dov, 
7rpoabov, dcpov (from irjfii) ; when the preposition has two syllables, the ac- 
cent is thrown back upon it, e. g. nepidov, dnodov. In the Plur. the accent 
always comes upon the preposition; e. g. iiriSeade, irpoboo-de, a<pea0€. 

Note I, 20. The Aor. 2 Mid. of to-Tt]pi does not occur; and stands in the 
paradigm only for the sake of the analogy, or on account of other verbs ; 
e. g. e7rrdp.r)v from litrapai ; see the Anom. ixerop-ai § 114. 



^6T0? 



Verbal Adjectives. 

arario^ Soreo? 

o-raros Soros 



from 
AEIKfl 



# The Aor. 2 and Fut. 2 Pass, are not possible in this formation ; except that 
some verbs in vvpi can form them from the simple theme ; see the Anom. l-evyw/M. 
The Fut. 3 does not directly occur from these verbs; though the Anom. Fut. 
}(TT-f)Zopai (see m 24) may perhaps be considered as such. 



* 107. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN JUL p 187 

II. Notes on 1<jtk]\ii. 

1. The verb lornpi is divided "between the transitive signification to place, 21 
cause to stand, and the intransitive to stand; comp. § 113. 2. In the Active 
there belong to the signification 

To place: Pres. and Impf. to-rnfii, l<ttt]v, Fut. arrjcro), Aor. ea-rrjaa 
To stand: Perf. and Plupf. eor^Ka, iarrjKeiv, Aor. eo-rrjv. 
The Passive signifies throughout to be placed; but the Pres. and Impf. to-ra- 
fxat, lo-Ta.fir]Vy as Middle, together with the Future Middle oriyo-o/xai, have 
sometimes the signification to place oneself, and sometimes that of to place, 
i. e. set up, erect, e. g. a monument. The Aor. 1 Mid. eVr>/o-ajLi7/i/ always 
has this latter signification. 

2. Besides this the Perfect Active, as to its signification, is here not Per- 22 
feet, but Present; and the Pluperfect is consequently Imperfect; comp. 

§ 113. 7. Thus 

ecrrrjKa I stand, eor^Kcoy standing, etc.* 
ia-TrjKeiv I stood. 

3. In the Perf. and Plupf. there is commonly used in the Dual and Plural 23 
of the Indicative, and throughout the other moods, a syncopated form, re- 
sembling the Present of verbs in fit. As this form is likewise found in other 
verbs, it will be illustrated below in § 110. 10 ; but in the mean time it is 
exhibited here, in order to render the inflection of lo-rqfii complete. 

Perf. Plur. ecrra/zei/, ccrrare, i(rracn{y) 

Du. ecrrarov 
Plupf. Plur. e(TTap,ev, co-rare, ea-Taaav 
Du. ea-rarov, k(jrdrr]v 
Subjunct. i(TT(o, fj?, 77, etc. Opt. iaraLrjv 
Imperat. earddi, eordrw, etc. 
Infin. ecrrdvaL 

Particip. (iaraas) earoos, eorcoa-a, eo-ra>y,f Gen. eoreoToy 
Ion. eorecbr, eacra, ea>s" ecoros. 
Hence it appears, that this Perfect and Pluperfect have assumed, in the 
greater part of their flexion, both the form and the signification of the Pres 
ent and Imperfect. 

4. In consequence of the Present signification of this Perfect, and because 24 
the Fut. arrjarco means I will place, and Fut. vTr\<jop.ai I will place myself or 
for myself, there has been formed from the Perf. eo-rnica I stand, a special 
anomalous 

Future cornea or eor^o/xat, I will stand, 
with which is to be compared the similar Fut. in the Anom. &/770-KC0. 

5. In like manner for the transitive signification, there is also a 25 

Perfect cardica I have placed, 
which nevertheless belongs to a later period. The old Attic employed in 
stead of the Perf. in both significations, either the two Aorists, or a peri- 
phrase, § 97. n. 6. 

6. In some of the editions of Homer, the syncopated form of the Pluperf. 26 
3 Plur. ta-raa-av is found both in the transitive and intransitive sense. But 
the more correct orthography seems to be this, viz. ea-raa-av in its usual 

* In some compounds, however, whose Middle passes over into the intransitive 
signification, the Perf. Act. can be translated in English as a real Perfect with the 
same signification; e. g. hvicrn^i I set up, aviffTafxai I rise up, b.viaTt\Ka I have 
risen up. — In consequence of this usual Present signification, the later corrupt 
Greek formed from this tense a peculiar Present, ct^/coj I stand ; hence 3 pers. <rr^- 
Ket Rom. 14. 4; Imper. <rHj/ceT€ 1 Cor. 16, 13. al. 

t The irregular form of the Nom. and Ace. of this Neuter, viz. ea"rJy, instead 
of iffrebs, is more common. See Ausf. Sprachl. under '/or^i, § 114. 



188 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fU. § 107 

sense as Imperfect, they stood; and earavav shortened for earrjaav from Aor. 
1 eo-Ttjo-a, they placed, as Aorist, Od. <r. 307 ; "which then, like the Aorists, 
could also be used for the Pluperf. they had placed, II. p.. 56. Comp. the 
similar shortened form eirpeae in the Anom. mfmprjfiu 

27 7. The form ea-rrjre ye stand, II. o. 243, 246, is a Homeric syncope for 
earrjKaTe or co-rare. Compare with this some forms in Herodotus, e. g. 
rrpoeariare 5. 49; also 3 Plur. ecrreacri 1. 200. ib. 3. 62. 

III. Notes on the Subjunctive and Optative. 

28 1. The Subjunctive and Optative of the conjugation in p,i, in their regular 
form, have the accent constantly upon the ending ; e.g. ndco, didcopiev, n- 
6elep, ndelvro, etc. 

29 2. The cause of this accentuation is to be sought simply in the circum- 
stance, that the syncope, which is so essential to the form in p.i (§ 106. n. 
6, 7), cannot properly have place in these moods. Hence they cause the 
long mood- vowel to flow together with the stem- vowel into one long sound : 
which consequently, according to the rule, takes the accent of a contraction, 
§ 28. 6. 

30 3. Nevertheless, this mode of forming a mixed sound is a different thing 
from the ordinary contraction of these moods in verbs in aw, ew, 6a> j as may 
be seen in the Paradigms. — The Subjunct. terras, iara, which is also ad- 
duced, belongs consequently to the form to-raw, and is, like the Inf. larav, 
dvicrrav (Plut.), less correct and less usual; see § 106. n. 5. 

31 4. But the tendency to render these moods conformable in their accent to 
the general analogy, — according to which the accentuation of the conjuga- 
tion in p.L does not differ from that of ordinary barytone verbs, — has caused 
in the Passive several deviations, which in some verbs were more, in others 
less usual. In the two verbs Tidrjfti and irjpi (§ 108), the deviations are 
for the most part peculiar to the Attics, and consist in this, viz. that the 
stem-vowel is dropped, and then the endings of both moods are assumed from 
the ordinary conjugation ; while the accent, when possible, is thrown back ; 
so that these forms appear just as if derived from a common barytone verb. 
In the Subjunctive indeed, the accent constitutes the only distinction, e. g. 

rtddifiai instead of rtda>p.ai 

Aor. 2. Mid. npoo-Qrjrai, nporjrai, etc. 

But in the Optative the diphthong ot is further assumed, e. g. 
riOoLro, irepidoivro, irpooio-Qe. 

Comp. KdOrjixai under r)p,at. ("§ 108. II. 3) ; and p.ep,vr]p,ai under the Anom. 

pufivrjaKco. 

32 5. From la rap. at the Optative alone assumes this accentuation, retain- 
ing its usual diphthong, and is thus used by all writers ; e. g. 

Icrraio, 'larairo, taraicrSe, taraivro. 
But the Subjunctive is always icrra>p.ai i avvicrrrjrai, etc. From oioop,ai 
however we find these moods sometimes accented as m no. 4, which also 
is regarded as Attic : 

Subj. bibarai Opt. aivoooivro.* 
In all other verbs which conform to lo-rapai and bidop.ai, these moods al 
ways have the accent on the antepenult j e. g. dvv&p-ai, dvvairo, ouairo, eVi 
arryrai, from dvpap,ai, ovivap.ai, eirlarap-ai (see in § 114) J ovoiro from Anom 
ovop-at with radical o. We find too in verbs in ap.ai, examples of transition 
to the form -oip.j\v \ see the Anom. p.dpvap.ai and Kpep.ap.at. 

* Our knowledge of this supposed Atticism, (see Fischer ad Weller. II. p. 469 
sq. and espec. Gottling Ace. p. 79, 81-85,) is still very imperfect and uncertain , 
and more accurate investigation has yet to determine and rectify much in the above 
specifications. 



$ 107. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fM. 189 

6. Verbs in vfxi commonly form both these moods from the theme in vco, 33 
as 8etKvvr]s, dencvvoi/jti. Still there are some examples, which shew that 
they could be formed here after the analogy of other verbs in /lu, by using 
simply long v instead of the usual mixed vowel or diphthong; e. g. Opt. 
dalvvro II. a>. 665 ; ixr^yvvro Plat. Phsed. extr. Subj. 3 Sing. aKedavvvcri ib. 
p. 77. d, like the old form tvtttvoi, ridfjcri. § 103. m. 37.* 

IV. Dialects. 

1 . Many of the variations of the dialects in the ordinary conjugation, are 34 
also common to verbs in fit ; as the iterative form in ctkov, which in these 
verbs always has the short radical vowel before this ending, e. g. 

Impf. TldecTKOV, didoCTKOV, deiKWCTKOV 

Aor. 2 (rrdaKov, docricov. 
Further the Infinitives ri6e\iev, iaTa.iJ.ev, ia-Tafievat (for riOevai, itrrdvatj, Qefiev, 
Se/xevai, dofievat (for Selvai, dovvai), everywhere with a short stem- vowel ; but 
with a long vowel in the Aor. 2 of those verbs which always retain the 
long vowel in this tense, as crTrjfiev, crTrjfievai, dv/iev, yvdifievai, etc. Also the 
Ionic ending of the 3 Plur. in arai, aro) e. g. rtQearai for riQevrai, idtdoaro, 
etc. — The Dorics of course, in those verbs whose stem- vowel is a, every- 
where insert their long a instead of rj ; e. g. i'crra/u, crravat. 

2. For the sake of the metre the epic poets employ the Inf. ri6r]\ievai, 35 
Part. Pass. Ti6r};xevos ; and didovvat instead of didovat. They sometimes re- 
tain the reduplication in forms where it is not customary, e. g. Fut. didacrco 
instead of dcbaco. 

3. The Ionics, in verbs in r\\it from da>, change a before a vowel into e ; 36 
e. g. Icrreacn for io-rdacrt comm. icrraoi. Comp. § 105. n. 8. — Hence they 
have in the 3 Plur. Pass, icrrearat (instead of to-raarcu) for torravrai- see n. 

1 above. 

4. The Ionic dropping of the cr in the endings crat and ao (§ 103. m. 17) 37 
appears here less frequently; Herodot. eViVreat (for -acu) from iiricrrafiat, 
iirlcTTaaaf Horn. B-eo for Secro, fidpvao for fidpvacro, da two for edaivvcro. 

5. The Dorics have n for en ; in the Sing. tl6t]ti for ridrjcri ; and in the 38 
Plural, (the v being also restored., § 103. m. 28,) TtBevrt, icrravTi, dtdovrt, for 
-eicrt, acrt, overt. 

6. The 3 Plur. of the Imperf. and Aor. 2 Act. in crav is made by the 39 
Dorics and the epic writers a syllable shorter, and ends simply in v with 
the preceding short or shortened stem- vowel ; e. g. 

ertdev for irideaav 
ecpctv for ecpacrav (see (prjpi § 109) 
ecrTav (crrdv), fidv, for earrjcrav, eftrjaav 
edov, edvv, for edocrav, edvcrav. 

7. For the 1 Sing. Imperf. iriQrfv, the Ionics say eridea. 40 

8. The Ionic resolution of the Subjunctive-ending (§ 103. m. 38) here al- 
ways causes the stem- vowel to reappear ; yet only according to these rules : * 

a) Verbs whose stem- vowel is e or a, adopt here e as the stem- vowel 41 
(see m. 36 above) ; thus 

rtdeco, rider]?, TiderjTe, Tidecocri, riQicofiai, etc. for riOco, fjs, etc. cofiai, etc. — 

and Seco, Bens, Seconal, etc. for &a>, Bfj?, etc. 
to- re co, iareys, areco, dreys, crrecofiev, etc. for to-rco, crrco, crrf}?, etc. 

b) Verbs whose original stem- vowel is o, take only co ; thus did coco, dcoco, 42 
days, dcby, etc. for didcb, dm, dcps, dco } etc. 

* See below in § 110. 6, (pvrjv; and also ib. 7, <p6tin)v. — The above accentuation 
Df the Passive foims Saivvro, irfiyvvro, is founded on the analogy of the examples 
contained in the preceding notes. Comp. XeAvro § 98. n. 9. 



190 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. fytfU, § 108, 

9. The epic writers have also this Ionic resolution; and can vary it in 
two different ways, according to the necessities of the metre : 
43 a) They prolong the e. According to the general rules, this can be done 
only by means of <ri; and thus we find #ei'a>, 3-eiys, &€i<£>p.ev, etc. for 
#a>, etc. and so also crre/co for orco. But where the original vowel of 
contraction is 77, only the doubling of the sound (7777) can have place, 
§ 105. m. 38. This occurs in those verbs whose stem- vowel is a, usual- 
ly; and for crrto, or^r, 0-777, e ^ c - from r icrTT]fj.i, we accordingly find areico, 
o-tt)vs, o-tt]t]. In those with the stem- vowel e the usage is variable; 
and we find both Selys, Seiy, SeirjTe, and ^for, #7777, etc.* 
14 b) They shorten the peculiar vowel of the Subjunctive (§ 103. m. 39) . 
but for the most part only where the stem- vowel is prolonged as above ; 
thus 

Seiofiai, o-reio/iev, for ^eco/xat, o-recD/xei/ 

CTTT)€TOV for ((TTTJTOv) (TTTJTJTOV ' dd>0[l€V fOY 8a>COfJ.ev. 

*5 10. Since the epic writers make the 3 Sing, in all Subjunctives in a-i 
(§ 103. m. 37), some forms arise here which must be carefully distinguished 
both from the Indicative, and from the 3 pers. Plur. e. g. IcrTJjcri for to-777, 
d&ai for 8g>. 

16 11. The Optative is never resolved • except that the Ionics say SeoLfx-qv 
for Setprjv, precisely as if from GEO. Hdot. 1. 53. 



§ 108. Verbs in fit from 'Eft, 'Eft, 'J/2. 

Among the anomalous verbs in fit are several short ones, some 
of which have f Efl for their root, and others 'Efl and '1/2. These 
are very liable to be confounded ; especially in composition, where 
the breathing in many cases disappears. Thus irpocreivai can 
come from both ehai and elvat, while in afyelvai and aireZvai the 
breathing is distinguished ; though not even here in Ionic writers, 
who in such words omit the aspirate. The theme 'Efl has three 
principal significations : 1) to send, 2) to set, place, 3) to clothe; 
Efl has the signification to be; and '1/2, to go. 

I. LTjpi, send, cast; from 'Efl. 

1. This verb may be compared throughout with rldrj/u, from 
which it deviates very little. The c stands instead of the redupli- 
cation (§ 106. 6) ; in the Attic dialect it is long. When a form 
begins with the short radical e, it is susceptible of the temporal 
augment, and e passes over into ei, k 84. 2. 

Note. An actual comparison with the form tiBrfju is here presupposed. 
It may also be remarked, that the simple verb trjfii occurs but seldom ; and 
that the greater part of the forms here given are found only in the compounds. 

* The ancient Grammarians themselves are not uniform on this point, and we 
find both modes of orthography in the best editions ; and besides these a third, which 
drops the i subscript in the 2 and 3 person (Steirjs, 3-eiTj), and thus makes them pre- 
cisely like the Optative. Still, this last appears to be the least correct form ; and 
seems to be founded solely on the supposition, that the i has passed over to the pre- 
ceding vowel. &€77, &et77. See § 103. m. 38. 



$ 108. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. irjfll. 191 

Active. 
Pres. Sing, 177/zi trjs 1770-1(1/) 

Dual — terov 'Utov 

Plur. i€fxev tere lacri or ielo~i(v) 

the former contracted from ieaai, comp. nSeao-i. 

Subj. l£> .Opt. le'irpt Imper. (U61) lei, ierco, etc. Inf. levai 
(comp. dcpievai) Part, tetr, ielaa, lev. 
Impf . S. irju and tow l^s and teis 177 and tei 
D. — 'Utov lerqv 

P. tepev tere Uo-av. 

The form low is regular from C IEQ, $ 106. n. 5. § 107. m. 6. Comp. deploy 
or T)(plow, § 86. n. 2 ; 3 Plur. rjcplea-av. 

Perf. elita* Plupf. etneiv 

Fut. 770-0) Aor. 1 r}K.a § 106. 11, Ion. erjKa. 

Aor. 2 Sing, not used ; for it the Aor. 1 . 

D. €TOV €TT]V 

P. epev ere ecrav 

commonly with the augment : elpev, elre, elaav, comp. nadetpev, dvelre 
d(pelaav.'f 

Subj. a, ^r, etc. Opt. etrjv, Plur. elp.ev : elre, elev, for eti]p,ev, etc. 
Imper. es, erco Inf. elvai Part, etr, eura, ev. 
Compounds: d(pelvai, d(pa>, a(pe?> dcpets, etc. Opt. Plur. dvelpev, etc. 

Passive and Middle ; comp. ti%z». 
Pres. tepai, teaai, terai, etc. S>W&/. la>pai Opt. leiprjv, etc. 
Perf. eipai, etc. [peOeipai, peQeladai, p.eo'BeLo-dai, etc.) 
Plupf. eifiTji/, efo-o, etc. comp. Aor. 2 Mid. 
Aor. 1 Pass. C$771/, comm. with the augment etdrjv, e. g. d(peWrjv. Part. 

d<pe6eis, etc. — Fut. e6rjaopai. 
Aor. 1 Mid. fjKdprjv, used only in the Indicative. 

Aor. 2 Mid. e/^i/, comm. with the augment etprjv, elo-o, elro, etc. e. g. 
dcpelro, icpelvro.f 

Subj. o)fiai, 77, etc. Opt. etprjv, eio, etc. Imper. ov (dcpov, irpoov, 
7rpoecr0e, etc. see $107.m. 19). Injin. eadat (dcpecrOai) Part.epevos. 
Verbal Adject, ereos, ero? (acperos). 

2. For the Attic Subjunctive and Optative, e. g. npoapai, TrporjTcu' toiro, 
dcpioLvTo, npooiaOe, (even in Act. dtpioire, acpiy, Plato, Xen.) and also for the 
dialects, e. g. d(pe<£>, dcpeca for Subj. d<p5)', fjai for 3 Sing. Subj. 77; see § 107. 
III. IV. 

3. Peculiar to this verb, however, is an Attic- Ionic form of the Imperf. 
in -eiv instead of -771/ in the compounds, e. g. irpoteiv Od. k. 100 ; r)<j)Uiv 
Plat. Euthyd. 51. See the Ausf. Sprachl. 

4. To be noted are also the Homeric forms of the Fut. and Aor. dveaei, 
dveo-aipi, etc. after another (more regular) formation, II. £. 209. <p. 537. 
Od. c 265 ) but these occur only in composition with dvd, and as it would 
seem only when this preposition has the sense of back, again. 

5. An old theme 'IQ has sometimes been assumed, especially in the com- 
pounds ANIX2, ME0IQ. But all the forms which are referred to it, are 
chiefly Ionic and poetical, and depend for the most part on the accent.^ 
With more certainty we may refer thither the Homeric gvvtov, and the 
Ionic form fiep.eTip.evos from METIS2 (Impf. perlero or e/zeriero) Ion. for 
ME0IQ, comm. peOlrjpL, peOiero, peOeipevos. 

* Like redeiKa. — A less usual form was ewna, with w inserted (§ 97. n. 2); 
whence the Passive form 3 Plur. acpeuvrai in the N. Test. Matt. 9, 2. 5, etc 
See Lexilog. I. p. 296. 

t The accent is not drawn back because of the augment ; see § 84. n. 4. 

X If we write e. g. 2 Sing. Pres. uedtels, it belongs to 'IEH ; but peOieis to 'in. 






192 irregular conjugation, elcra, evvvfii. § 10b. 

II. elcra did set, did place ; rjfjbac sit. 

1 . Elcra is a defective verb, from which in the transitive sense, — yet only 
in some special significations, as to lay the foundation of a building, to erect, 
to place an ambush, etc. — the following forms occur : 

Aor. 1. elcra, Mid. e I era firj v 
Part, ecray, eadfievos 1 (Horn, ecfiecrdnevos), Inf. ecrai (Horn. e^eVo-at), Mid. 
Imper. ecrai, ecrcrai. 
To these may be added : 3 pers. Sing. ecrcraro and with syllabic augment 
eeWaro (another reading is eeWaro Od. £. 295), and Fut. Mid. ecrofiai (Horn. 
ecfrecrcrecrOai II. i. 455, he will set) ; all which forms are liable to be con- 
founded with the similar ones from evwpi below. For the Attic prose only 
the Middle form elcrdfirjv is in use ; the Active forms belong to the poets and 
dialects. — The diphthong el in the Indie, is strictly only augment; still it 
passed over as a strengthening into the other forms, e. g. Imperat. elcrov, 
Part. e'lcras, eladfievo?, Hdot. Plut. Fut. Mid. etcropai is rare. All the de- 
fective parts were supplied by the forms of idpvco. 

2. The Perfect Passive lias the following form, which most 
commonly" has the force of an intransitive Present, viz. 

rjfi a i I sit. 

Pres. rjfxai, rjcrat,, r)o~Tai, etc. 3 PI. rjvrai (Ion. earai, epic etarai) 
Impf. rj/xrjv, r)cro, rjcrro, etc. 3 PI. rjvro (Ion. earo, epic etaro Od. v. 106) 
Inf. rjcrdai Part, fjfxevos^ Imper. r}ao, fjcrdti), etc. 

3. The compound K.d6r)\i.ai is in more common use. This verb does not 
assnme the cr in the 3 pers. except in the Imperf. when it does not take the 
syllabic augment; thus 

Kadrjiiai, 3 Kadrjrai 

eKadqfirjv or Ka6r)fxr]v> 3 eKadr/ro or Kadrjarro'f 

Inf. KadrjcrBaL^ Part. KaOrjfievos^ Imp. KaOrjcro Subj. Kadoopai, 77, 
rjraCy etc. Opt. K.aQo'i\ir\v, 3 Ka6oiTO.% 
Later writers employ also for the 2 pers. the form Kadn, and in the Imperat. 
Kadov, for mdrjcrai, mdrjero. — The Ionics in their manner have r instead of 3-; 
as Karrj/jLaL, 3 PL Karearai, etc. 

4. All the defective parts are supplied from egecrdai or t^ecrOai, and its 
compounds with Kara. § 114, i£a>. 

III. evvvfii, Ion. elvvfAi, I clothe. 

This verb is inflected like heUvvfii, and has its defective parts 
from the theme c E/2. Comp. § 106. 8, 12. § 112. 15. 

Except in composition, this verb is only poetical. Besides the Pres. and 
Impf. the following forms occur : 

Fut. ecrco, ecraco, Aor. ecrcra, Inf. ecrai, ecrcrai, Mid. ecrcrd\xr)v 
Perf. Pass, elpai, elaai, elrai, etc. hence 3 PL Plupf. etaro II. cr. 596, — 
and from a form ecrfiai, Plupf. 2 Pers. eacro, 3 pers. ecrro. 
Also with the syllabic augment, Aor. eecraaro, Plupf. eecrro. 
In prose the compound dfic\>ievvvpi is usual : 

* The present signification occasions also a present accentuation in the Pai'ticiple, 
but not in the Infinitive; as may be seen in the compound /ca077<r0cu. Comp. Ke?fjLou, 
urtd espec. § 111. n. 2. 

t Nevertheless, contrary to the precept of the grammarians (Thorn. Mag ) we 
sometimes find written Ka&TjTO, Dem. Cor. p. 285, 300. Bekk. 

t Comp. § 107. m. 31. Aristoph. Ran. 947, 1073; where it is now accor.ied 
Kadolro, eiriKaOolro ; see Gottling. 



$ 108. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION elflL 193 

Fut. d[i(f)ieaa> Attic dfxcjiiS) Aor. 1 r)[x(pieca, dpcpieacu. 

Perf. Pass. r)[x(pieafxai, rj^cpieaai, rjfKplearaiy etc. In/". r)fjL(piea6ai. 

Mid. ifo cZoifAe oneself, Fut. diicpieaofxai, Xen. Plato. 
Probably also Aor. 1 ^/^ecra/i?^, since Xenophon (Cyr. 6. 4. 6) has from 
the compound in im the Inf. eitikaaaBai, in like manner without elision 
of the i. That the vowel of the preposition is commonly not elided (emei- 
/xeVor Horn. eWcrrai Hdot. 1. 47), is to be explained from § 6. n. 3. 

IY. etyLtt I am; from \E/2. 

1. The usual flexion of el/it is the following : 

Present S. elfii e?y. comm. ei iariv, IcttI (eari 3 below) 

D. i<TTOV icTTOV 

P. icrfxev eare ela'iv, elai 

Inf. elvat Part. a>v (G. oVror), ovaa, ov 
Subj. o), fjS, rj' rjrov, rjTov aifxev, rjre, wai(v) 
Opt. e'lrjv, ewjff, e'Lr) • eirjTOV, elrjrqv or e'irrjv e'lrjfiev or elfxev, eujre, or etre, 

e'irjaav comm. eUv^ 
Imp. 10-04, f eVrco-f D. earov, ecrrcov P. eore, earaaav or eoTCOi'.t 
Imperf. S. ^v ^or^a$ __ i)v 

D. — ^rov or rjarov fjrqv Or rjarrjv 

P. ^juw ^re or ^crre ^crav 

The Fut. is formed as Middle : 

e&ofial 2 ear] or eaei 3 earai, old and epic eaerai 
Inf. eaeadai, etc. 
Verbal Adjectives (Neut.) eareov {avveareov) etc. 

2. There is further an Imperf. from the Middle, 

Impf. 1 Sing. rj/jLrjv, 
which is equivalent to that of the Active, but less frequent in earlier 
writers. A form of the 3 Plur. e'iaro for rjuro Od. v. 106, is recognized by 
the ancient Grammarians, but is doubtful ; see under r)[xai, and the Ausf.. 
Sprachl. — The Dorics and epic writers have the 2 Sing. Imperat. eao, e'aao 

3. The whole Present elfii etc. is enclitic; but actually takes the inclina 
tion, only when it is merely the logical copula, connecting the subject and 
its predicate ; whenever it signifies actual existence, it retains the tone. 
The 3 Sing, especially, then takes the tone on the first syllable; e. g. $ebs 
eariv eari \ioi doiikos; eariv ol (but Plur. elalv ol § 150. m. 21). Further, 
eariv always stands after the unaccented particles <»r, ovk, el, and after tovto 
and dX\d when these words have an apostrophe : ovk eari, tovt eariv. 
Elsewhere however, when the inclination is only hindered (§ 14. 6), the 
tone remains on the final syllable; e. g. Xo'yoy eari, dyado? S* eariv, eofiev 
yap. — The 2 pers. el or eh is never inclined, except in the dialect-form iaai 
(4), and sometimes eh, c. g. Od. 6\ 371. 

4. In no verb are the dialects so various and multiplied as in this. We 
adduce here, for the most part, only such as do not follow of course from 
the general principles stated in § 103. 

Present. Doric, S. ififil, iaai, evri, which last stands likewise for the 3 Plur. 
elai. — Ionic 2 Sing, also earai, 1 Plur. elfxev, 3 Plur. edai{v). — 
A poetical form is epev for la\iev. 

=* The particle ehv be it so, well, seems to have come from the 3 Sing, e^ ; for 
the Sing, is requisite, whether we supply tovto or ravra. 

t The 2 pers. 'Ivdi is not to be confounded with XaQi know, see otda § 109. — The 
3 pers. Sing, has also a later form ^tb; and the 3 Plur. is in Plato (Legg. p. 879) 
once uvtoju, Ion. 46vtccv. 

t In latpr writers ijs. Comp. § 103. m. 36. 

N 



194 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. elflt, h 108. 

Imperf. Ion. sometimes rja and ea, 2 e'as, 3 rje or rjev, 2 PL eare, etc. and 
sometimes eov (1 pers. in Horn.) and ecrKov, from the theme 'EG. 
— From the form ea comes the Attic form of the 

1 pers. rj for rju. 
For the 3 Sing rjv the epic writers have also the doubled sound 
rjrjv and erjv* The Dorics have for the same, by a peculiar 
anomaly, r)s) for the 1 Plur. Tjp.ev and rjp.es ) and for the 3 Plur. 
rjaav the Ion. and Dor. is eVai/.f — Also 2 Sing, in Horn, erjada. 
Infin. Ancient and Ionic ep,ev, ep.evai, ep.p.ev, ep.p.evai ; Dor. rjp,ev and 
rjp.es (like 1 Plur. Impf.j, elpep and et/xef. 
Finally, the Ionics form from the theme 'EG the Part. ea>v with the accent 
on the final syllable, Subj. eco, Opt. eoifii. 

5. In composition the preposition, in all cases not contrary to the general 
rules (§ 103. m. 1), takes the accent upon itself.: e. g. ndpeipa, 2 pers. jrapei. 
But in 7raprjv on account of the augment, TtapearaL on account of the syn- 
cope, irapelvai (§ 103. m. 6), Subj. 7rapa>, fjs, fj, etc. and Opt. 3 PL naptiev on 
account of the formation in fit ($ 107. m. 28), the accent remains upon the 
verb. The participle also retains the tone, napcov. — For irdpa, evi, etc. in- 
stead of Tzdpecm, eveori, etc. see § 117. 3. 

Y. el /xl I go; from 'Ii2. 

1. The radical sound of this verb is i, which when lengthened passeis 
over into ei. With this change are connected many anomalies, both of 
form and of signification. The following are the forms in use. 
Present S. elp.i eh comm. el (Horn, elada) elai{v) 

D. — 'ltov 'ltop 

P. 'Ifxev 'ire 'Lacri{v) 

Inf. livai 
Part, lav, lovaa, Uv, G. Iovtos, always with the accent on the ending, 

as in other verbs the Part. Aorist. 
Subj. ico Opt. loip.i or lolrjv 

Imperat. Wi (in composition el, as irpoaei, e£ei), 'irco etc. 3 PL 'ircoaav or 

loVT(£>V. 

Imperf. S. yew, Ion. fj'ia, Att. ya 

fieis or TJeicrda 

r/ei or rjeiv,% Ion. rj'ie or rj'lev 
P. r\eip.ev or fip.ev 
jjeire or fire 

jjeaav, Ion. rfiarav, Horn, and Att. rjcrav 
The Dual is formed after the analogy of the 2 pers. Plural. 
Verbal Adj. Ireos, Iros, or Irrjreos, Ittjtos. 

A Middle is also adduced, with the signif. to hasten, hasten away; of which 
however only the Pres. and Impf. are in use : 'Lep.ai, lep-rjv, Imper. 'iecro. 
But the Middle of 177/u also, (i. e. Tep,at i. q. 6pp.dco, to put oneself in motion, 
to hurry, to rush,) is identical with these forms in signification ; and this 
too accords far better with irjp,i. As now the whole matter depends on 
merely exchanging the smooth breathing for the rough, and inasmuch as 
the former ('Ujxai) is feebly supported by ancient testimony, it is usual in 

* In U. A. 762 erjv stands for the first person, but is doubtful ; see the Ausf. 
Sprachl. p. 530, marg. 

t That ?iu is sometimes adduced as being used for -Tjcrai/, rests solely on some 
poetical passages, where i\v stands with the Plural, but so that it always precedes 
the subject, as Hes. h. 321 rrjs 8' i\v rpe?s Ke<pa\al. It is therefore simply a pecul- 
iarity of Syntax; see § 129. n. 6. 

1 This form occurs, for the most part, only in the tragic Senarius before a vowel 



§ 108. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. elflL 195 

recent editions, not only of Homer but of other authors who use these forms, 
as Plutarch and Lucian, to write everywhere 'iepat, Uao, lepevos, levro, etc. 

2. The compounds have the accent like those of elpi; and hence e. g. 
ndpeipi, napei, are forms of the same persons from that verb ; and 3 Sing. 
rrdpeicri is the same as the 3 PI. of the compound of dpi. 

3. This verb is the sole example of a form in pi which has i for its radi- 
cal or stem- vowel. * And just as verbs whose radical vowel is e, retain 
this in the Plural, while in the Sing, they change it into 77, so here the X 
is prolonged into ei (as elpi, eto-i), but in Plur. 'ipev, he; like ridt]pi t rjai, 
epev, ere. In the Infin. Uvai, the e is therefore only an epenthesis; since it 
strictly would be 'ivai, just like n6e-vai ; and to this analogy correspond the 
ancient and epic Infinitives 'ipev, ipevat, like ndipev for nBevai. — Entirely 
analogous, but with ei instead of i, is the Homeric Opt. e'irjv II. <o. 139. Od. 
£. 496, after the analogy of cpvrjv; see § 107. m. 33, and marg. But like- 
wise, after the literal analogy of Uvai (nQevai), tradition has in one instance 
adopted the Opt. form leirjv, like riOeirjv, in II. r. 209. 

4. Besides the forms above adduced, there occurs nothing further in the 
common language j and the verb is therefore to be considered as really de- 
fective. It serves chiefly to supply the place of some of the less usual 
forms of the anomalous epxopai. §114. 

5. This verb has in its signification the peculiar anomaly, that the Pres- 
ent elpi has the 

Signification of the Future, i" toill go. 
From this there is no real exception, except in the epic and later writers. 
This dpi therefore supplies the place of the Fut. e\evo~opai (see the Anom. 
epxopai), which form is unwieldy and less used.f 

6. The other moods of elpi, when their nature permits it, can likewise 
take the signification of the Future ; although in the dependent clauses in 
which they usually stand, this is not at once so obvious. E. g. Thuc. o. 
7 evopi£ev dnievai onorav (3ov\rjrai, ' he thought he would be able to depart 
when he pleased f where we also can say, : he thought to depart.' So 
after opvvpi, e. g. copoaev dmevai juravit sc abiturum, he swore to depart. 
Also Plato. Phsed. p. 103. d, 8o<el croi to nvp 7rpoaiovTos rod yjsvxpov rj vtt- 
e£Uvai rj dnoXeladai : — It is most obvious in the Participle; e. g. Xen. An. 2. 
3. 29 rjf;(£> avaicevao-dpevos; a)? dird^iDv v pas eh ttjv 'EAAdSa, ko.1 avros djriaiv 
eVi rr\v epavrov dpxrjv. — But in most instances, the other moods and the par- 
ticiple appear in a present sense, and so stand for the same moods of epxo 
pai> to which they are commonly preferred because of their shortness. 

7. The learner must take care not to be misled by the anomalous accent 
on ld>v, so as to regard this participle as an Aorist. The same anomaly 
appears in the Ion. eoov from dpi, and in kkov from the Anom. ki'co.J 

* Single syncopated forms, which follow the same analogy in other verbs (§ 106. 
n. 8), are the Plur. of the Perf. Se'Sict, and the Aor. 2 Mid. ifyeipijv; see the Anom. 
deTcrai, (pOla. 

t This usage is by no means limited to the Attics ; see e. g. Hdot. 3. 72 irapl- 
{iev. Horn. II. k. 450. In Homer however there are some examples of this vert> 
as Present, e. g. Od. k. 191 ; while among the Attics, at least in prose, there are 
no genuine examples ; for all those are not genuine, where the Fut. can indeed be 
expressed by the Present in English, but the sense nevertheless undeniably points 
to the Future ; e. g. I go home or am now going home, instead of I will or am about 
to go home. 

t The form \div can indeed be taken as preterite in such connections as e. g. II. 
o. 179 oucaS' ikv . . . N.vp/j.ib'Svecro-iv avacrffe. Bat we shall hereafter shew (§ 144. n. 
3), that other Presents stand in the same manner. The real Part. Aor. is i\9d>v ; 
see the Anom. epxopai. 



196 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. elfU. § 108. 

8. Instead of the Imperfect above given, the ancient Grammarians have 
another, viz. eh, eh, el, Ipev, ire, 'icrav ; and likewise another Aor. 2, 'iov,'ies, 
etc. to which they erroneously refer the Part. lu>v on account of its accent. 
All that is found of these forms belongs solely to the epic language ; and 
varies in signification, like other old preterites, between the Imperfect and 
Aorist. But except the third persons, 

te or 'Lev, 'Lttjv, Icrav, 
there is nothing to be found. * From these the Grammarians, and they 
alone, have supplied the other forms by analogy ; for eh has the same rela- 
tion to eijii and 'icrav, as iri6r]v to ri6r]pi and endecrav. 

9. From these two simple preterite forms, however, arose in actual usage 
two fuller forms; viz. from 'Lov, in the epic writers, fj'iov or rj ov; and from 
eh, in the common language, the fjeiv given above. This latter form 
passed over at the same time into its Ionic shape, rj'ia or fja; just as in 
Tidrjfii the Ion. eriBea comes from eTiOrjv, and in elpi am the Ion. r\a from rjv; 
except that here this rj'ia, or §a, remained in use in the Attic language along 
with rjeiv. The ancient Grammarians very erroneously brought forward 
this rj'ia, r)a, as Perfect, and yew as the corresponding Pluperfect; although 
this is entirely contradicted by the signification, and although no further 
forms from rj'ia occur which are at all characteristic of the Perfect, neither 
in acrt, -evai, nor Part, coy.f This Impf. r)a, rjeis, etc. seems principally to 
have remained in use, in order to take the place of the Impf. r)pxppr]v from 
epypp.ai, which was less used because of its ambiguity ) it being also the 
Impf. of apxopcu.% 

* When in the editions of prose writers, airip-ev, irpocncrav, etc. are occasionally 
found as Imperfect, such cases are either false readings, as fyev for fp.ev : or the 
corrupted language of later writers. 

t With this yew and ij'iov, as protracted forms from eh and Xov, compare the form 
iieiSeiv for ijdeiv or e'tSeiv, in § 109 under 6!8a. The orthography yew with i sub- 
script was introduced only by the Grammarians, on account of this erroneous der- 
ivation from tfia. The protraction itself arose simply from an effort to render the 
augment audible, without obscuring the sound of ei. The forms feijxev, feire, fecrav, 
however, which really occur, have without doubt crept into use from the seeming 
analogy of the Pluperfect; since at first only rjipev, ijire, rfierav, were used ; which 
last form (ri'icrav) has actually been preserved in the Ionic dialect; see in 1 above. 

X It is proper to bring forward here some examples, to shew this use of fa as an 
Imperfect. Plato Rep. 5 init. na\ iyca jxev fa ras i<pe£ris ipSsv — , o §e UoAefj.apxos 
eKreivas TrpotxriydyeTO — nal eXeyev arra — . Here every language, which dis- 
tinguishes the Aorist from the Imperfect, requires the Imperfect, in eo eram ut di- 
cer em. f allois dire, I was going to say. Xen. Cyr. 5. 4. 10, 11, where the conver- 
sation of two persons who meet each other is related: 6 Kvpos — elivev, 'Eyia Se 
7rpbs ere, ecpw, eTnarKe^o/JLevos, oiras e%eis, iirop ev6 fxvu. 'Eycb 8e y', ecpw o Taddras, 
vol p.a rovs freovs, ae e-KavaB€a(x6p.evos 1'i'Ca — . Plat. Charmid. init. t Hkov p\v rfj irpo- 
repaia — airb rod (TTparoiredov • oTou Se 8ia xpwov a<piyixevos afffxheas fa iirl ras crvvf]- 
6eis Siarpifids, /cat dr) Kal els t?V Tavpiov iraXaicrrpav — elcTTJAdov, Kal avroQi icareXa- 
&ov /ctA. Here the first words describe, as is usual at the beginning of the Pla- 
tonic dialogues, the relation or situation of things at the time of the occurrence ; 
and consequently the fa e-nrl ras Siarpifids, as is also shown by the Plural, implies 
duration, and is therefore Imperfect ; while immediately with the simple action e. 
t. T. it. elcriXQov, the narrated fact begins with the Aorist. — So Hdot. 2. 42. where 
the conditional eyooye av ouk rj'ia — TroXXaxv T€ av 1<rx ov efxecevrov, stands without any 
anterior clause, and, as the context shews, can in no manner be thrown back into 
.he past. Comp. also Dem. c. Steph. I. p. 1106. Other instances, where the idea 
of the Jlorist might perhaps appear to us more natural, must be judged of with 
reference to the principle, that an action, which we conceive of as being rapidly 
accomplished, might often appear to the narrator as having duration, or as being 
contemporary with another action before mentioned, and consequently in the Im- 
perfect. 



I 109. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. (fulfil. 197 

10. In the epic language we find another acknowledged form of the Mid- 
dle , without the accessory idea of haste; viz. 

Fut. and Aor. 1 eiVo/zat, etcra^j/, 
both of which are liable to he confounded with the similar forms from eiSo> 
(olba) : especially since Homer makes also ielaaro, and does not elide the 
vowel of the preposition; as Karaela-aro went down. Comp. etdco in § 114. 



§ 109. The irregular Verbs (jyrjfjbl, /celiac, 618a. 

There remain the following verbs, which require to be separate- 
ly exhibited : 







I. (jyrjfil I say ; 


from &AI2. 




Pres. 


S. 
D. 


<fapl 


<t>Tl s 

(pUTOV 


4>r](ri(v) 
<barov 






P. (pa/xev 
Inf. (pdvai Part, (fids 
Subj. <pa> Opt. (fiairjv 


(pare (pao-[(v) 
Imperat. <pddi 






Impf. 
Fut. <fir) 


S. 

D. 

P. 

cra>. 


i'cprjv 
e'cpajxev 


ecprjs comm. 

CCpUTOV 

ecpare 

Aor. 


ecprjaOa 
1 ecprjaa. 


icpdrrju 
ecpaaav 


poet. e< 



The MID. cpdarBat, (pdfievos; icpdfujv {Imperat. cpdo for cfidcro in Homer), 
is also used; and in the PASS, some forms of the Perfect are found, as 
7T€(f)d(rda) be it said, Trecpaafievos. 
Verbal Adjectives : (pareos, cparos. 

1. The forms of the Pres. Indie, except (fry?, are enclitic (§ 14. 2), with 
anomalous accent and t subscript. — The compounds are accented like <TVjx<fi-q- 
/xt, (TVfx<pj}S • avTLCprjfii, avrKpys, dvTLCprjcn, Subj. avricpS). 

2. In respect to the signification of this verb, we must distinguish: 1) 
The general one, to say; 2) The more definite ones, to affirm, declare, pre- 
tend, concede. All these belong to the Present (prj/jn. But in the general 
signification, to say, only the Pres. and Imperf. Act. in all the moods are in 
common use ; while the other parts are everywhere supplied from the 
anomalous dntiv etc. where see. On the other hand the Fut. and Aor. 
(firjo-o), e<pr)(ra, have by preference the more definite meanings; respecting 
which it is further to be observed, that in the Imperf. and in the Inf. and 
Part. Present, in order to avoid ambiguity, these meanings are more com- 
monly designated either by the Middle, or by the forms of <pdcrK€iv, which 
elsewhere is seldom used in prose.* 

3. We have arranged and named the single forms of this verb above, in 
the manner required by their derivation. In respect to usage, however, it 
must be noted, that the Impf. e<fir)v is commonly Aorist in sense, and is used 
alternately with elirov, as synonymous with it. And with this i'cprjv is con- 
nected the Inf. cpdvai, as a preterite ; thus in direct discourse, e. g. ccprj 6 
HepiKXrjs; Pericles said; but in sermone obliquo, (pdvai rbv ILepiickea, that 
Pericles said. So soon however as the Infin. Pres. is requisite, we find 
either \tyeiv or (pdcriceiv. 

4. By an aphceresis (§ 29. n. 10) we find in the language of familiar dis- 
course the following forms from cprjfil : 

* E. g. e(pT) crirovM(ei.v 'he said he was in haste;' 'depaence o"irov§d£eiv 'he pre- 
tended to be in haste;' (pdffKcau alleging, affirming; ov <j>dfiej/os denying, since oil 
pruju is just the opposite of <py]/xl I affirm, concede; see § 148. n. 2. 



198 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. KeljAClL, olBa. § 109. 

T)fj,[ say I, inquam, 
in animated repetition in discourse ; and so also the Imperf . rjv, rj, for t<f>r]v t 
e'077 [(j)rjv, <pr}) ) but only in the phrases 

f)v S 5 eyd) said I J rj 6° ov said /ie, 
in relating a conversation. Here also belongs the epic 

rj he said, 
as a phrase of transition after quoting the words of a person. 



II. fcei/jLdL I lie, recline ; from KEIfl, KEI2. 

Pres. Kelp.ai, Kelaai, Kelrai, etc. 3 Plur. Ktlvrai 

Inf. Kelo-dat Part, Keipevos^ Imper. Kelao, k€io-6g>, etc. 
Subj. Keoafiai, Kerj, etc. Opt. Keoifxrjv 

Impf. eKeifirjv, eKeicro, e/ceiro, etc. 

Fut. Keiaropai 
Compound, KaraKeipai, KaraKeicro (KaraKeiai Hymn. Merc. 254), etc. but Infin. 
KaraKelcrBai.^ 

1. To the theme KEQ belong further among the Ionics Ketrai, Keovrai, 
Kzeadcu. Other Ionic forms are Keiarai, Kearai, for Kelvrai, and the iterative 

KZCTKeTO. 

2. The Homeric Active form Keiio, /ceco, has the signification of the Future, 
I will lie down; comp. S^co under Anom. AA- no. 4. § 114. 

3. According to some Grammarians, this verb had no Subjunctive form; 
nence we find here and there Keipai, Kelrai, in the Subjunct. construction; 
e. g. Sia/cei/xat Plat. Phaed. p. 84. e. So also Kelrai in Homer, where others 
read Krjrai, Od. /3. 102. 

4. Besides its simple signification, this verb must also be regarded as a 
Perfect Passive of riOrpxi. Hence all its compounds correspond in their sig- 
nification to the compounds of ridrjiii; e. g. dvaTi$rj[xi I consecrate, avaKtifiai 
T am or have been consecrated. f 



III. olSa I know ; from eiBeo. 

1. The old verb ei'Sco has for its proper signification, to see; and only some 
of its tenses have the signification to knoiv. No form which has the one 
signification, occurs in the other. But as the parts which belong to the 
signification to know, have many other anomalies, it will be useful to ex- 
hibit them here separately. The forms which signify to see, are given under 
e'looi and 6pda>, § 114. 

2. OtSa is strictly the Perfect 2 from etSo, i. e. I have seen, perceived; like 
eoiKa, Ion. olm, from etW It acquires however, in the signification to know, 
the power of the Present; and consequently the Pluperf. that of the Im- 
perfect; see below § 113. 7. Of the regular flexion of olba, the 2 pers. 
albas, and the whole Plural o'ibafiev, o'ibare, o'ibaai, are rarely found in Attic 
writers. In place of them are used syncopated forms, which will be ex 
plained below. 

* Comp. ^ifxeuos, Ko.Qr)crQai, in § 10S. II. 

t The difference between this and the real Perf. Pass, of r'iQr\iu consists merely 
in the circumstance, that Ke?/j.cu denotes a continued passive state or situation ; and 
therefore does not so commonly as redeifiai take after it the subject of the Active 
with vtt6 or irpSs; e. g. gvvt'lQt](ji.i I put together. crvvTtQenai vn avrov it is put to- 
gether by him ; ffvyseirai it is put together, it is composed or consists of. 



$ 109. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. olSd. 199 

Pres. S, oI8a ola0a% oWe(v) 

D. — t&rov 'iarov 

P. lcrp.ev tore 'icrd(ri(v) 

Inf. eldevcu Part. eio\»y, via, 6s Imper. io-#i,f icrra>. etc. 
<Sm&/. el8a> Opt. eldeirjv 

Imperfect, S. #cW Att. §8rj, I knew 
comp. § 103. f/Sety and fideiada, Att. #oV and jjdrjo-Ba 

m. 12. $§ei Att. #8e«/ and rj8r] 

P. ydei/jLev or rjafiev 
f/deire or r/crre 
TJdeaav or 770-az/ 
Dual after the analogy of the 2 Plur. 
Future eio-o/zcu, more rarely eto^o-co, J sAa?Z Anow, experience, etc. 
Verbal Adj. Neut. lo-reov. 

The Aorist and the real Perfect are supplied from ytyyoooTca). 

3. The Ionics and Dorics have to^iet- for to-pev; the epic writers '18/ievat 
and tSjuei/ for ddevai ; and for the Pluperf. rfdeiv, these latter have a length- 
ened form, e. g. 2 ^«d«r, qeifyy, 3 $e£d«, rjeiSrj, (II. x- 280. Od. i. 206. 
Apollon. 2. 822,) and Herodotus has rjeide, with shortened ending, 1. 45. 
See the first marg. note to § 108. V. 9. — Instead of ySeifxev, jjdeire, modern 
critics for the sake of the metre read rjdefxev, jjdere, in Soph. OT. 1232. 
Eurip. Bacch. 1345. — Instead of fjaav Homer has, by a sort of aphseresis, 
la-av, Od. 8. 772. 

4. It was formerly customary in grammar to introduce here a peculiai 
verb 

to which all the above forms beginning with i were referred, and explained 
by syncope ; while the forms olda, elbevai, etc. were given only in the anom- 
alous Catalogue under ei'Sco. There is indeed actually extant in the Doric 
dialect a verb Xcrafu, Xarjs, 'icrari, 'lo-a/iev, Part, tcras (Dat. laavri Pindar) j but 
even if it be assumed that all those forms really come from this verb, it is 
nevertheless certain, that usage has mingled the forms of the two themes ; 
and that in the earliest, as well as in the latest periods, the current language 
employed throughout ol8a in the Sing, and Xct/jlcv in the Plural. So fai 
therefore as usage is concerned, the above mixed paradigm is the only cor- 
rect one. 

5. Meanwhile, whoever observes more accurately the analogy which 
prevails in the anomalies of Greek usage, will easily perceive, that those 
forms, after all, really belong to olda or e'ldco. For in the first place, the 
Ion. 'ihjjLev and the Inf. tdfievai, belong manifestly to et'Sco, and not to larrjpi. 
And secondly, we have for this conclusion the most striking analogy, not 
only in the language generally, which so easily causes the forms of the 
Perfect to pass over by syncope into the forms of the conjugation in pi 
(§ 110. 9 sq.) but also in this very verb itself; for just as the Pluperf. forms 
go-pep, flare, have arisen by this syncope from rjheipev, ydeire; so also the 
forms 'lo-fjL€p, 'tare, from o'i.8ap,€i/, o'idare; see the marg. note below. To these 
forms was then joined the Imperat. 'icrdi, just as KenpaxQi, avax^h to similar 
syncopated forms (§ 110. 9) ; and also the 3 PI. 'icracn (see the marg. note), 
from which the collateral form lo-qpi seems first to have been derived .% 

* Syncopated for oiZaaQa, o'ld-aQa; see § 103. ra. 36. — A manifestly erroneous, 
but yet old and Attic form is olffdas; see Piers, ad Mcer. 283. 

t Not to be confounded with '{&0i from dpi. 

t This question is entirely decided by some very clear analogies, which will be 
given in § 110. 9 ; especially iire-KiQixev and itKrrjv. Still, here is the proper 
place to take a view of the analogy of all the forms wliich are derived from eouca 
and olSa. Just as from 7ret0« we find TriiroiOa, so also from efrcw and elfSw come 



200 VERBS. SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. § 110. 

6. The sound et instead of oi in the other moods from olba, accords with 
the analogy of eoiica (Ion. oha) Part, cIkcos • see the Anom. ei/cco, and see the 
preceding marg. note. — Here too a transition into the formation in fit is not 
to be mistaken ; for while the participle eiSco? follows the common analogy, 
the Subjunctive and Optative take the terminations of the conjugation in 
au, viz. elda> (with circumflex), eldeirjv. Nevertheless, the epic writers 
could disregard this accent and shorten the long vowel of this Subjunctive, 
just as well as in other Subjunctives; e. g. ha e'ldofxev for eldcofiev. § 103. 
m. 39. — Further, the stem- vowel was here sometimes shortened into i ; e.g. 
Subj. Idea, Part. I8v?a Homer. * 

General View of the Anomaly of the Verb. 

§ 110. Syncope and Metathesis. 

1. In all languages, every thing which deviates from the great 
mass of regular forms, follows even in this deviation a certain 
analogy or regularity, more or less clear according to circum- 
stances. In order not to render the general view of the regular 
verb too complex and difficult, these minor analogies are in 
Grammar usually brought together and regarded as the Anomaly 
of the Verb. 

Zoina, and strictly speaking eoiSa, because the e takes the place of a reduplication 
(§ 84. n. 6). A shorter form 

oiKa, oida 
was adopted in the first verb in the Ionie dialect, and in the second in the common 
language. But from the full forms ZoiKa, ZoiSa, arose likewise, by shortening the 
oi into i and by contraction, (consequently as if from eiKa, elSa,) the forms 

Part. eiKCtis, dSdos 
together with the moods et8<£, elSe'njv, for which see no. 6 above. A proof, how 
the usage of language sometimes retains several synonymous forms at once, and 
sometimes only one, is here afforded even by the written language ; for the Part, of 
Zoitca occurs in all the three forms iouccos, eiK^s, oIk&s, while that of olda is 
found only in one, eld 6s. — The Pluperf. required a new augment; Zouca took it 
commonly after the analogy of eoprdfa, ed>pTa(ov, viz. icpKeiv; sometimes also 
regularly; except that oi was shortened into i, as in the Pass, form 

3 Sing. Pluperf. %ikto, without augm. Z'Ckto, 
from Perf. Ziyf.iai, Pluperf. ri'Cyixriv. In the same manner arose from Zo3a the 

Pluperf. {rj'fieiv) ijdsiv. 
To all this was superadded the syncope, by means of which, as we shall see below 
in § 110. 9, was made from ZoiKa (with a difference of vowel-sound) the forms 

1 Plur. Perf. Zoiy/xet/, 3 Dual Pluperf. iticTijv, 
and from 6l8a (with the same difference) the forms 

(oTd-ff6a) oTtrda, also Xdjiev and itr\xzv, iWe, 
but in the Pluperf. from rjSeiv 

ycr/xtv, f)(TTe, rjcrav. 
From this ycrav (for rj§-(Tav) the Homeric 1<rau (for IS-trav) differs only by leaving off 
the augment. — That to-acri does not come from Xo-t]jxi, is apparent from the accent, 
since from 1a-r\ixi the 3 Plur. must be written Iffuai (comp. iVnjjiu) ; and also from 
another analogy of the verb Zouca, 

ZoiKa — (oi into i, i'lK-cracriv) etyacriv 

olda — (oi into i, W-ffacny) 'icraaiu, 

both of them Attic forms, instead of the regular ioiKacra, oi'Scwrt ; where the anomaly 

common to the two consists in the ending cracri, instead of the otherwise exclusive 

Perfect-ending act. 

* It should be noted, that, in most lexicons and indexes, the preceding forms are 
usually distributed under the different Presents eiSco, etSecy, and foruua. So also of 
the compounds. 



k 110. VERBS. SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. 201 

2. It is not however always possible to bring every verbal 
form under even these analogies ; since, from the loss of a multi- 
tude of forms which have not come down to us, the analogy can 
not always be clearly made out. 4 Such forms are truly anomalous. 
For practical purposes, all such examples have been arranged 
alphabetically ; and are given below in § 114, with the necessary 
explanations. 

3. One main class of deviations from the regular formation is 
caused by Syncope. Here belong, besides the whole conjugation 
in fju, also some parts of the common verb. 

4. This Syncope is twofold, according as the vowel dropped 
belongs to the root or stem of the verb, or is the union- vowel. 

I. Syncope of the Yowel in the Root or Stem. 

E. g. irekco, Impf. eireXe or eirke ; nreTOfjiai, Fut. irTrjcrofial. — 
Here two principal cases are to be noted : 

a) In some verbs the Aor. 2 is formed solely in this manner ; e. g. n-e- 
rofiai (Impf. e7rer6prjv) A. 2 err to \lt)v ; eyeipco, eyeipopai, A. 2 rjypoprjv 
I awaked; dyeipoa Part. A. 2 Mid. dypopevoi assembled; on the other 
hand Part. Pres. dyeipopevot those tvho assemble. — Here also belong 
f/'Xvdov, rjXOoVf see epxopai § 114; and perhaps eV^ov, ecrivov, see § 112. 
7 , and the marg. note to eVco § 114. 

b) This syncope occurs most naturally after a reduplication; hence 7ri- 
77pdo-K(a from nepda), yiypojxai from TENQ, and 7rt7rra), pipv<a, from IIET£2, 
MEN£2. Further also in the Perfect ; as depot Perf. (dedeprjKa) Sedprjica 
(but see other similar forms under metathesis in no. 11), irinrapai from 
IIETAQ, see ireravvvpi. See also pepfiXercu in pekoo. — Here belong also 
the Aorists iKeicXoprjv and enecpvov from neXopca and <1?EN£2, with a 
double augment according to §83. n. 10. 

5. Far more frequent is the 

II. Syncope of the Union- vowel. # 

We divide the cases of this syncope as follows : A) Present and 
Imperfect; B) Aorist; C) Perfect. 

A) In the Present and Imperfect this syncope occurs ; bat so 
that the latter remains a real Imperfect as to its signification. E . g. 

Tn otjttat, coprjv, for o'lopai, cooprjv ; (fie pre epic Imperat. for cpeperr) ; and 
in the epic pvadai, e pvo~6ai, epvro, for pveardai, ipveadai^ epvero, see 
epva; comp. also the anom. crewco, and edpevac from edco, § 114. Here 
belong also the epic o-revrai, o-revro, strive, threaten; and likewise 
all verbs in pi, see § 106. n. 6 sq. For Xovpai see § 114; and for /cet- 
p,ai see marg. note to no. 8 below. 

6. Many verbs have (B) an Aorist, of which the union-vowel 
appears to be syncopated, if the ending of the Aor. 2 in ov be 
taken as the basis. To distinguish it from the latter it may be 
called the 

Aorist in v, or syncopated Aorist ; 

* What was said above (§ 106. n. 6, 7) as to the syncope of the union-vowel 
holds good of course throughout the present section. 



202 VERBS. SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. § 110. 

by which syncope alone it diners in some verbs from the Imper- 
fect. As the v must have a vowel before it, all these Aorists pre- 
suppose a pure root ($ 91. 4) ; which meanwhile in the Present 
has commonly assumed a strengthened form. In respect now to 
the radical vowel the rule holds good, that in the twelve most 
complete and usual Aorists of this kind it is always long, and 
consequently in flexion follows earrjv (§ 106. 7. 1) ; and also, that 
it is regularly conformed to the long vowel of the Perfect (in 
(pddvco to that of the Future). The formation of the moods ap- 
pears hi the examples. The twelve Aorists are the following : 

bibpacrnco (APAQ) didpaita — edpav i8pap,ev, dpco as a, dpairjv, dpddi, 

dp aval, Spay. 
/3atVco (BAG) (3ej3t]Ka — efinv efirjpev, j3cb rjs fj, j3air)v, (3r)0i, (3r)vai, fias. 
nerop-ai (IITA) — eirrnv €7rrr]p.ev, (irTairjv), 7rrrjvai, irrds. 
(TKeXXco (2KAA) ecnckrjKa — ecrKXrjv eaKkr/fiev, cncXairjv^ crKXr)vai. 
TAAQ, rerXvica — erXwv €rXrjp,ev, rXairjv, rkijdi, rXds. 
(pddvco (<E>9A) ecpdaKa, Flit. cpdr)crop,ai — ecpdrjv -rjfiev, (p#co, (fidairjv, (fi8r}> 

vai, cpdds. 
cr^evvvyn (2BE) ecrftrjua — eafirjv -rjp-ev, or^eirjv, a(3r)vai. 
dXicrKopai (\AAO) idXcona — idXcov -cofiev, aXco cos co, aXoirjv, aXcovai } 

dXovs. 
yiyvcouKco (rNO) eyvcoKa — eyvcov -co/xev, yvS> 7 yvoirjv, yvcoBi, yvcovai, y^cu?, 
fiioco, (BefilcoKa — efticov -cofxev, /3ta>, fiicorjv, (Bicovai, (Siovs. 
8vco, dedvKa — edvv -vfitv, bvco, dvrjv, dvdi 7 bvvai, dvs. 
cfivco, necfivKa — ecpvv -vfiev, (pvco, cpvrjv, (pvvai, (pvs. 

Single rare forms of such Aorists are also found in the anom. verbs 
SdXXco, (3ij3pcocrK.co, yrjpdcrKco, tcXdco, ovrdco, nXeco, ttt^ctctco ) see in § 114. — 
Varying from this analogy by its short vowel is the poetic (epic and tragic) 
Aorist of 

Kreivco, eKro.Ka — (eKrctv) 3 Sing, e/cra, Inf. KTap-tv, Krds ', see in § 114. 

Note 1. Here the following particulars are to he noted : 

1) For the Subj. and Opt. bvco, bv-qv, cpvco, cpvrjv (for cpvirjv), compare § 107. 
m. 33 3 also the instances which occur under dvco and cpvco § 114. 

2) In ebpdv (bebpaita) the long a (Aristoph. bevpo 6° av ovk aTredpapev) ap 
pears instead of rj, because preceded by p ; comp. also yqpdvai in yrjpd- 
LTK.CO § 114. 

3) The Aorist eirXcov (see nXeco § 114) is the only one which retains the 
co in the Participle ; and this because it is formed from ttXcoco, not TrXo'co ; 
nXcos (e7mrXcos II. £. 291), which thus probably either had in the Gen. 
covtos (for ovs ovros), or was indeclinable. 

4) In the Opt. the co for oi is found in the common language only in ifiicov, 
fiicprjv, to distinguish it from fiwirjv Opt. Pres. In the early poets also 
ill a.Xcpr)V : yvcor\v. 

5) The apocopated 3 Plur. in v instead of crav has here also (as in ea-rrjv) 
the vowel before the v always short; e. g. (3dv, Hbpav, § 107. m. 39. 

Note 2. We have seen above (§§ 106, 107) that the Imperative-ending Si 
belongs to the syncopated formation, i. e. is annexed immediately to the 
root; hence the Imperative of the above Aorists, so far as it occurs, is 
everywhere so formed; as firjdi, bpddi, yvcodi, bvdi, PI. /3^re, Sure, etc. Con- 
sequently the following four Imperatives in Si and in the s which stands 
for it (§ 106. 4. and n. 1) are to be reckoned under the Aorist forms above 
exhibited : 

7rZ#t, KXvdij (rye?, cppes. 
See in tt'ivco, kXvco. t'xco, (ppew, § 114. 



? L10. VERBS. SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. 203 

7. With these Aorists Active is also connected a corresponding 
Passive Aorist form in firjv, o~o, to, etc. which consequently cor* 
responds to the Aor. 2 Mid. of the regular formation. It must 
however be noted : 1) That the far greater number of examples 
of this form have not the signification of the Middle, but are whol- 
ly Passive ; 2) That in respect to the vowel they conform to the 
Perfect Passive ; 3) That they belong only to the earlier poetical 
language. Some of these forms moreover really belong as Pas- 
sives to some of the Aorists Act. above quoted, viz. 

e[3Xr)p.r]v Opt. ^Xeiprjv — from ejSXrjv (£-vp(3Xr)Tr)v), see /3aXXco § 114. 
eKra.iJ.rjv, KracrOaL, Krdpevos — from e/crav, see Kreivai § 114. 

See too the forms o-vyyvolro. ovrdpevos^ under ytyi/axr/cco, ovrdco ; and 
see in reference to the Imperat. kXv6i above cited, the old participle 
tcXvpevo?. 

It follows consequently, that all such forms, which exhibit the 
same analogy, even where no Aorist Active occurs, are to be re- 
garded in the same manner ; e. g. 

7TVe(0, 7T€7TVV[Xai (e7FVV[Jt.r}v) apTTVVTO 

Xvco, XeXvpai — Xv fxrjv, Xvto or Xvto II. (p. 80. 

(pOia, ecpdlpai — £<f)d? fJLtjv, (pOipevos, Opt. <pdlpr)v, see in § 114. 

See also eirXrjprjv in TripTrXrjpi, io-o-vprjv in o~ev<o, ixvjztjv in ^eco, 
and the Participles KTipevo? : irrdpevos (in Tveravvvpi), Svpevo?, dp7rdp.evos. 
§ 114. 

8. "With these Aorist forms are also closely connected those syn- 
copated Aorists of the Passive, which have a consonant before the 
ending, as eXetcro, 8e%&w. These are formed from the simple 
theme of the verb ; and when this is also the usual theme, they 
are distinguished solely by this syncope from the Imperfect and 
the moods of the Present. They coincide, therefore, with their 
Perf. and Pluperf. Passive without the reduplication ; precisely 
like the Aorists above mentioned. They may consequently be 
compared with these tenses ; but not, as has often been the case, 
be regarded as identical with them. # In signification, Active, 
Passive, or Middle, they everywhere follow their Present in fiat ; 
and they all belong exclusively to the earliest language. E. g. 

^iexopai, eftebeyprjv, e'Se§e£o, etc. §e$ex@ ai — Aor. syncop. (edeyprjv) e§e£o, 

cdeicTo Inf. dexdai Imperat. 6V£o. But see marg. note below. 
piyvvpi, MirQ — (epiyprjv) plKTO 
Xe^aadat — iXey prjv, Xe£o, Xeicro, Xe^&H 
7rdXXco — (eTrdXprjv) rrdXro 
opvvpi, OPi2 — Spp,r]Vy a>pro Inf. opQai Part, oppevos Imp. opcro. 

* The idea of such identity is opposed, partly by the fact that even the dialects, 
which neglect the augment, never drop the reduplication (§ 83. n. 6, 8, 9) ; and partly 
by the decided Aorist signification of nearly all the examples above cited. Only the 
epic BexOai, Seypevos (§ 114, dexofiai), perhaps also Ke7/j.cu (Jlusf. Sprachl. § 109. 
II), and a few single instances, (like yevfieda Theocr. 14. 51 ; eAenrro Apoll. 1. 45,) 
might perhaps be explained in this way, because of their clearly Perfect signification. 
For this reason, and considering too that even decided Pluperfects are in Homer 
often used in an Aorist sense (ej3e/37J/cei, ySejSATjKei), the answer to the inquiry, how 
all these forms have arisen, must still be regai'ded as a subject of difficult gram- 
matical investigation. See JLusf. Sprachl. ed. 2. I. p. 318. II. p. 17-20 



204 VERLS. SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. § 110. 

Also some others like eyevro for iyevero, evtcro see euj(o/xat, SXro 
see aXXopat, iXeXiKro see iXeXi£a>, app,evos see dpapiaKco. For the 
doubtful 'Upevos see iKveopai § 114. 

Note 3. The o- in the endings beginning with ad falls away here, just 
as in the Perf. Passive (§ 98. 2); hence Se^ai, opOai. — Here belongs con- 
sequently the Dual form pidv6f]v (see pLaiva>), and the Inf. nepdat, where 
two consonants are dropped ; see 7rep#co. 

Note 4. In all verbs where the reduplication passes over into the simple 
augment, the Indicative of these Passive Aorists, when it retains its aug- 
ment, is not to be distinguished, as to form, from the Pluperfect ; thus 
copp-qv, eKraprjv, i(p6ipr]v, iaavprjv. 

9. Finally : C) By means of this syncope the longer forms of 
the Perfect and Plupf. Act. are sometimes shortened ; and since, 
as we shall see, (§ 113. 7 sq.) some such Perfects receive a Pres- 
ent signification, they take also a 2 pers. Imperat. with the end- 
ing *n ; * 106. 4, and n. 8. Thus : 

Keicpaya — KtKpaypev Plupf. eKetcpaypev Imperat. k e KpaxQi ) see Kpdfa 

§ 114. 
aumya (see in § 114) — avcoypev Imp. ava>xdl 
dXrjXovda — elXrjXovdpev, epic forms for iXr]Xv6a, see epxopai § 114. 

The alternate oi of the Perf. which comes from ei, passes over in 
this syncope for the most part into i ; e. g. 

neTToiBa from neided — Horn . i w e n i Op e v 

eoika from cikcd — eoiypev, 3 Du. Perf. c'iktov, Plupf. et'Krrjv, merely 

poetical forms; see p. 199 sq. marg. 
Hence appears the correctness of the above derivation of 'Icrpev, etc. p.. 

199 and note, viz. 
olda from eX8co — Wpev or tarpev, '(are, 3 PI. Plupf. epic tcrav, Imper. 'io~di> 

Inf. epic Xdpevat for eldepevai (comm. eldevai) ; with the Attic forms of 

the Pluperf. 

fjcrpev, yure, fjaav, for r}8eipev : fjheiTe, rjbecrav. 

Note 5. When by means of this syncope the consonant of the root comes 
to stand immediately before r in the ending, this r sometimes passes over 
into £, on account of the similarity of sound with the Passive endings, re- 
rvcpOe, e<pdapOe, etc. Thus from the Imper. aWytfi are formed in the othei 
persons, instead of 

dvcoyere, dvecyerco, — a z/co^#e, dva>x6a>; 
and thus also from 

Perf. iyp-qyopa, eyprjyopare^ — eyprjyopde, 
see iyeipca § 114; and in the same manner is most naturally explained the 
epic Trerroo-Oe, see Tracryo § 114, 

TveTTOvOa, 7r€7r6v6are — 7re7rocrde' } 
that is, so soon as the # came to stand before the r, it passed over into a 
(like idpei/i '{are), and the v fell away (7renoo-Te) j after which the transition 
was natural to the Passive form, TrenocrBe II. y. 99. Od. k. 465. y\r. 53. 

10. This syncope is more natural, when the characteristic of 
the verb is a vowel. Such a vowel however appears pure before 
the ending a of the Perfect, only in a few verbs ; as we have 
seen in § 97. n. 7. Thus 

dedia, see dtlaai § 114; hence Perf. PI. deoipev, SeStre, for debiapevy 

-are. Imperat. o eo id i. 
Plupf. idedip-ev, ededne, edebiaav, for eSeS/ei/xev, re, eSeSiWai/. 



k 110. VERBS. SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. 205 

Further, as some Perfects in rj/ca, in their epic syncope, cause 
the radical vowel (a) to reappear before the ending, e. g. ftefirj/ca 
(fie/3 aa) /3e/3dao-L, ftefiaws (k 97. n. 7) ; we can in the same man- 
ner explain — as coming from an older form by means of that 
syncope — some forms of the Dual and Plur. Indie, and of the 
Inhn. which occur from such Perfects in the Attic and common 
language. E. g. from rerX^fca (see rXrjvcu § 114) TETAAA — 
TerXa-fieV) etc. Inf. rerXdvac (for rerXa-evai). And as this co- 
incides fully with the form of the Present of verbs in fit, Utrra* 
uev, lardvaL, so most of the other parts of the formation in fit 
are likewise adopted in this Perfect ; thus 

Perf. Plur. rerXafiev, reVXare, rerXdcn(v) 

Dual t€t\o.tov 
Pluperf. PL irerXafjiev, ererXare, irerXao-av 
Dual ererXaTov, ererXdrrju 
Inf. rerXdvai (short a) 
Imperat. rerXadt, rcrXarco, etc. 
Opt. TerXaLTjv. 
The Subjunctive of this verb is not used in this form ; instead of it we sub- 
join that of (BefirjKa, fiepa/jiev, etc. 

Subj. /3e/3(£, 77 y, 77, etc. 
The Participle alone is not formed after the conjugation in fit, but is con- 
tracted from a«y into coy ) so that the Masc. and Neut. are alike (acoy and 
ao'y, G. ciotos, contr. coy, Soros) ] and this contracted form then takes a special 
feminine in cocra; e. g. from fieftrjKa Part. fiefirjica?, via, 6s, 

/3fj3a>y, (3ej3S)ara, j3ej3oos, G. /3<r/3coroy. 
Of those Perfects which conform to the above model, only the Sing. Indie. 
of the Perf. and Pluperf. is usual in the regular form (rerXrjKa, as, e, — ire- 
tXt]K€lv, eis, '«) ; all the other parts have the above secondary forms, which 
in general are more usual than the regular ones. See in the catalogue, 
besides rXrjvai and fiaiva, also &vr]o-Kti); for the epic forms yeyajxev, 
fj-efMa/xev., see anom. TEN-, MAO; also Perf. ecrrrjKa under io-ttj/jli § 107 
m. 22, 23. 

Note 6. We remark further: 

a) That except in the 3 Plur. Perf. (eWacnz/, etc.) the a in all these forms 
is short, inasmuch as the short vowel of the ending falls away by syncope, 
instead of being contracted with the radical vowel • and that consequently 
it is incorrect to write rerXavai, redvavai, eardvai, etc.* 

b) That it is only in the contracted form of the Participle that the fem- 
inine in aa occurs ; since in the uncontracted form in the epic writers it 
regularly ends in via; e. g. /3e/3acoy /3e/3aiua — /3e/3a>y /3e/3cocra. 

c) That the participial ending acoy, Neut. aos, (according to § 27. n. 10,) 
becomes among the Ionics ecoy (with fern, ecocra) ; see larrj^i § 107. m. 23, 
and § 114. Svyjo-kco ; in which latter verb this is the common Attic form. — 
Compare also 7re7rrcoy, Tveirrecos, in the Anom. ttiWco; and /3e/3pcoy in 

(SlfipaXTKO). 

11. The verbal root or stem is further sometimes changed by 
Metathesis 

* This however did not hinder the poets, especially the earlier ones, as iEschylus, 
from employing the contracted form for the sake of the metre, e. g. Agam. 558 
Tt6vai/cu. That it was short in the common language is shewn by the manner of 
using it in comedy ; e. g. Aristoph. Ran. 1012 rzOvavai. — The epic Infinitive forms 
rsSvdfxevcu, redyd/xev, are explained by comparing § 107. m. 34. 



206 VERBS. NEW THEMES. V 111. 

or transposition of the letters. This takes place, as in the noun 
(§ 19. n. 2), with a vowel and liquid, especially in two cases : 

1) In the Aorist 2 ; see $ 96. n. 7. 

2) In several verbs, where the simple theme has a liquid for its charac 
teristic. E. g. in the root 0AN, Aor. eOavov, Fut. &avovp.ai, there takes 
place, for the sake of easier flexion, a transposition of the vowel, 0NA ; 
hence reQinjica, Tt6vap,ev, etc. In some verbs the new Present in actual use 
arises from such a transposition \ as in the above example, 9-vfjcnco). The 
same takes place in the root MOA. But on account of the difficulty in pro- 
nouncing p.X, the letter j3 was inserted between these two letters in the 
middle of a word (§ 19. n. 1), as /xep/3Xa>j<a for p,ep.\ooKa; while at the be- 
ginning of the (new) Present-form the p. itself was changed into /3, as /3Aa>- 
ctkco.^ This being premised, the three following verbs have a complete and 
manifest analogy : 

Svtjo-kco, Savovjxai, Wavov, reOvrjua (0AN, 0NA) 

^pcbo-KO), S^opovp-aL, Wopov. . . . (©OP; 0PO) 
/3Att)o-/cco, fiokovfxat, ep.o\ov, p.ep.j3\a>Ka (MOA, MAO) 
See all these in § 114. In the same manner belong together the defective 
forms eVopoi/, 7reVpo)rai ; see irop^iv § 114.f 

With entire certainty can be referred to this metathesis only those verbs 3 
in which the transposed vowel is clearly to be recognized in some of the 
forms; as the a in redvdvai, Ttdvairjv, and the o in /zep/SXco/ca. But where 
merely 77 appears, it may be a matter of doubt, whether to assume a meta- 
thesis or only a syncope, e. g. whether Se/ico (AEM, AME) 8e8pt]<a } or 6Vpco 
(8e8ep.r)<a) 8e8p.r)ica, like vep.10 veveprjica. Here belong the following verbs, 
whose Present is otherwise formed : 

rep-vio F. rep,a> A. erep.ov Pf. Terp.rjKa 
Kap,vc£> F. Kap.ovp.ai A. e<ap.ov Pf. KeKprjKa. § 101. 11. 9. 
The metathesis is clearer in the verb KaXeoa; although the forms KaXeco. 
KaXeacD, K€Kkt]Ka, seem to indicate merely a syncope. That is to say, the 
Fut. KaAeo-oo, Attic F. /eaXco, is unquestionably the Future of a simple theme 
KAAQ4 From the theme KAAQ came consequently the Perf. KCKkrjica by 
the same metathesis (KAA, KAA) as in the above Perfects ; and thence too 
the poets have a Present kucX^o-k©, corresponding to the form ^ctkco from 
©AN Q. Hence 

KaXeco, /a/cX^o-Kco, F. KaXib Pf. Ke<KrjK.a (KAA, KAA). 
See also in § 114, /3aXXo (3efi\r)Ka, cr/ceXXco ereXqica. 

Note 7. When through metathesis two vowels come to stand together, 
there arises also a contraction. Thus in k ep a 00, which in flexion has a short 
a, as /cepacrco, Kepacrai ) but in metath. Ion. Kpfjcrai, Att. after p, /ceAcpaxa, etc. 
See also 7reXda>, 7T€pdco under irnrpdo-Ko), § 114. This takes place in the root 
itself in the verb rapdrrco (short a); by metath. Sparrcc (long a) : and in 
like manner o-rpavvvp.1 from o-ropewvpu; see both in § 114. 

§ 111. New Themes from the Tenses. 

1. Another, though not an extensive species of anomaly, is 
when some one of the tenses other than the Present is converted 

* Precisely the same relation exists between j6Aa£ and paXaicSs, fiXiTToo gather 
honey and pe\i ; see Lexilog. II. art. 108. A still more decisive analogy for (j.o\e?y, 
^p/3\oo;<a, fiXuxrKu, is afforded by the two following instances, viz. popos death, 
pQi(ri)j.l3poTOS, fiporSs; apaprelv, apfiportiv, afipordCeiv. 

t From f}ij3pd!>(TKw, the corresponding radical form BOPH has been preserved only 
in the verbal subst. fiopa. 

X Comp. § 95. n. 12. The usual Pres. /ca\ea> has arisen out of this Future ; just 
as the Ion. Pres. ^ax^opai l'"om Fut. pax^oyLai. See § 95. n. 1G, marg. 



§ 111. VERBS. NEW THEMES. 207 

into a new theme ; either because it could be taken in the sense 
of the Present, or because it was more agreeable to the ear than 
the Present. Such themes occur only from the Perfect and the 
Aorist 2 Active and Passive. 

2. As the Perfect not unfrequently takes the signification of 
the Present (s s 113. 7), it sometimes also passes over into the for- 
mation of the Present. Such instances belong for the most part 
to the Doric or the epic language. 

Thus we find in Theocrit. 15. 58, deboiKo for dedoiKa I fear, see 
Anom. SeTo-at- and in Homer KeKXrjyovres, see Anom. ic\d£a> • in Hesiod 
eppiyovTi, see Anom. ptyeco. Hence the Imperfects in ov derived from 
Perfects; e. g. Hesiod inecpvKov from necpvica- and here belong too the 
third persons like yey cove, dvr)vo8e, avoaye, which in Homer are not 
only Perfect (i. e. Present), but often also Imperfect or Aorist. 

Note 1 . The clear exhibition of this anomaly is rendered more difficult, 
by the circumstance of there being undoubted traces, that a part of the 
Dorians gave to the real Perfect, in many of its parts, the same endings as 
those of the Present. Thus Pindar Inf. yeydneiv, see Anom. yiyvop.ai ; 
Theocrit. bebvKTjv (for -Keiv) instead of behvicevai ; also Theocr. Treirovdrjs 
TrecpvKT] (for eir, ei, instead of -af, -e). So the Participle in co^, ovaa, in- 
stead of coy, via, e. g. Pind. tt ecp piKovras) Archimed. /xf fievdicovcra. from 
p.ep.evrjKa. See the Ausf. Sprachl. § 88. n. 11, 14. § 111. n. 2. — The redupli- 
cated Aorists, like Tremdov, apapov, etc. do not belong here; see § 83. n. 10. 
§ 85. n. 3. 

Note 2. In the Passive, several Perfects, when they receive a Present 
signification, take also the Present form; that is, they take the accent in 
the Infin. or Part, not upon the penult, but upon the antepenult syllable. 
Thus we have seen above the Part, rjp,evos and tceifxevos; and here be- 
long also the Participles i\rfkdp.evos, dpt]pep.evos; iaavp-epos, see under iXavvco, 
dpapiaKoo, o-euci), § 114. Also the Infin. and Part, of these two verbs : 

dtd^T] p. a i — aKd)(r)<j6ai, aKay^/xez/oy, as also axrj^e/xct'os' 

d\d\r) p. a i — d\d\r]crdaL, dXaXrjpepos. 
Both these last forms, however, are regarded by some as reduplicated Pres- 
ent forms, like a/<aKi£co. 

Note 3. In some verbs in which the Perfect has a Present signification, 
the Future belonging to that signification is derived from the Perfect ; so 
in Homer Kexaprjo-a), op.ai, from Kexdpr]Ka : see Anom. ^aipco. Also in Attic 
writers the Fut. eo-r^lco, redvrjtjo), op,ai, (from la-Trjp.^ S-vfjo-Ka.) with the 
new anomaly, that the k of the Perf. is here embraced in the flexion, as if 
it were radical. 

3. In some verbs the Aorist 2 Active, on account of the Infin 
in elv, occasions a new formation as if from a Present in eco. 

Under this head might be reckoned a large number of the anomalous 
verbs ; as evpio-Koo, yiyvop,cu, almost all those in ai/co, etc. Nevertheless, 
all the forms belonging here are better explained according to § 112. 6. 
III. With more certainty may be referred here, as derived from the Aor. 
2 as a new theme, the reduplicated Futures KeKao^crco, 7re7ridr)aa}, 
TrecpiSrjcrop.ai, see anom. ^"C ^ 7rei3<£>, (pei8op.ai; also the Present-form 
in it pane ova i II. k. 421, and SaXedto, (paedco in § 112. 12. 

Thus, it is not to be assumed that there were actually such verbs as 
cupeco, ri^eo), etc. but that from the Aorist 2 evpov evpelv, eruYoi/ rvx^lv, 
there arose the formation evprja-co, evprjKa, TeTv^rjica, etc. for which a cor 
responding Present was later introduced ; see evpio-Ka>, rvyxdvco, and also 
similar forms in p.av6dvu>, fiXao-Tavio, yiyvop.ai, etc. § 114. 



208 VERBS. CHANGES OF THE THEME. § 112. 

In some other verbs, whose Aor. 2 Pass, has, as deponent., an 
Active signification, there is formed in like manner from rjv 9 a 
Perfect in t]Ka : 

ippvrjKa from eppvrjv flowed; see pea>. 

Kc-^dprjKa and Ke^dprjpai from e^dprjv rejoiced; see ^atpco. 

deddrjica. and deSdrjpai from eddijv I learned; see AA-. 

§ 112. Anomalous Changes of the Theme or Stem. 

1. By far the greater portion of the anomaly of Greek verbs 
consists in the mixing together of forms from different Themes ; 
so that several of the derived tenses, when traced back in the reg- 
ular manner, presuppose a different Present from the usual one. 
We give here a general view of these variations. 

2. These different forms of the theme or stem very often exist 
together, side by side, especially in the Present. Or, what is 
more common, different parts of the verb, derived from different 
forms of the stem, are mingled together. This then is the real 
anomaly, so frequent in the Greek verb. 

3. We must here assume it as a fundamental position, which 
has already been developed in \ 92, that just in the most common 
verbs the Present is only a fuller derived form of the simplest 
theme as it appears in the Aor. 2 ; and this fuller form does not 
in general extend beyond the Imperfect, § 92. 10. Thus, Aor. 2, 
ekaftov, AABI2, AHBI2 — Pres. Xa^dvco, Impf. i\dfA(3avov, Fut. 
\r)-^ro[iai. 

4. The case of a double form of the Present in actual use at 
the same time, occurs even in common prose ; and many such 
instances as Xeiirco and XifiTrdvco, fcreivco and ktlvvv/jli, are found 
in the best prose writers. Not unfrequently, however, one of the 
forms belongs rather to some particular dialect ; thus dytveco for 
ayco, (pvyydvco for (pevyco, were more common among the Ionics. 
More especially, the poets of every period, as was natural, held 
possession of such secondary forms, handed down as they were 
from the earliest times. 

Note 1. With such modifications of the stem were also connected differ- 
ences of sense. With the fuller forms, in contrast to the idea of the Aorist. 
there very naturally became connected the idea of what is repeated, fre- 
quent^ customary. Thus the Pres. (popeeo, derived from cpepco, serves mainly 
to express more definite relations; as to wear a garment, i. e. to have it on 
customarily. — All this belongs, however, rather to the lexicon; and can 
therefore only be alluded to here. 

Note 2. The instances, in which a secondary form was in use only in 
the Present and Imperfect ', e. g. XipnaviSi and AaVa), are also anomalous ; 
since the writers who use Xipizdvco form nevertheless the Fut. Xei'\^co, etc. 
Such instances may be regarded as secondary Present forms. 

Note 3. In this way it is possible, that one verb may appear in its con 
juration to be a mixture of three or more. Thus from the theme IIHGQ 
or ITA0£J there exists only the Aorist eiraOov; another form strengthened 



$ 112. VERBS. CHANGES OF THE THEME. 209 

with v, IIENGQ, is retained in the Perfect TriirovOa • while in the Pres. and 
Impf. both have yielded to the form Trdaxco, which gives name to the whole 
verb. From the theme IIETAQ comes 7rerao-oo; in the Perf. Pass, the syn- 
cope appears, TrerrTapai; while in the Pres. and Impf. only the lengthened 
form ireravvvpi is usual. 

5. Many derived forms of the Present are of such a kind, that 
few or no other examples of a like change of the stem are at pres- 
ent extant in the language ; as e. g. ayiveco from ayco, iratryw from 
IIA@f2, iaOcco from e$oo, iXavvco from i\dco. The most however 
stand in a clear analogy with others ; and this the learner must 
endeavour to embrace in one general view. 

Remark. The verbs cited here below are mostly given in the Anom. Cat- 
alogue, § 114. The rest, and indeed all those quoted as examples through- 
out our discussion on the verb, may be found, so far as it regards their sig- 
nification, in the Catalogue of regular Verbs, App. F. 

6. One of the most common anomalies is the mixture of the 
formation in co and e&>, contr. w ; as is seen (I) even in the Pres- 
ent of these verbs : 

pinrai and pnrrea), eiAco and elXeco, kvco and Kvea>, Kvpeco and Kvpopat, 
crrepeco and arepopai, £vpe(£> and fjvpopai. 

Yet regularly (II) only one form of the Present is the usual one ; 
and the other, as an unusual Present, serves as the basis for other 
tenses. Hence the verbs in question fall into two classes, viz. 

a) Those in which the tenses (except Pres. and Impf.) are de-' 
rived either from the Future, or partly from the form in co ; which 
however in the Present has been supplanted by that in ico ; e. g. 
Sofceco, F. Sofa), from AOKfl. 

Here belong the anom. So/ceco, wdeco, yapico) also on account of single 
poetic forms, yr/^eco, 8ov7reoo, KTVTreco, KevrecOj iriTveii), piyeco, crrvyeco, <piXea>, 
nareopai, dareopca * comp. § 96. n. 5. 

b) Those which in the Pres. have the form in &> ; but derive the 
tenses' either wholly or in part from that in eoo, Fut. eaw or rjcro) ; 
e. g. Bio), F. Setfaco ; d^6o/uiat, F. a^Oeaoiiai. 

Here belong the anom. a-^Qopai^ akdopat, aa> 2, deco to lack, dee- 
pen, eSco, euSco (Kadevda), Krjdoo, pdxopai. o'lopai, o'l^opai, 7ratco, 
irero pat, tvtttco. 

The same takes place in some because of a double consonant in 
the Present ; e. g. (tyco, F. e^rrjaco. 

Thus in anom. dXe^oo, av £a>, j36(x ko>, ex^co, i'£co (KaQifa, Kadi^opai), 
pv£a), o£a>. 

Also in some in \fivp, which either wholly or partially go over 
into the formation in ico ; e. g. fieWco, F. fjueWr/crco. 

So in the anom. fiovXopai, eppew, &e\u> or etfe'Xco, KeXopai, peXXco, 
fie'Xet (einpeXopai), pevoo, vepoo, 6(pei\u>, ^aipco' and with a syncope 
of the stem- vowel, /3aXXco, 8ep<£>, cfceXXco. 

Further, we must reckon here (III) all those in which the forma- 
tion of the tenses presupposes both the themes in co and eo) ; which 

O 



210 VERBS. CHANGES OF THE THEME. $ 112 

however are both unused, and have been supplanted by a new 
and generally a strengthened Present-form, in ltkco, dvco, etc. 

Here "belong the following anomalous verbs, which are all to he again 
cited in their proper place : a/ca^i^to, dnacptaKco, enavptcricopat, yiyvopat, 
i pea-Oat. evpia-Kco, eyw with its compounds. XdcrKto. rpe^co. Also the most in 
dvco (alvco) : alaOdvopat, dXircuVco, dpaprdvco, dv8dvco, (SXaaTcivco^ dapddvco, 
dne^Odvopat, Kt^dvco, pavOdvco, 6Xto~0dvco, oaCppaivopat, 6<pXicrKdvco^ Tvy^dvco. 
See too \ajjLj3dvio. 

Note 4. Although this mode of formation does not, or at least does not 
necessarily, presuppose an actual Present in em ; yet it was often the case 
that such a Present was afterwards actually formed, earlier or later, in con- 
sequence of this formation. Thus arose, in the early language, certainly 
KaXeco from the Fut. KaXea-co (see p. 206, marg.) and thus most probably the 
usual pLirrea), ptnrcb, came from the Fut. ptnrrjo-co. But it is easy to see the 
difficulty of making out such cases ; and therefore we are fully justified in 
deducing every Future in ecrco and tjo-co from a Present in eco, where such an 
one is in actual use. 

Note o. The Ionics, however, often form single parts of the Pres. or Impf. 
as if from eco ; although the whole Present, or the 1 pers. Pres. may not so 
occur ) e. g. Impf. cocpXee, e-^ree, ive't^ee, from cocpXov, e\j/co, ive^co ; also 
crvpfiaXXeopevo?, nte^evpevos Hdot. and nte^evv for ente£ov Horn. Still more 
remarkable is this insertion of e in two Perfect-forms in Herodotus, viz. 
o n ca nee for on cone, and ecoOee for eco#e, coram. e'icoOe. 

7. Far less frequent is tho transition from co into dco, without 
further change. 

. E. g. in anom. (pvpco, yodco, prjKaopat^ pvKaopat, fipv)(dopat ) and comp. 

anom. dvrdco, da p. dco (from AEMQ, Pass. Aor. eddprjv). 

Or more rarely from co into vco. E. g. 

Anom. dvvco (clvco), eX/cw. 

Or the mingling of themes in co and oco. E.g. 

Anom. opvvpt, ovopat, rpv-^co. 

8. Several barytones of two syllables, which have e hi the first 
syllable, form other secondary Presents, sometimes also with a 
modified signification (note 1), by changing e for the alternate o, 
and takmg the ending eco. 

E. g. cpepco and cpopeco, rpepco and rpopeco, oepco and dopeco, nepOco and 
nopOeco, cpeftopat coram, cpofieo pat, eyw and o^eco. Here belong 
also the forms deboKrj pevos for dedeypevos; i ktovi) kce, pe poprjrat, 
eoXrjro, see de^opat, Kreivco, peipopat, e'tXco J comp. also (3e(36Xr]pat in 
/3aXXco. — An exception with the alternate co is ncoXeop,at from 7reXco 

Or the radical syllable takes co with the ending dco. 

E. g. rpco^dco for rpepco, dcopdco for AEMQ * so also (3pcopdopat } vcopdco, 
rpcond<s>, crrpcoc^dco, for fipepco, vepco, r pence, errpeepco. — An exception is 
nor do pat from neropat, found along with the regular secondary 
forms noreopat and ncordopat. 

9. The endmgs dco, d£co, alco, are very often secondary forms 
of each other. Thus in epic writers : 

E. g. dvTtdco for dvTtd^to, cmendo for anend^co, crKtdco (aKtocovro) for 
aKtd^co, neXdco and neXd£co, bapdeo and hapd^co. ovrdco and ovrd^co. See 
too /3td£opxit. 

The interchange of dco and alco is most frequent in the two verbs 



§ 112. VERBS. CHANGES OF THE THEME. 211 

K.ala) and /cXato), Att. Kaio and /cXaco, 

both with long a; for their flexion see h 95. n. 9. — But ala-, like 
dfo and dvvv/M, forms also a strengthened Present for the short a 
in flexion ; e. g. 

vatca from NAQ (hence z/ao-cm) ; Sou'co from AAQ (hence (Wao-£at) . 
See also \ialo[Lai from MAO, dyalopat in ayap.ai. 

10. Another anomaly is produced by the circumstance, that, 
oefore the ending co of the simple theme indicated by the tenses, 
the consonant v is inserted in the Present, and the preceding 
vowel often lengthened ; e. g. eXavvco, F. eX&crco, from EAAI2. 

Here belong the anom. fialvco, eXavvco, ir'tva, cpddvco ; and the sec- 
ondary forms ri'yco, (pdivco, bvvco, from rtco, <£#tco, 8vco. See also I8pva>, 
cpaivco ; and in the Catal. of regular verbs, %va> and ivrvvca. — Also where 
there is a preceding consonant in the stem; as dd/cva, Ka/xvco, ripivco, 
Fut. 8f]go[xai, etc. 

This anomaly is sometimes increased by the fact, that, besides 
the v, the Pres. and Impf. take also the formation in eco ; e. g. 
Suveco, P. (Bvaco, from fivco. 

So in the anom. /3 vi/ e©, Kvveio (7rpoo-Kvveoo). iKveo p,ai. v7ria^viojiat 
under e^co. 

11. Many simple themes are lengthened in the Pres. and Impf. 
by the insertion of av, rarely atv. Most of these have an Aor. 2 
from the simple form ; from which also the other tenses are de- 
rived, but with the formation in eco ; e. g. fiXacrrdvco, F. ffXao-Trj- 
crco, Aor. 2 e/3\a<TTOv. 

Here belong the anom. d/zupravco, av£dv(£>, ala ddvo p.ai, dAiratW, 
dXcpdvoo, aTvex^dvop-aL (e\da>), /3Xacrrdi/co, hapOdv co, epvdaiva), t£di/co, 
iKdva>, /ayavco, Kepdalvco, oXicrddvco^ dcrcppaivofiai. Comp. above in no. 
6. III. 

This species of anomaly also is increased by the circumstance, 
that many verbs so formed insert in the radical syllable a nasal 
letter (v, /x, 7), and shorten the long vowel of the same or retain 
the original short vowel ; e. g. Xelyrco, Xc/uirdvco, (fievyco cfrvyy dvco, 
' AAfl dvhdvco. The further flexion, though with some anomalies, 
is always from the simple form. 

Here belong the anom. dv8dv(o, XavOdva, p.av6dvco, nvvOdvoiiai, 

^avddvco' \ap.fidva), Xifxndvco • Qiyydvco, e pvyydvto, Xayxdvoo, rvy- 

^ai/co, (pvyydva. See above in no. 6. III. 

Note 6. In respect to the quantity of the doubtful vowels before the end- 
ing pea in the two preceding paragraphs, it is to be remarked in general, that 
iVco and vvco are long; e. g. tt'ivco, 8vv<£>, and so in Kpivoo, 6plva>, /3pa8uz>co; but 
the ending dvco is short. Yet, if we regard only the usage of epic writers, 
the following are long, viz. cpOdvco, Udvoa, Kixdvco. — The Attics have likewise 
some deviations, inasmuch as they not only use t'ivg>, (pdivco, as short ; but 
also bring <pddv<o, mxdv co^ under the analogy of other verbs in dvco, anr 
make them in like manner short. 

* In this word, as a sort of compensation, the long sound falls back among tr 
Attics into the s) 7 llable m, which elsewhere, as being a reduplication, is short, an" 
actually occurs so in kixwcu etc. The quantity of the other fc rms belonging to QQi 
vw and cpddvca, see in § 114. 



212 VERBS. CHANGES OF THE THEME. $ 112. 

12. Some verbs have Attic and poetic secondary forms in ^a>, 
preceded by different vowels ; but only in the Pres. and Impf. 

Thus (pXeyedoo for (pXeyco, vepeBco for vepco' (pivvOia for (pOlvco. As epie 
forms we may note rjyepeOovTai, rjepedovrai, with altered quantity 
for ayeipovTai, deipovrai, see § 114; also SaXeBco and cpaeOco, formed from 
the Aor. 2. 

Here belongs consequently the lengthening of a verb by means of 
the letters a0 before the ending, which occurs even in Attic prose ; 
but is found only as preterite, either Impf. or Aorist in -adov, and 
in the dependent moods. Of this kind are the following : 

§iG0Ka8eiv, ehiwKddov, from 8lcokco' elicddeiv, elKaOoipi, from eiKw dpvvd- 

Beiv, dpvvadoLprjv^ from dpvvco- elpyadeiv from e'lpyio • and the epic 

pereKtadou from kicd. 

With these are to be compared the forms vrjdco, aXr/^co, Kvfjdoo, which 

came into use at a later period instead of veco spin, aXeco, Kvdco. See also 

7r\r]d(£> and np-qdco in nipTrXrjpt and 7Tip.Trpr]pi, arj6a> in craco, and 7re\a0<t> 

7rXd#co in 7reXa£<». 

13. Some verbs take in the Pres. and Impf. a reduplication with 
t, (without the ending a/cco or /xt, see in no. 14, 15,) which falls 
away in the other tenses ; e. g. yiryvojuLcu, F. jev^aojuac, from FEN 12. 

Here belong y[yvop,ai, pipvm (pevco), ttltttoh, tit pace. But rcrpaiVoo, 
with an anomalous reduplication in the Present, retains it also in the 
other tenses ; as rerpavSy, etc. 

Those themes which begin with a vowel, take a reduplication like 
that of the Attic in the Perfect. 

E. g. aKct/a^co (comp. dnacpicrKoi, dpapicrKco, below); also even with t, as 
artrdXXco from drdXKco, 6m7rreva) from oTrreuoo: comp. dvlvqpi in no. 15. 

14. Almost all verbs in <tkw have arisen out of simpler ones ; 
and therefore have their full form only in the Pres. and Imperfect. 
They either retain the vowel of the stem before the ending, as 
yijpdcTKco, apea/ccD, Fut. ryrjpdcrofzai, dpecra ; or they lengthen it, as 
^fV7](7/cco, ^rpcocTfcco, Fut. ^rdvodfiai, ^opovpbai. — Those of which the 
characteristic is a consonant, annex Lcncco to the stem, as evplcr/ccD, 
Aor. 2 evpov ; and the same takes place also in several having the 
stem- vowel e and o, which is dropped, and then lctkg) is annexed 
to the stem, as <TT€p[(TK(D, dvaklo-fcco, Fut. arepijaco, dvaXwaco. 

Here belong yq pao-tca, rjftdcrKco, IXdcrKopai, cpdaKco (see (prjpi § 109) ; 
)(d<TK<£>, dpecrKti), p,e6vcrKa>; fiiooaKopai; #j/ 170- /ceo, Qpcocr kcg, /SXcotr/co) 
(§ 110. li)j a/x7rXaKto-KO), iirav pi a Kop,at, evplcncco, Kincr/eco, trrfpicr/cco ; 
aXtcKo/tat, dvaXicr kqd, ap/3X t cr/cco. 

Some Presents are still further strengthened by taking also the 
reduplication before them (as in no. 13) ; which however is again 
dropped in the tenses ; e. g. fjui^vrjcricw^ F. fivTJcrco, from MNAfh. 
Here belong the anom. di$ pder kcc, niTrpdaKca, KiKkr)<rKa> (KaXeco) 

pipvT}(TK(0, TnivicrKa (7TiVco), j3 1 j3p a) or K co, y ty v co cr K(S), tit pcodKco; dpa- 

picr/cco, drra^)i(TK(£). 

One verb also is further strengthened by inserting the syllable av 
in the ending crico), as in no. 11 above, viz. 

o(pXicrKdz/&), f. o<pXjjcrG), from 0$AQ. 



* 112. VERBS, CHANGES OF THE THEME. 213 

Note 7. This form in otcco can indeed be compared with the Latin Verbu 
inchoative inasmuch as many of these verbs imply in their signification a 
beginning, increase, etc. But they are seldom so much distinguished from 
the simple form as in Latin, e. g. rubescere from rub ere. An example oi 
this kind nevertheless is T)l3da>, ^/3do-Kco, I am or become of ripe age. Com- 
monly the simple form either had the same signification, or was wholly 
obsolete. On the other hand, the form in o-kco takes sometimes the causa- 
tive sense (§ 113. 2) to make or cause another to do, etc. e. g. peOvco I am 
drunk) peOvcrKa I make drunk (see in § 114); ttittlctkco give to drink) from 
rrtVco, I drink. For fiioocrKopai see j3ioa>. — That the Ionic Iteratives in <tkov 
are to be carefully distinguished from these verbs, follows of course : see 
$ 103. m. 11. 

Note 8. To the same analogy in o-kco belong the verbs dXvo-KO)) fii§d<x/cG> ; 
but they vary from it by retaining the k in flexion, while StSdo-Kco retains 
also the reduplication,' as Fut. aXv^<0) St8d£co. — Different is it with AdaTcco 
from AAKQ, et'oveco from el'/cco be like, titvctkco for ret/yw ; in all which the k 
is radical, and the o- only an addition for strength. — For (36(tkco see above 
under no. 6. b. 

15. We here bring together those verbs, which in the Present 
and Imperfect have mostly or exclusively the formation in jm, 
either with or without reduplication ; while in the other tenses 
they present various anomalies, as may be seen in the Catalogue, 

* 114. 

a) Those in pi (or pai) with the stem-vowel a; as aya/xai, bvvapai, 
eTricrTapai, epapai) "nrrapai) 'iXrjpi (apai)) Kixpijpi ( ai ^d -apai)) 
Kpepapai, ovivqpi (and -apai). pdpvapai) tt IpirXr) pi, ir iprrpr] pt, 
trpiaa-Qai an Aor. in signification. Also larrjpi, (prjpi] and comp. 
Xpf) under XP"- 03 ' 

b) Those in pi (or pai) with the stem- vowel e ; as arjpi, Sirjpi, dldrjpi, ki~ 
XVPh perh . also 8i£rjpai' } and further, riOrfpi, trjpi, elpi. 

c) In pi (pai) with the stem- vowel o; e. g. didapi) ovopai. — Also in pt 
with the stem- vowel t, as elpi. 

d) Those in vvpi with a preceding consonant or diphthong, § 106. 8; as 
ayvvpi, axwpai, 8e Itzvv pi, e'ipyvvpi, daivvpi, £evyvvpi) Krivvvpi, 
p,iyvvpi, o'iyvvpi) oXXvpi (for oXvvpi), opvvpi, opopyvv pi, opvv- 
pi, rrrjyvv pi, prjyvv pi, apvvpai, Ttrdpvvpai. 

e) Those in vwpi with a preceding vowel, § 106. 8; as Kepdwvpt, 
Kpepdvvvpi, Tverdvvvpi, cr KeDdvvv pi' evvvpi, £ivvvpi, Kopivvvpi, 
afievvvpi, aropevvv pi (also crrpcovvvpi)- rlvvvpi' £d>vvv pi, pcovvv- 
pi, xp^vvvpi, x^vvv pi. 

16. A change which belongs rather to the poets, is the inser- 
tion of v before the ending dco, viz. 

cico into vdeo, vt)/jU. 
E. g. dapdio and 8apvd<£>) bdpvqpi) irepvdo), nepvqpi. from rrepdeo. So 
too with a change of e into t, Kipvaa, Kipvqpi, from Kepdca (Kepdv- 
vvpi) ; also TriXvrjpi) 7rirvr]pi, aKidvrjpi. from 7reAdco, IIETAQ, 2KEAAO ; 
and with a change of e into 77, Kpr\pvr\pi from icpepdu). 

17. Some minor analogies will appear on comparing the two 
verbs 

eyw (root 'EX) and eWca, 

in both which the rough breathing (after dropping the e) passes 
over into the sibilant cr ; but see eVo), k 114. — Also the two verbs 

tiktio and neKTO), 



214 VERBS. CHANGES OF THE THEME. $ 112 

in which the simple themes TEK-, TIEK-, reappeai in the tenses, 
after the analogy of verbs in tttw. — Further, the two verbs 

vi£(o and 7recrcrco, 

both of which in the tenses have a lingual for their characteristic 
— And lastly the two verbs 

a/jLCKo and yj/dco, comp. also veca swim, 
which form some of the Passive tenses from secondary forms in 

18. Finally, in a number of verbs the different tenses aie de- 
rived from entirely different themes ; like the Lat. fero, tuli, la- 
tum. So the corresponding verb in Greek : c^epco, Fut. otaco, Aor 
rjveyicov. 

Here "belong the Anom. aipea), elirelv, epxopai, eV^tco, 6pd(o, ird- 
o-^o), irlvv), rpdx^i (pep®. Comp. also £doi, Sea. ttitt pacrfcco, 7r\r]<r 
crco, tXtJvcu, oiveopai. 

19. In the preceding remarks (including % 110, 111), we have 
considered the principal anomalies of the Greek verb. There re- 
mains only a small number of verbs, of which some do not fall 
under any of the analogies presented, as /3apvva>, pefa, rpcoyco, 
i|rv%ft), %ao7ca) ; others are defective, like ipeaOai, fielpopcu, etc. or 
are extant only in isolated forms, as ^seaaaaOai, Xvyge, roercrai, etc. 
— The learner will also find a number of otherwise regular verbs 
inserted in the Catalogue (§ 114) ; partly in order to exhibit a 
view of the actual usage, whether poetic or prosaic ; and partlv 
on account of single variations in form and signification. See 
e. g. ayco, alpco, Krelvco, \eyoy, fialvofia, <fxiiv(D, etc. 

20. As an Appendix to the anomaly of the Verb, we here pre- 
sent a full catalogue of those pure verbs, which in the Perf. Pass, 
and also in the Aor. 1 Pass, and the verbal Adjectives, assume the 
euphonic cr, either always, or partly as admitting both formations 
with and without cr. All these verbs are inserted likewise in the 
subsequent Catalogues (App. F) ; and those with spaced letters 
are also given in the anomalous Catalogue (§ 114), on account of 
other deviations. — So far as can be determined in the frequent 
uncertainty of the readings, the following verbs belong here :* 

a) In the Perf. and Aor. 1 Pass, and Verbal Adj. these always have <r, 
viz. TvaXaiiO, Tvaico, 7rrcuoo, pala>, Kvaioz or Kvdoo, ^avco, 7r\eco, 7rveoo,~\ 
<mco, Xeuojj 77pico, aKovoo, ^oco (anom. xavvvpi), ucd, £ucd, j3vo (anom. 
j3vveoo). 

b) Also with the cr, in all the three verbal forms, all those noted in § 95. 
n. 3, which retain the short vowel in the Future. Only dp6o>, and all 
those noted in § 95. n. 4 as fluctuating between a short and long vowel 
in their theme, never have the cr j with the single exception of the Aor. 
€iro0ear6t)v. 

c) Further, with cr, the following in all the three verbal forms, except 

* See, on the whole subject, Lobeck ad Soph. A;, p. 315 sq. 

t The epic Perf ire-rcvvimi, Treirw^vos, has a social signification ; see in § 114. 



$ 113. VERBS. ANOMALY OF SIGNIFICATION. 2x5 

that the Perf. has also a secondary form without a, viz. /cXe/co, KeAeOco, 
Kpovoo, Spavo, XP' lfSy ' 

d) Especially does it appear as an anomaly, when the Perf. never takes 
the o-, while the Aor. 1 and verbal Adj. have it; so in yeuco, navoi, 
pcdvvv [xi, p. i p. v t] a ko). 

e) Still more variable in usage, and therefore all to be sought in the 
anom. Catalogue, are: Spaco, ^paco (op.at), ^aco, veoa heap up and 
spin, koXouco, /cat co, kAgugo; also those which may be referred to a 
pure theme, as rlpoa (rt'co), op,vvpn, Trip.n\r)p,i, tt'l\itx prjpu, Tverav- 
vvp,i, £(£>vvvp.i, <tt poivvv p,i, ^ p cb v v v p, i, eXavvio, apecrKti), ctco^co, 
yiyvoi(TK<j£>. Comp. also da. co, /3oaco, pLa^opiai, craco, '^/xat. 

Note 9. Compare with the above also the a inserted in substantives de- 
rived from verbs, § 119. m. 17, 19. 



s s 113. Anomaly of Signification. 

1. Whatever relates to the signification of verbal forms, be- 
longs strictly to the Syntax. Still the deviations from the regu- 
lar meaning, ,^o far as they have become more or less fixed in 
particular veri.s, cannot well be separated from the anomaly in 
their formation ; just as in Latin in the words odi, hortor, audeo, 
ausus sum. 

2. Here belongs first of all one subject, which has a very close 
connection with the anomaly of the Greek verb, viz. the 

Immediate and Causative Signification 
of verbs. In the first, the action or state belongs immediately to 
the subject itself, e. g. to fall ; in the other, the subject causes 
an action or state in some other object, e. g. to fell. The regu- 
lar proceeding would be, that for each of these significations there 
should be a separate verb; but so that the causative might be 
derived from the immediate. Thus e. g. in Grerman and En- 
glish the verbs fallen, to fall, are immediate ; and from them are 
derived the causatives fallen, to fell, which express the state of 
falling, not in the subject, but in another object. On the other 
hand, it is an anomaly, when one verb, in one and the same form, 
unites both these significations ; which however occurs in all lan- 
guages.* So in Greek : 

i\avveiv, Imm. to be driven, to move rapidly, Caus. to drive ; 

Ka8l(eiv, Imm. to sit, Caus. to seat. 

In other verbs this usage belongs more to the poets, who can even 
combine both significations in one clause, e. g. 

/3piaco, Imm. to be strong, Caus. to make strong, Hes. e. 5. 

wove'co, Imm. to be in pain, Caus. to cause pain. Anacr. 40. 

Note 1. Less accurate is it to comprise the distinction just treated of 
under the terms transitive and intransitive. The causative, indeed, is in 
its very nature always transitive; but the immediate maybe either transi- 

* E. g. brennen, burn, Immed. to be on fire, Caus. to set on fire ; suppeditare, 
Imm. to be ready at hand, Caus. to cause to be ready at hand, i. e. to present ; sor- 
ts., Imm to go out, Caus. to bring out ; to drop, Imm. to fall, Caus. to let fall. 



216 VERBS. ANOMALY OF SIGNIFICATION. $ 113 

tivc or intransitive. E. g. transitive are the Immediates learn (Cans, make 
learn, teach), drink. Again, a verb may be both transitive and intransi- 
tive, without ever being causative; e. g. intrans. (pevyeiv to flee, trans. (peu- 
yeiv Tivd to flee any one; (rnevdeiv to hasten, to make haste, crnevdeiv n to has- 
ten any thing, but never (nrevdeiv nvd to cause any one to make haste. 

Note 2. It is a different case, when both significations are united in one 
verb, but in such a way that the causative belongs to the Active form, and 
the immediate to the Passive or Middle form ; just as in English we have 
Act. Causat. to seat, Pass, or Mid. to be seated, to seat oneself, i. q. Immed. 
to sit. So in Greek : 

Causat. StSao-Kco make learn, teach; Immed. dibdo-Kopai am taught, teach 

myself, i. q. I learn. 
Causat. Kadlleiv to seat, Imm. Ka6i(ecrda: to sit, for which also kuOl^iv 
is used, § 130. n. 2. 

3. Those verbs, which unite the two significations in the man- 
ner specified in no. 2, are noted in the lexicons. Here we can 
treat only of those cases where different tenses of the same verb 
belong to different significations, as we have seen above in wmy- 
fu, § 107. II. For example, in several primitive verbs, the tenses 
vary in signification thus : 

Fut. and Aor. 1, Act. prefer the causative. 

Aor. 2, and Perf. Act. espec. Perf. 2, the immediate, and 
mostly the intransitive. 
In such verbs the intransitive tenses of the Active commonly 
unite with the Mid. or Pass, in one and the same signification. 
But sometimes in the Present another form is assumed for the 
one or the other signification ; e. g. 7rtW, iriirlcriccd. 

Note 3. I. Aorist. The verbs, in which this relation of the two Aorists 
is most clearly presented, are the following : 

€<pvaa I begat (Pres. cpvio) — ecpvv I became (Pres. cpvop.ai). 

eaftecra I quenched, put out (Pres. cr^evvvpn) — eo-firjv went out (Pres 
<rfievvvp.ai) . 

edvera I wrapped up (Pres. Svco) — edvv I went in (Pres. 8vv<o). 

eiriaa I let drink (Pres. 7n7ricrKco) — entov I drank (Pros. ttiVco). 

efi-qcra I made go, — efirjv I went; Pres. only /3aiVco I go. 
So too eo-rrjaa and %arqv from l(nr)\xi. See further the anom. aviyv&v and 
aveyvuxra, e/3iW and i$L<&cra, fjpei^a and rjpiKov, rjpei^ra and rjpwov ) also undr.r 
criceWti), rpecfxs), cmryecD, apaptV/cco, oppvfii, § 114. Even in verbs which form 
no Aor. 2, we find the Aor. 1 following the analogy here presented; e. g. 
jitOvid am drunk, 7r\f]6o) am full; but ip-iOvaa I made drunk, eVA^cm I filled, 
with Pres. pLedva-Koo, 7rip.7rXr)p.L. — In all such verbs., if there be two Futures, 
the Fut. Act. has the causative signification of the Aor. 1 • and the Fut. 
Mid. the immediate. 

II. Perfect. In all verbs where the different Active forms are divided 
between the causative and the immediate signification, the Perfect always 
belongs to the latter, and thus connects itself with the Aor. 2. This holds 
good of both Perf. 1 and 2 ; e. g. 

(pvco, (puo-co, ecjwaa, beget, — ecpvv, iretpvica, became. 
So too earrju and ecrrrjKa, edvv and dedvica, eorfirjv and eo-ftrjKa, ecrickrjp and co-kA^- 
*a, fjpnrov and epfjpnra, etc. — The Perfect 2, as we have seen, usually prefers 
the intransitive sense ($ 97. 5, and n. 5) ; and hence in quite a number of 
transitive verbs this form alone has the immediate signification, which is 



§ 113. VERBS. ANOMALY OF SIGNIFICATION. 217 

mostly intransitive, and is then expressed for the other tenses by the Pas 
sive or Middle. Still the Perf. 2 itself belongs just as little to the Pass 
or Middle, as do the Perfects 1 necpvKa, ecrrnWi which stand in precisely 
the same relations. — Examples : 

ayvvpi — ayvvpai break intrans. Perf. eaya am broken in pieces. 

fiat co — baiopai and dedrja bum, intrans. 

eyetpco wake trans. — iyeipopat wake up, iyprjyopa am awake. 

eATrco cause to hope — eXiropai and eoXira hope. 

Kt)8(o trouble — Kr)8opai and KeKijda am troubled, care for. 

patvco (eK/zcuVco make raving) — paivopai and peprjva rave. 

oi'yco, aVoiyco, aWar^a — avoiyopai become open, dvecoya stand open. 

oXXvpi, oXcoXe/ca — oXXv pat perish, 6'XcoXa am lost. 

Treidcx), rreTreiKa — Treidopat, believe, neiroida confide in. 

•nryyvvpi — Ttryyvvpai become fixed, itkin)ya stick fast. 

prjyvvpi — prjyvvpai tear intrans. eppcoya am torn in pieces. 

(rr}7T(£) cause to rot — arjiropai rot, (re<jr]7ra am rotten. 

-njKto melt trans. — TrjKopat melt intrans. Perf. rer-qica. 

cpalvoD shew — cpaluopai appear, Perf. necprjva. 
For cpdelpm see the following note. — In the same manner are to be ex- 
plained the Perfects of some deponents, as ylyvopai Perf. yeyova. — To the 
instances where the Pres. Act. has both significations belongs irp drr co: 
and here the two Perfects actually divide themselves between the two sig- 
nifications; see Ausf. Sprachl. § 114. E. g. 

TrpoLTTOi do, make, Perf. ireTrpa^a. 

TrpaTTV) do or be well or ill (e. g. koXcos), Perf. Tiervpaya. 

Note 4. The Passive relation, which a portion of the Immediate verbs 
express, is frequently of such a nature, that it may be conceived of entirely 
as a Passive. We therefore may properly translate such verbs by the Pas- 
sive; although the Greeks originally conceived of them only as intransitive. 
In this way may be explained the few instances in Greek, where single 
tenses of a verb have in the Active form a Passive signification ; especially 
some Perfects 2 in the preceding note, as eppcoya, eaya, I am torn or broken 
in pieces; and as a more perfect example, the Homeric rereu^cos- (see Anom. 
ret^co), and from akicrKopai the Perf 1 and sync. Aor. eaXcoKa, eaXcoz/.* The 
Lat. Neuter- Passives are in like manner immediate verbs; which however 
we take as simple Passives ; e. g. vapulo, am struck, for which the causative 
is ferio. The following fluctuate between the two significations, the transi 
tivc and this neuter-passive, viz. from <p#etpco spoil trans. § 114, 

8te(pdopa have spoiled, also am spoiled, ruined. 

ireTrXrjya have struck, in some writers^twe been (am) struck. 
Also rerpocpa, see Anom. rpetpco. 

4. Generally speaking, the instances where single Active forms 
have a Passive signification, are rare. Far more frequent, on the 
other hand, in Greek, as well as in Latin, are the 

Deponent Verbs, 
i. e. verbs in the Passive or Middle form with Active signification. 
If the Active form of such a verb be wanting, then the verb is a 
proper or defective Deponent; and, further, according as its 
Aorist is taken from the Passive or Middle (§ 89. 3), it is called 
a Deponent Passive or Deponent Middle. 

* All these forms could likewise be construed by the Greeks entirely as Pas- 
sives ; as indeed was the case also w T ith common intransitive verbs, by § 134. 2 
This is a syntactical peculiarity. 



218 



VERBS. 



ANOMALY OF SIGNIFICATION. 



§113. 



Note 5. The number of Deponents Middle is far greater than that of the 
Deponents Passive. Of the 

Deponents Passive 

a part are contained in the anomalous Catal. § 114; as axOopai, jSovXo/aat, 
deopai, depicopai, bvvapai, irnpeXopai, iirio-Tapai, Kpepapai, palvopai, o'lopai. 
All these, and those here following, take the Fut. Mid. wherever the Fut, 
Pass, is not expressly specified. Among regular verbs we may note : 



ivBvpeopai lay to heart, also ivpo8v« 

pkopai (Fut. Pass.) evdvpeopat 
eiikafieopai am cautious 
i)TraojxaL am worsted (Fut. Pass, and 

Mid.) 
\id£opai (poet.) to bend or turn out 
o-e(3opai venerate (Act. poet.) 
(pavrd£opai appear (Fut. Pass.) 



dXdopac roam about 

apiXkdopai emulate (rarely Mid.) 

dadopai feel loathing 

Stavoeopai think over (Fut. Pass.) 
also drrovosopat am out of my 
mind, am insane 

ZvavTi.6op.at. set myself against, op- 
pose 

Also dr)bi£cpai feel disgust, which is more frequent in late writers. — We 
reckon here also those verbs, whose Active form is at the same time in use 
either in the same or in a special signification, and which consequently are 
not proper Deponents. All such ought strictly to be taken, more or less, 
as Passives of their Active signification, even when they have the Fut. Mid- 
dle; inasmuch as the Fut. Mid. is very often used for the Fut. Passive ; see 
no. 6 below.. Still, as their Passive nature is for us often obscured; inas- 
much as they are in part used wholly as deponents (e. g. jropevopai, ivvoeo- 
pai) ) in part are rendered by us as Middle or neuter (e. g. alaxvvopat, pipvr)- 
o-K.op.ai, fipkxopai) ; and in general a line between Mid. and Pass, can only 
be drawn according to form and etymology (§ 89) ; we therefore prefer to 
exhibit here the most common of these Passive- Middle verbs, or simple 
Passives with neuter signification. 



alo~xvvopai am ashamed, feel ashamed 

(Fut. Pass, and Mid.) 
&\i£opai assemble, neut. 
avidopai vex oneself 
dnaXKarTopai go away, depart, also 

diaWctTTopai, etc. (Fut. Mid. and 

Fut. 2 Pass.) 
arropeopai am at a loss, perplexed 
av^dvopac increase, see § 114. 
(3p€xopai am wetted, wet, (Aor. 1 and 

2 Pass, and prob. Fut. 2 Pass.) 
darravdopai spend 
ikaTrdopai am less, inferior (Fut. 

Mid. Thuc. 5. 104.) 
ivvoeopai consider, ponder, also Aor. 

Act. So too emvo. and irpovo. 
irreiyopai hasten, make haste (Fut. 

Mid. JEschyl. Prom. 52.) 
eo-Tidopai am a guest, feast 
eixppalvopat, rejoice (Fut. Mid. and 

Pass.) 
ev^Jopai fare sumptuously 
fjdopat delight myself (Fut. Pass.) 
Svpoopai am wroth 
KQraKkivopai lie down (Aor. 1 and l\ 

Fut. 2 Pass.) 

To these may be added the anom 



\uhopkopai rail at (also Act.) 
Xmeopai am sad, grieve 
p'.pvTjo-Kopat, call to mind, remember 

(Fut. Pass.) 
gevoopat live abroad 
6pyl£opai grow angry (Fut. dpyiov- 

pai) 
rrepaioopai pass over 
7rel0opai obey 
irrjywpai become stiff, cold, (like jBps- 

Xopac) 
Ttkavdopai wander about 
TTvlyopai am choked (Aor. and Fut. 2 

Pass.) 
iropevopai journey 
prjywpat, break intr. (Aor. and Fut. 

2 Pass.) 
arjTTopai rot (Aor. and Fut. 2 Pass.) 
acpdXXopai fail, err (Aor. and Fut. 

2 Pass, and Fut. Mid.) 
rrjKopai melt away (Aor. 2 Pass.) 
(pSeipopai spoil, perish (Aor. and Fut. 

2 Pass, and Fut. Mid.) 
6o/3eo/xat fear (Fut. Passive and 

Mid.) 

OtaAeyo pat, «' <Tr\r\TTop.ai, pe0v- 



y 113. VERBS. ANOMALY OF SIGNIFICATION. 219 

TKopai, ttX i£opai, a ftkvvv pat, aevopai, Tzpiropai, cpaivopai. — Finally, 
there arc many which take their Aorist both from the Pass, and the Mid- 
dle, in part with a difference of signification. Those here spaced are proper 
deponents. E. g. 

aiSeo/xat feel awe (Fut. Mid. also KoivoXoyeopai take counsel with 

Pass.) (later Pass.) 

dvdyopai put out to sea (Aor. 2 Mid. pep,(popat find fault with 

later Aor. 1 Pass.) vepecrdopai am indignant (poet, rare 

dnoKpivopai answer (better Mid.) ly Mid.) 

dnoXoyeofxai defend myself (bet- dXocpv popai lament , wail 

ter Mid.) oirXl^opai arm, get ready 

dpveopac deny opeyopai reach out, desire 

avXl£op,ai pass the night, lodge 6pp.dop.ai get in motion (comm . Mid. ) 

fipvxdopai roar 6ppi£opai lie at anchor (later Pass.) 

Siairdopai Pass, am dieting, diet, netpdopat try, make trial (comm. 
live ; Mid. (Karadiairdopai.) ac- Mid.) 

knowledge as arbiter. <pLXoTip,€opai am ambitious 

Soivdopat feast, banquet cpiXofypoveopai treat with kind- 

Ipeipopat, desire (also Act.) ness (Aor. Pass, recipr.) 

Koipdopai go to bed (Mid. epic) 
To these come further the anom. ayapai, ylyvopai, epapai, vaiopai, 
ovopai. — There occur also, more isolated, the following: aTrrjpelcpdr] Xen. 
dpeicpOr], eo-Tparevdrjv Pind. at'x&jvcH Horn, and so in Hdot. often : emXoyi- 
o~dei>Tas, TrprjyparevdevTes, Kara(ppao-6eis, inroTOTrrjOrjvai. 

Note 6. Not unfrequently however the Greeks allow themselves to form, 
from a deponent verb, tenses .with a Passive signification. This takes place : 
1) In the Perfect, where however the construction generally determines, 
whether it is to be taken as Passive; e. g. Plato Legg. 4. p. 710. d, rravra 
d-nelpyacxrai rco 5e<5 (from dnepyd^opau do, make, produce), where the Dative, 
according to the rule of Syntax § 134. 4, is to be rendered by or through: 
1 all has been done by the divinity.' 2) In the Aorist Passive, when the 
deponent, as such, forms an Aorist Middle; e. g. fiidfypai I force, e/3/acra- 
\ir]v I forced, i^ido-6r]v I was forced; §e£dpevo? having taken, Se^ei? been 
taken. Comp. § 136. n. 3. 

5. It is a very frequent case, that in verbs Active the Fut. 
Act. is either not used at all, or very rarely ; while the 

Future Middle 
takes the signification, transitive or intransitive, which is con- 
nected with the Active. In such instances the rest of the Middle 
form, with its peculiar signification, for the most part does not 
occur. This remark applies to a multitude of the most common 
verbs ; e. g. a/covco I hear, a/covo-ofAcu I will hear, never dfcoixrco. 

Note 7. We subjoin here some of the most usual Futures of this kind : 
dyvorjoropai, acropai from adco, aTravTrjaopai, drroXavo-opai, fiadiovpai, fiorjcropai, 
yeXdaopai, yrjpdaopai, eyKcopidcropai, enaiveaopai, iTnopKrjcropaL, Savpdcropai., 
Srjpdcropai (also -crco), KXey^opm, KoXdaopai, (also -crco), olpw^opai, ovptjcropai, 
7rr)dr}cropai, nvl^opai, cnyrjo-opai and aLatnrjo-opai, dKco-^ropai, cnrov8daopai, avpl- 
tjopai, Tcoddo-opai, x^PW ^ - 1 ' To these may be added the Futures of elpi 
and olba (§§ 108, 109). See further in the Catal. § 114, the verbs dpaprdvco, 
(3ali>a), /3idco, f3Xco<TKco, yiyva>o~K.co, Scxki/cd, 8ap6dv(S>, Seicrai, SiSpacKco, Seat, Qiyyd- 
vu>, Qvrjcncai.j Qpd>o-K<x>, Kapvat, KXala>, Xayxdva, Xapfidv<£>, pav6dvn>, veco (vcvaopai), 
opvvpi, 6pd<x>, 7rcu£co, ndax^>i 7ti7Ttco, 7rXeco, Trveco, peco, tlktod, rpe^co, rpcoyco, 
cpevya, x^'C 03 * I* must however be observed, that here, as in other cases, 
usage was not entirely fixed : and we therefore still find many instances of 



220 VERBS. ANOMALY OF SIGNIFICATION. § 113. 

Futures Act. where other writers have the Fut. Middle. In such instances 
however it is necessary to observe carefully : 1) Whether the text may not 
be corrupted;^ 2) Whether the writer does not belong to the later period, 
i. e. to the kolvol, who in this respect often varied from Attic usage, e. g. 
Fut. a/coi»o"co.f 

6. The Future Middle was also used as Passive; but this 
usage never became so fixed in particular verbs, as that exhibited 
in the preceding paragraph (no. 5). It depended for the most part 
on euphony ; and consequently, in the poets, on the metre. They 
strove to avoid by this means, in long verbs, the still longer form 
of the Fut. Passive ; e. g. <b(f)e\,rjcrovTcu for odfyekrjOrjo-ovTai, irepii- 
^reaOau (Herod. 7. 149) for 7repLe$6r)cr€<jQai. So in like manner 
from afjL<$>Lcr(3r)Te2v, 6/jio\oyelv, anraXkcuTTeiv, (fivkdrreiv, yvpjvaC^iv, 
aSixecv, tyjjjbiovv. Still, there are examples of this usage in shorter 
verbs, as {3\dtyeTciL, ^pe^erac, otcrerac ; and likewise several of 
those enumerated in note 5 may be referred hither ; as ^ttyjo-o- 
fiai, iXaTTooaojjbai. 

Note 8. It is easy to conceive, that this usage should occur least frequent- 
ly in verbs, whose Middle approaches nearest in signification to the transi- 
tive Active ; still less frequently however, and perhaps not at all, in verbs 
whose Fut. Mid. is employed for the signification of the Active; see Text 
5 above. 

Note 9. The instances where the Aorist Middle occurs as Passive, are 
extremely rare ; and are found mostly in the epic poetry. Yet some com- 
pounds of o-x^o-^at are used by the Attics as Passive; as Karaax^cr$ai, 
6/j.evo?, Eurip. Hippol. 27. Plat. Phsedr. 49. p. 244. e ; avcrxofievos; id. Theset. 
58. p. 165; but these passages may also be taken as neuter. 

7. In respect to anomalous signification in the Tenses, we note 
here only the instances where the Perfect takes the signification 
of the Present. This transition is readily explained from the 
present nature of the Perfect, as developed in §§ 81, 137. In 
every such instance, of course, the Pluperfect becomes an Im- 
perfect. 

Note 10. It is consequently incorrect, to assign to the verb etSco in the 
Present the two significations I see and I know. The Pres. eiSco means 1 
see, perceive, comprehend ; the Perf. olda I have comprehended, and conse- 
quently, I know. 

Note 11. It was very easy, in consequence of the near relation of the 
ideas, for the Present itself to pass over into the derived present significa- 
tion of the Perfect, and vice versa. Hence it arises, that, in the poets espe- 
cially, the Present and Perfect sometimes have the same meaning; e. g. 
fieAet (strictly) goes to the heart, /xe^Xe is laid to heart; hence both signify 
it grieves. So oVoko/zch get a view of, dedopica have got a view of; hence 
both, I see. 

Note 12. A few examples in the epic poets are particularly deserving 
of notice, where the Pluperfect takes the place of the Aorist or Imperfect, 

* Nothing is easier or more common, than e. g. the confounding of the Attic 
form of the 2 pers. Mid. in ei (for r?), with that of the Act. in eis : e. g. tyev^is and 
</>eu£e(, which latter form of the 2 pers. was less familiar to the copyists. 

t But the learner must be upon his guard not to mistake the Subj. A or. 1 for the 
Future, e. g. in vvv aicovaca addis, § 139. m. 2. 



k 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 221 

although the Perfect of the same verb does not occur as Present. See in 
the Catal. /3atW and /3aXX<o; also § 110. 8, note. 

Note 13. It is worthy of note, that the Perfect becomes Present espe- 
cially in verbs which express a tone or cry; as Keicpaya I cry out; and so 
also XfXaKOj yeycova, avatya, /3e/3pu^a, [xefivKa, fxefirjica, Ke/cXayya, rerptya. 



$ 114. Catalogue of Irregular or Anomalous Verbs 



Preliminary Notes. 

1. In using the Catalogue, the following is to be noted: A verb which 
occurs but seldom, or is only poetical, is printed small ; and so too a verb 
in common use, which is inserted merely on account of some anomalous 
poetical form. That which belongs to the usage of prose, is everywhere 
printed large. 

2. All such forms as are merely presupposed in order to explain actual 
forms, and which themselves never occur, are printed in capitals, as gener- 
ally throughout the whole work ; in order that the eye may not become ac- 
customed, by means of the common letters, to a multitude of unused and 
merely imaginary forms. 

3. On the other hand, every theme which actually occurs, even though 
but once and in the early poets, is printed in. the common type. 

4. Under every current verb which is inserted in the Catalogue, there is 
given not only the strictly anomalous parts, but also all that is in use, so 
far as it is not necessarily implied of itself. Consequently it is always to 
be presupposed (§ 104. 2), that, in every verb where the Future, Aorist, 
and Perfect, are not expressly mentioned, the common Future, Aor. 1, and 
Perf. 1, are in use. But whenever an Aor. 2, or the Perf. 2, or the Future 
Middle instead of the Fut. Act. is in use, these forms are expressly sub- 
joined; and it is then implied that the other forms are not in use. The 
numbers 1 and 2 are seldom added to these tenses, because they are in 
themselves easily distinguished. Thus when e. g. under apapravo^ there 
stands simply, Aor. ijpaprov, this indicates that this verb forms only the 
Aor. 2, and no Aor. 1. — The letters MID. standing alone, signify that the 
Middle is also in use. 

5. In respect to the completeness of the Catalogue, it has been a main 
object, that nothing should be found in the ordinary prose writers and poets, 
which is not here explained. Whatever occurs in authors seldom read, or 
in less known dialects, is here introduced (as throughout the whole work) 
-only so far, as it may serve to illustrate the relations of the dialects and 
forms, or add especially to our knowledge of a dialect. 

6. In regard to the particular usage of the epic writers, it is to be ob 
served, that the later writers of this class belonging to the Alexandrine 
and subsequent periods, as Callimachus, Apollonius, are to be considered 
as learned poets, who often only imitated Homeric forms. Only that which 
is found in Homer and Hesiod, and in some fragments of the same early 
period, can with certainty be regarded as belonging to the broad analogy of 
the language ; while that which is peculiar to later writers, can indeed be 
of the same kind, inasmuch as they had before their eyes those earlier 
models which are now lost to us ■ but the historical certainty is wanting. 
Hence we have paid no regard to the peculiarities of the later epic writers ; 
or, at most, in important cases, have referred to them by name. 



222 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114. 



add) injure. From this theme Homer has 3 Pres. Pass, darai, Aor. 1 Act. 
aaaa contr. aara (Od. A. 61), Pass, and Mid. ddcrd-qv, aao-dfirjv.* Both a's 
are sometimes long, and sometimes short. Verb. Adj. (daros), and hence 
with a privative ddaros ( ~ - ^ -) inviolable, Horn. — From this old form 
arose first the substantive arrj (long a), and thence with short a the new 
verbal form (araco) Pass. drS)p.ai in the Attic poets; also (dreco), from 
which however is found only Part, dreovra blinded, reckless, in Horn. II. 
v. 332, and Hdot. — Comp. also aco 3. 

aya/xai admire, § 112. 15, Pres. and Impf. like tara/LLat, Fut. dyd- 
aofjLcu, Aor. rjydcr6r}v, rarely and more epic rjyacrdjbLrjv, § 113. n. 5. 
The epic forms of the Present, dydop,ai, dyaiop,at, occur with the acces- 
sory idea to envy, to be angry. § 112. 9. 

dyel[jc£> assemble, Perf. Pass. dyrjyeppai. Aor. 2 Mid. Inf. epic dyepeadai, Part, 
dypojxevos; see § 110. 4. a. — For ijyepedovrai, see § 112. 12. 

ayvvfit break, § 106. 8. $ 112. 15, Fut. afa). The preterites have 
the syllabic augment (§ 84. n. 5), Aor. ea%a (Horn. r)%a), Subj. 
agco, Aor. Pass, idyr/v (long a). The Perf. 2 ei/ya (Ion. erjya) 
has the Passive signification, I am broken in pieces, k 113. n. 3. 

The a of the Aor. 2 Pass, idyqv was also shortened in epic metre 
Comp. €7rXr]yr]v and KareTfXdyrjv. 

This syllabic augment is also found, even in such forms as according 
to their nature ought to have no augment, e. g. the compound Part, tca- 
rtd^avres Lys. p. 158, ed. Reiske.f — The form nava^ais in Hesiod stands 
for the Opt. Aor. K.a.Td^ais.% 
dyopev<s>, see elnelv. || aypo/xez/or, see dyeipca. 

ayo) lead, Fut. a%a>, takes in the Aor. 2 a reduplication, r/yayov, 
Subj. dydyco, Inf. dyayelv, etc. § 85. n. 3. Perf. 1 rjx a an( ^ ^79" 
o^a (§ 97. n. 2), Perf. Pass, fjyficu.— MID. 

The Aor. 1 ^£a, atjai, a^aaOai is also found, though not often in Attic 
writers. § — For the Homeric Imperat. agere see § 96. n. 9. 

* We could also assume AH as the primary theme, and then derive the other 
forms from it by resolving a into the double sound (§ 105. n. 10). But the doub- 
ling of a long sound which has not arisen from contraction [aa>, &<ra>, a<ra), would 
be contrary to analogy. On the other hand 'darai belongs actually to aw satiate. 
In this manner also can the Homeric verbal adjectives ddaros and oltos (see da) be 
most clearly distinguished. See Lexil. I. 56. 

t See Heindorf ad Plat. Gorg. 56. Phaedo. 79. The endeavour to distinguish 
this verb from Kardyco, it is likely, caused this striking anomaly, which was proba- 
bly further pi*omoted by the circumstance, that this avgment even in its usual place 
is irregular. 

$ This strange form is most satisfactorily explained by means of the Digamma , 
since the verb Am, ayuvfxi, belongs to the class of words in which, according to 
§ 6. n. 3, traces of the Digamma are perceptible in Homer. The word was there- 
fore originally FArn, and this F was a consonant (v). Through the composition 
with Kara arose consequently KAFFAIYl, like /ca/3/3ctAAo> from /3aAAa>, etc. (§ 117. 
n. 2). No wonder, then, that the Digamma thus doubled and bound by the metre, 
maintained itself here, while it vanished elsewhere. That it should pass over into 
v was very natural in the close relation (oi rather in certain respects the identity) 
of the sounds T and F, U and V ; see p. 5 marg. note. Comp. evadov in apSdvce 
below. 

§ The learner must take care not to mistake for this Aorist the similar Aorist 
form of the Attic verb <jtt&> for ctWw, which sometimes approximates to the for 
mcr in signification also. 



* 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 223 

AA-. The forms aara, daat, satiate, which are commonly referred to this 
root, see under am 3. On the other hand. Homer has dSrjo-ai, ddrjKevai, to 
feel weariness, disgust, as if from AAE£t; hut these forms are commonly 
written dddrjcrai, etz.^ 

adelv see dvSavco. || aeipco see aipco. 

arjjii blow, § 112. 15. see aco 1. It retains the n throughout, Inf. dr\vai, Pass. 
dr]\x.ai\ but Fart. Act. dels; devros. The Passive form has the Active sig- 
nification; except Od. £ 131, where it is Passive. 

alveoa see § 95. n. 4. 

alpeco take, § 112. 18. § 95. n. 4. Fut. alpr^aco, Aor. 1 Pass, ypidrjv, 
Subj. atpe6co, etc. — Aor. Act. elXov, Subj. eXco, Inf. ekelv, Part. 
i\a)v, (compounds KaOeTkov, KaOeXco, etc.) from 'EAfl. — MID. 
has the signif. choose, Aor. elkopi^v, Inf. eXeaOau, etc. 

A less frequent Future is iXw, e. g. Aristoph. Eq. 290. The Aor. 2 
Mid. was formed by writers not Attic in -dp.i]v, as dcpoXaro instead of 
-ero, see § 96. n. 1, marg. ; — In the Perfect the Ionics had a peculiar redu- 
plication, dpatprjKa, dpaip-qp,ai, with the smooth breathing. — In the signifi- 
cation seize, capture, the verb akio-K.op.ai may be regarded as a real Pas- 
sive of alpeca ; see below. 

culpa contr. from aecpco, take up, raise^ is declined regularly ; 
Aor. 1 Mid. r)pdp.r)v, Aor. 2 Mid. r\p6p.t)y. For the poetical usage alone it 
is to be observed : 1) That the Attic poets employ the unaugmented 
moods of the Aor. 2 Mid. (e. g. dpoip.rjv Soph. Electr. 34), when a short 
syllable is necessary, instead of the elsewhere usual Aor. 1, whose a is 
long according to § 101. n. 2. — 2) That Homer in the same circumstances 
avails himself of the Indie. Aor. 2 Mid. without augment (dpop.r]v) ; but 
elsewhere has throughout in the Indie, the Aor. 1, and in the other moods 
only the Aor. 2 ; as rjpdp.r]v — dpeadai, dpoip.r]v, etc. — 3) That the epic writ- 
ers use in the Pluperf. aapro (as Impf. hovered, hung) instead of r/pro or 
rjepro] see § 97. n. 2. — 4) That the Attic poets make the a of the Fut. 
dp5> long, as being contracted from depco ; see the Ausf. Sprachl. — For 
rjepedovrai see § 112. 12. — See also apvvp.ai. 

al<jQavo\iai perceive by the senses, h 112. 11, Fut. alaOrjaofjuau, 
etc. — Aor. ycrOo/jLrjv, Inf. alaOeaOai, from the actual but less 
frequent Present alaQopuai. 

(iKa^iC 00 trouble, afflict, § 112. 13, has from the theme AXQ, the Aor. 2 fjna- 
Xov, aKa^elv, Fut. aKay^crao, Aor. 1 ^/ar^a-a. — MID. a-^op.ai or axwp.ai 
afflict myself, grieve, Aor. 2 r]K.ax6p.r]v. Perf. aK^ejuat and unaugmented 
dKaxiip-ai, am afflicted, grieve. For dKrjxeSarai see the marg. note to § 103. 
m. 24; and for the accent of aKrjxep-evos (II. o\ 29), amxi'ip-evo?, aKax^crdai, 
§ 111. n. 2. To the same intransitive signification belongs also the Part. 
Pres. Act. a^ecoz/, ovaa, afflicted, sorrowing. 

aKaxpevo?, sharpened, pointed, Part. Perf. Pass, from a theme AK.fi, Lat. acus, 
(whence the substantives aKr] and duaKr), the point,) with the Attic redu- 
plication, the temporal augment being omitted and the x retained before 
p.; comp. § 98. 2, with § 23 note. 

d\dop.ai rove, wander, has (according to § 111. n. 2) a Perfect which passes 
over into the form of the Present, dXakt]p,ai, dXdXrjcrdat,, dXaXrjp.evo9, also 
with Present signification. See also § 113. n. 5. 

* The Grammarians introduced this orthography, because the subst. &§os disgust 
is short, while Homer always makes the first syllable of the verb long. See Lex- 
ilog. II. 86. 



224 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114. 

aKSaivcd strengthen ; Homer has (Impf.) jjXbave Od. a. 70. — Intrans. dX8rj- 
a«o grow, II. \^. 599. 

aXefo) ivard off, § 112. 6, Fut. dXe^rjaco and Aor. Mid. rjXe^dpirjv, 
akegao-Ocu, from AAEK& ; see Ausf. Sprachl. § 96. n. 10, and marg. — From 
the theme (AAEKQ) AAKi2 comes also the poetic Aorist tjXciXkov (oXoXkov), 
dXaX/celv, oXoXkoov, etc. with the redupl. § 85. n. 3. 

aXeofxai (and dXevopai Hes.) shun, Aor. 1 rjXevdprjv (§ 96. n. 1), Inf. dXeva- 
adai and dXeacrdai, Subj . aAeuercu instead of -?7tcu (Horn.) Oj9f. dXeairo, 
Part, dXevdpevo?. — Epic secondary form, dXeeivio. 

a\eco grind, \ 95. n. 3, Fut. oXecrco Att. d\co, Perf. Pass. aKrjke- 
dfiai. — Another form of the Pres. was akfjOco, § 112. 12. 

akrjvai or dXrjpevai, Ind. iakr)v, see e'lXa. 

tiXdopai heal, intr. Fut. aXBrjaopai II. #. 405. — The Present forms akQaiva. 
dXdrjaKco, aXBea-acc, have a causative sense. 

ciklatcofiav am taken, captured, § 112. 14, forms its tenses from 
'AAOfl, viz. Fut. aXayaofiai, and (with Active form but Pas- 
sive sense) the syncopated Aor. rjkcov I ivas captured (k 110. 6) 
Att. idkcov, Plur. iaXcofiev, etc. with long a ; but the regularly 
unaugmented forms with short a, Inf. aXcovcu, Subj. akcp, co?, 
etc. Opt. dXolrjv (Ion. d\(w]v) Part, akovs. Perf. (also with 
Passive signification) rjkwica and edXcoica with short a. 
Homer has also Part, dXovre with long a, II. e. 487. 
The Active of this verb was not used, but always alpeiv, of which con- 
sequently, so far as usage is concerned, dXiaKopai is the Passive ; but 
only in the special signification of alpeco, seize, capture, and not in its 
general one. — For duaX i'ctkcd, see in its place. 

dXiraivco am wanting, sin, § 112* 11, F. dXirrja-a), Aor. tjXltov, Inf. dXtrelv. 
Act. and Mid. are synonymous. — The adjective Pari. dXiTrjfievo? (a sin- 
ner, Od. 6\ 807) can according to § 111. n. 2, be explained from the Perfect. 

AAK-, dXaXKelu, see dXe^co. 

SXXopai leap, spring, is declined regularly, dXovpai, etc. In the Aorist, 
usage is variable between the Aor. 1 rp\dpt]v, aXacrOai (long a, § 101. n. 
2) and the Aor. 2 rjXoprjv, dXeada (short a). — Homer has only the synco- 
pated Aorist (§ 110. 8), which takes the smooth breathing, and from which 
occur 2 and 3 pers. dXcro, dXro, Part. aXpevo?, iirdXptvos.% To this form 
of the Aor. is then reckoned also the Subj. in Homer; which a part of 
the Grammarians therefore write, but incorrectly, with the lenis, aXrjrai, 
and with a shortened vowel (§ 103. m. 39) oAerat II. X. 192; comp. p.. 
438 iar]Xaro. 

AAO-, see dXiaKopai and dvaXlcntoo. 

dXvo-KO) shun, Fut. dXvga), etc.f — A different verb is dXvco or dXvacrat Horn. 
am beside myself; kindred with which is dXaXvKTnpai from dXvKTea. 

dX(paivai or dXcpdvoo earn, § 112. 11 ; Aor. 2 rjXcpov, ciXcpoipi. 

dfiapravw miss, err, $ 112. 11, F. d/naprrjuo/jiaL, Perf. rj/JbdprrjKa. — 
Aor. rjiiapTov, Subj. dfidprco, Inf. d/xapreiv, etc. 



* For the lenis see § G. n. 2, and comp. aixapTavca. The length of the a, which 
is indicated by the circumflex, arises from the anomalous augment; hence eVaAro, 
not eTraAro. 

t This verb is manifestly derived from aAevopai] the a is consequently not in- 
serted in the Present (as in Aacrcw § 1 12. n. 8) but is dropped in t he Future ; comp 



< 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 225 

For rjfxaprov Homer has fj^porov with the smooth breathing (comp. 

aXXopai), by transposition ($ 96. n. 7), and with j3 inserted, according to 

§ 19. n. 1 ; comp. § 110. 11. 2. marg. 
apfiXlorfcco suffer abortion, S 112. 14, F. dfjLf3\cocrco etc. from a/x- 

jSXo'co, which occurs in the Present only in compounds, as e£a///3Aow, etc. 
ajiTrex^ and ap,7ri(TxvovjxaL see under e'x^- 
djj.TrXaKL(rKco miss, err, § 112. 14, F. dpL7r\aKr]a(o, Aor. rj^jikaKov, d/jLTrkaKelv. 

Also a/x/SAa/aWco ; and sometimes a7rA«Kety with the first syllable short. 

dvaivojxai refuse, deny, Aor. (1) ^vrjvdjuL^v, dvrjvaaOai. This verb 
is not a compound (see Lexil. I. 63. 10), and the Aor. is regularly formed, 
like e\vjjLr]paiAi]v and the like. Nothing but the Aorist occurs. 

dvaXlcTKco consume, spend, h 112. 14, forms its tenses from the 
old and less frequent dvaXoco, Impf. without augm. dvakovv. 
In the Aor. 1 both avrfXcoaa and dvakcoaa were used ; and in 
double composition, fcarrjvdXcocra. So too in the Perfect. 

This verb is distinguished from dXiaKop.ai by the quantity of the a. An 
Aor. 2 is not found. 

avMvca please, Impf. rjvdavov, edvbavov, erjvdavov, Fut. ddrjaco, Aor. eabov, cidov, 
Inf. dSeu/, all with short a; Perf. ed8a (Dor. edda). See § 112. 11.— This 
Ionic and poetic verb may be regarded as entirely synonymous with the 
regular rjd(o delight, rjdopai delight myself, rejoice, which has merely a dif- 
ferent construction. Comp. \avddvm and At^co, and the like. — For the 
Aor. abov Homer has also eua'Soi/.* 

dvecrei, dvecraifii, see § 108. I. 4. 

dvhvoda, a Perfect with Present signification, press forward, forth, from a 
theme ANGS2 or ANE0O, whence audos flower and dvdeco to blossom are 
derived. See $ 97. n. 2, and comp. hr)vo6a below. Lexil. I. 63. 

upTo/xai meet, only Pres. and Impf. — Another form is avrdco (Horn. ijvTeov), in 
prose only in the Comp. diravrdai, Fut. dTravrrjo-op-ai. 

avvaa I complete, § 95. n. 3. § 112. 20. Here belong the syncopated forms 
avvp.es; qvvro, in Theocr. — An earlier and poetic form is avoa (long a) Horn. 
Aristoph. § 112. 7 3 with Mid. avop.ai come to an end ; once short a, II. a\ 
473 avoiro ; see Ausf. Sprachl. 

aveoya I command, an old Perfect ; 1 Plur. avcoypev, Imperat. avasyQi, ai/coy/rco, 
dvoayere, or irregular dvd>x@c>>, ava>x^, (§ HO. n. 5,) Plupf. as Impf. (r)vd>~ 
yetv) Ion. rjvayea. Since now this Perfect has the Present signification, 
it takes also sometimes the Present form, as 3 Pres. dveoyei Hdot. 7. 104 : 
and hence Impf. fjva>yov, Fut. dvd>^co, Aor. fjvcoga. It is to be noted, that 
the Perf. avaya itself never takes the augment. 

d-ircKplo-KCD deceive, § 112. 13, 14, Aor. with redupl. fJTracpov, diracpoov, (§ 85 
n. 3,) from 'A$Q (whence also dcpr) and aTrrop-ai), strictly touch, feel, pal- 
pare; from which Aorist the Present is formed. Fut. aTva^cru). — Middle 
synonymous with the Active. 

dnokava, for the augm. see § 86. n. 2. || drrovpas see AYP. 

'apdopLai, Att. 'apdofiai, Depon. Mid. invoke, curse. From this there occurs 
once an Inf. Act. dpr]p.evai Od. x- 332 ; or perhaps it is Inf. Jior. 2 Pass. 

* This form also, like icavd^cus under ayvvpi, may be explained from the epic Di- 
gamma; for the verb avddvw belongs likewise to those mentioned in § 6. n. 3. From 
this Digamma, i. e. from FAAfl, comes the syllabic augment in e'aSa, and also this 
euaSey, which has arisen from doubling the Digamma after the augment (EFFAAE 
like l'AAa/3£v) ; for here, where this letter made a position, it could not fall away, 
as in other cases. The apparent significancy of this e3, well, as in English well- 
plcn"°;?. s may have contributed to the preservation of this form. 

P 



226 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114. 

from APOMAI ; see the Ausf. Sprachl. — The isolated Homeric Part. Perf. 
Pass. 'aprjfjLtvos has a different signification, oppressed, grieved, pained. 
cpapio-Kco, fit, adapt, join, § 112. 13, 14. From the simple theme AP£2 come 
F. apo-oo, Aor. 1 rjpaa, apcrai, etc. (§ 101. n. 3.) Aor. 2 rjpapov (§ 85. n. 3) ; 
whence is formed the Present, and thence Impf. dpdptaKe Od. £. 23. — 
With the causative sense (cause to suit, adapt) the theme API2 unites also 
an immediate sense, viz. the intransitive to suit, fit close, § 113. 2. This 
intransitive sense alone is found in the Perf. 2 as Present, apapa, Ion. 
ciprjpa,* Part. Fern, epic dpapvla, § 97. n. 3; and occasionally, though 
more seldom, in the Aor. rjpapov. — Synonymous with ap-qpa in sense, is 
the Perfect Pass. dpr)pepai,\ formed after the analogy of the Fut. apeVoo. 
This Future itself however, as well as the forms derived from it (see 
dpecrKco), has the special signification to adapt one's self, please; into which 
also some of the above forms occasionally pass over, as II. a. 136. Soph. 
El. 147. — The Part. app.evos suitable (Od. c. 234) is the svncopated Aorist, 
§ 110. 8. 

apeo-fca trans, gratify, intr. please, § 112. 14, Fut. dpeaco, Perf. 
Pass. rjpecr/JLcu, Aor. rjpiadrjv. — MID. content myself. 

This verb comes from APQ, of which dpecrm is the old form of the Fu- 
ture, § 95. n. 15. This Future assumed exclusively this special signi- 
fication, and then the other tenses and a new Present were formed from it. 

apvvficu, related to alpoj as Trrdpvv/JLai to irralpco, k 112. 15, stands 
instead of a'ipop.ai in certain special significations, earn, acquire by labour, 
as wages, booty, etc. The other tenses, i. e. all but the Present and 
Impf. come from the radical theme : Fut. dpovp-ai, Aor. 2 r)p6p.vv (cipovro, 
dpoipnv).% 

apiraCfjd seize, rob, has in the Attic writers F. dpirdaco and apira- 
cto/jLcu, jjpTrafca, fjpTrdaOrjv, etc. In the koivo'i, or later writers, 
it has dpird^co, rjpTrdyrjv, etc. Homer has both formations 
§ 92. n. 4. 

A.PQ see dpaplaicco and ape'o-Kco. 

avfjco and av^dvco increase, § 112. 11, Fut. av^tjcrco. — Pass, with 
Fut. Mid. increase intrans. § 113. n. 5. — Another epic Pres. is 

AYP-. To this root, with the general signification take, belong the two 
following compounds :§ 

1) diravpaco take away. From this verb occur in the poets solely the 
Impf. (with Aorist signification) dnrjvpov, and Aor. 1 Mid. dnnvpap^v 
(from AYPQ). Besides these are found the two following Participles, 
formed by a peculiar anomaly of the vowels, and closely related in sig- 
nification to the above forms, viz. Part. Aor. 1 Act. d-novpas, and Mid. 
(with Passive sense) dirovpap-evo^. 

2) liravpiaKoiiai have advantage or disadvantage, enjoy, 
see § 112. 14 ; Fut. €7ravpr)aopai, Aor. eV^updp^y, enavpeardaL, and in writers 
not Attic enavpaadai, $ 96. n. 1 marg. — The earlier poetry employed also 
the Active form; as Aor. 2 irravpov Pind. Pyth. 3. 65, Subj. eVaupco, Inf. 
tTravptiv or iiravpep-ev. The Present eVaupeco, derived from these, is found 
in Hesiod. 

* In Od. e. 248 the trans. &prjps is a false reading for apaatrev. 
t In Apollonius, where apr)pd/j.evos is a false reading for ap-qpep-evos. Corap. aicv- 
Xe/icct and opcoperai, also § 111. n. 2. 

X Comp. II. C 446, with <r. 121 ; and X - 100. with t. 124. 
$ See more on both forms, Lexil. I. 22. 



$ 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 227 

av(o call, shout, poetic. In flexion the diphthong is separated, with long v, 

as dvaco, rjvaa, ducrai. Secondary form dvreco. — Wholly different is ai/'co 

kindle; -whence in prose euavco set on fire, 
dcpdid or a(pda> touch, feel, whence Part. depoavra, d'Kpacpocov-, Mid. dpcpacpocovro 

Horn. An Ion. secondary form is d(pdcra(o, Aor. fjcpdaa, Imper. adpacrov Hdot. 
depvacra) draw, as water, etc. F. dcpvtjo), Aor. 1 fj(f>v<ra, dcpvaai (dcpvcrcrai) 

$ 92. n. 4. 
A$-, see edepdrj and aVa^io-Kco. || AX-, see axa^t^co. 

ayQojACLi am vexed, offended, § 112. 6. § 113. n. 5, F. dyOkaopai. 

A. r)y6ea6rjv. Hence the rare Fat. dyQeaQqcroyLai. 
aa>. This theme appears under four different significations : 

1) blow, Impf. aov (Apollon.) commonly arjp.i q. v. 

2) sleep, Aor. ao-a and aWa § 112. 6. Iu/. deVai Horn. 

3) satisfy , satiate, Fut. aVco, Aor. ao-a, j&i/". aa-ai ; Mid. aaeaBai, ciaa- 
aOai. Hence in Pres. Pass, drai, and hy doubling the vowel aarat (Res. a. 
101, as Fut. see § 95. n. 12). Inf. Act. apevac Horn, contr. from depevat 
for cieiv. Verb. Adj. drdV, and hence with a priv. aaroy (Hesiod), contr. 
ctros (Horn.) insatiable. — To this verb is also reckoned the Subj. form 
icofiev (or eco/xev) with neut. or mid. signif. II. r. 402, as if from edco. See 
Lexil. and Spitzner Exc. 31. — See further the marg. note to ddco and 
comp. AA-. 

4) injure; in this signification it is exhibited above, as contracted from 
ddco q. v. 

acopro see a'tpco. 

B. 

3aivco go, § 112. 10, Fut. ftijaoficu Pf. j3e/3r)/<:a. — Aor. 2 or sync. 
€/3r)v, like ecrTTjv ; thus, efirniev, re, crav, Subj. ftco, Opt. $aur\v, 
Imper. f3r}6i, (compound Kardfia, as in larTj/ni) {3rjr(D, Inf. /3f}- 
vcu, Part. /3a? fiaaa ftdv, § 110. 6. — Some compounds have also 
a Passive ; e. g. TrapafiaivcD tra?isgress, Perf. Pass, irapafiefta- 
fJLcti, Aor. 1 Pass. 7rape/3d9r]v. — Yerb. Adj. /5<xto?. 

Homer has the Present likewise with the reduplication, Part. /3t/3d? 
and j3ifioov. — The Pluperf. e(3ej3f]K.eiv has in the epic language the sense 
of the Imperf. or Aorist, e. g. II. £ 495, 513 ; comp. /3dXAco, i(3efi\r]K6iv.— 
As to /3eco, /3etco, (3r)rj, see the same Subjunctive forms from eo-rrjv, $ 107. 
m. 43. — The syncopated forms of the Perfect, e. g. /3e/3ao-i, ftefidvai, /3e- 
£a>y (§ 110. 10) are in this verb xurfrequent, except in the dialects and 
poets. — In the Aor. 2 Homer has the short forms : j3dv for i'^aav (§ 110. 
n. 1, 5), fiaTTjv for €J3tjtvv, vnep^acrav for vnepe^crav. The Aor. Mid. (as 
Act.) occurs also in the epic writers, but fluctuates in form: i^o-aro or 
ij3r](reTO (§ 96. n. 9), Imperat. firjaeo. — For fieopai, see below in its place. 
This verb has also the causative signification, cause to go, conduct, but 
only among the Ionics and poets. The Fut. Act. (3r)<r<o and Aor. 1 ej3rj- 
<ra belong solely to this signification, § 113. n. 3. So also once causative 
e7n^rjrov, Od. yp-. 52. The epic secondary form /3do-KG> is partly to go 
(/3ao-/c' Wi), partly to bring (esn/Sao-Ke/xey) J the usual secondary form /3tj3d- 
£(o is only causative, with Fut. Att. 

BdWco throw, cast, $ 112. 6. § 110. 11, Fut. ftaXco and sometimes 

fiaWijcTG), A. efiakov, Subj. (3dXco, etc. Perf. /3e/3\7]Ka, Perf. Pass. 

Piphnficu (Subj. see § 98. n. 9) Aor. 1 Pass. i/3\r)67)v.— MID. 

From a syncopated Aorist (eftXrjv, see $ 110. 6, 7) come the epic forms : 

Aor. £v{x8\t]tt]v (3 Dual), Pass. eSXijTo, [SXrjcrdai. Opt. BXtiprjv, 3Xe?o, etc. 



°28 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114. 

Suoj. jQAj^erat for (SXrjrjTai ; and thence again a Future avp^hrjo-opai. — Tha 
Perf. Pass, takes also in epic writers the form /3e/3oA?7/zai, as if from BO- 
AEQ.* — The Plupf. ifisfSkrjKeiv has in epic writers the sense of the Aorist 
(did hit), e. g. II. e. 66, 73; comp. Batvio, ifiefirjiceLv. 

3apvva> burden, § 112. 19, Perf. Pass. fSefidprmm Plat, from /3apicD. 
From the same form Homer has Part. Perf. Act. fieftapeoTa, -ore?, with 
intrans. signification; § 97. n. 7. 

pao-rdfa carry, F. {Boardo-a), etc. takes ill the Passive the other 
formation, e. g. i/3cwTd^07]v, § 92. n. 3, 4. 

BA-, (Biprjfu, (3daKco, /3t/3a£co, see j3aiVoo. 

fieopai or /3et'o/xai, a Homeric Future, J $AaJJ /ire, which may be regarded 
either as a really irregular Future (like uiopai, or like k«o, /ca'oo, see /ceT- 
juat § 109. II.), or as a Subjunctive used for the Future (§ 139. n. 5), in- 
stead of fiecopai. It is also doubtful, whether it belongs to an old verb 
BEIQ (whence perhaps (3lo?, /3idoo) ; or whether the Passive form of the 
verb jScuVco assumed the secondary sense to walk, i. e. live; in which case 
fteiopat corresponds to the Active form (3eico Subj. for /3£>. 

fiid&ficu force, subdue, Depon. Mid. is used also as Pass. § 113. n. 6. 
The Ionics have the form in dopat (§ 112. 9), Inf. fiiaaOai, Imper. (3i5>, 
Aor. e^irjo-aro. Homer has also Perf. Act. fiefiirjKe. 

l3c6pcocTKco eat, § 112. 14, Fut. {j3pd)(ro}xat), Perf. ftiftpoofca, etc. 
The Fut. first occurs in late writers ; both Fut. and Aor. are usually 
taken from the synon. iaBlca. The Part. Perf. (3e(3podKoo? is sometimes con- 
tracted, comp. § 110. 10; hence Soph. Antig. 1010 |2f/3pG)res\ — Epic Aor- 
ist e/3pcoz>, § 110. 6. — The Homeric fiefipwdois belongs to a derived verb 
with an emphatic sense, viz. fie(3pd>8co devour. 

/3i6(o live, Fut. ^tcaaopiai, Aor. i^lcoaa, comm. Aor. 2 i/3loov, fica)- 
vai, Part, ftiovs, (Siovrra, neut. doubtful. Subj. ftico, &<;, etc. 
Opt. Pi(prjv § 110. 6, Perf. fieftiwfca (Pass. (3ej3icoTai piot Dem.) 
Pres. and Impf. are usually from £r\v. — The forms fiiuxTKoptu and dva- 
(BiGo&Kopcu have both the intransitive and transitive signification, e, g. in- 
trans. revive, Plat. Phaedo. p. 72. c, d: trans, animate, vivify, id. Onto 9. 
— In the latter signification only it has the Aor. 1 e[3ia>crdp.rjv (Od. S-. 463. 
Plat. Phaedo. p. 89. b) ; in the former, the Active dvafii&vai is usual. 

jSXacrrdvco sprout, § 112. 11, F. /3\acm](Ta>, A. ejSXacrTov, ^Xaarelp. 

ftkooafcco go, § 110.' 11- § 112. 14, has its forms as if from MOAO, Aor. epoXov, 
pokftv, poXcov, Fut. poKovpai. Perf. pepfiX&Ka (by § 19. n. 1 for pepXcoKa) 
as if from MAOQ, from which the Present (SXuxtkco has arisen. The Pres- 
ent jLtoAeco is doubtful. 

Sodoi cry out, Fut. fiorjaopai (poet, and later fiorjo-co), among the Ionics always 
contracts orj into co,f Fut. (3dxropai ; it then draws back the accent, Aor. 
e/Scoc-a ; and takes or in the Aor. Pass. e^aaBrjv. But Part. Perf. fiefiapevos 
Hdot. 

BOA-, see /3dXXco and j3ov\opai. 

(36cTfcco pasture, § 112. 6, Fut. ftoa-tcrjacD, etc. — MIT). 

/3ov\o/jlcu will, desire, § 112. 6, Fut. fiovktfcrofjLcu, Perf. fiefiovMj- 

* The old root of this verb had e, (comp. repveo rcLpvca, rpeVo) Tpctirw, and ovceAAcy 
below,) as is shewn by the derivative /3eAos and especially the verbal fieAer-qs in 
licaTTjjSeAeTijs. Hence BOAEH, § 112. 8 ; and also, by the metathesis BEA, BAE, the 
forms )8e/3A7]/ca, fi\dfj.r)u, etc. § 110. 11. 

t That this is the correct representation is shewn by a comparison of the Ion 
verb /3a>0eu/ for $ot\0£v help. Comp. voea> below. 



$ 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 229 

fiai, Aor. i/3ov\i]d7]v, r)(3ovXrj6r)v, ftovkrjOfjvcu. For the aug- 
ment see f 83. n. 5. 
Homer has also a Perf. 2 7rpo(3ej3ov\a prefer. — In Homer and in the old 

language generally, the first syllable was also short ; in which case it is 

written with o, as fiokeade, § 5. n. 3. 
ptpaxe'tv, eftpaxov, an epic Aorist, crash ; different from /3pe^eii/ steep, /3pe ye~ 

a6ai, ^pexOrjvai and fipaxqvai, to be wet ; § 113. n. 5. 
I3PO-, see /3t/3pa>crKco. 
BPOX-, a root signifying to gulp, whence in Homer Aor. 1 Karaj3p6$ete, 

dva(3p6£€ie, Aor. 2 Pass, dvafipoxtv. 
ftpvxdopai roar, Depon. Pass. The Perf. Act. fiefipvxa (§ 112. 7) has in the 

poets the same Present signification; comp. prjicdopai and pvKaopai. — For 

the Perf. peppvxa H- P- 54 ; see Lexilog. JJ. 85. 
ftvveco stop up, § 112. 10, F. ftvaa), Aor. efivcra, Perf. Pass. fiefiv- 

o-ficu. 

r. 

yajxeco marry, from TAMfL \ 112. 6, Fut. also y&fiia, ya/bico, Aor. 
1 eyrj/ia, yrjficu, etc. Perf. yeyd^Ka, etc. — Mid. enter into mar- 
riage, take as wife or husband. The form iyajjurjOriv (whence 
Theocrit. has yafjLedeiaa) is simply Passive. 

The forms yaprjcrco, tydprjcra, "belong to the later Greek. — Fut. Mid. ya~ 
/ueVo-erat II. i. 394, has a causative signif. give in marriage, 
yeyoova, a Perfect with Present signification, I call, proclaim. Most of the 
other forms, however, are made as if from a Present in co or eco derived 
from this Perfect : Inf. yeycoveh, Impf. iyeyavevv (for -eov) 3 pers. iyeyco- 
vei, but also (iyeycove) yeycoi/e ; which form consequently occurs as Pres- 
ent, Impf. and Aorist; see § 111. 2. 

TEN-. This root, which corresponds to the Latin gigno, ge- 
nui, unites in Grreek the causative signification beget, and the 
immediate or intransitive be born. The forms are anomalously 
mixed. In the Active, only the Perfect yeyova is in use ; all 
the other forms, in both significations, belong to the Middle- 
Passive. So far as usage is concerned, the whole may be re- 
ferred to a two-fold form of the Present : 

1) ye Ivo fiat refers only to literal birth. In the Present it is po- 
etical, be born and beget ; in the Aor. 1 iyeivdfirjv only transitive, 
beget, bear, both in prose and poetry. In this last signification 
the regular verb yevvdw is elsewhere used. 

2) yiyvofiai old and Attic, comm. ytvo^at, h 112. 13 and 6, F. 
ryevrjcroficu, Aor. 2 eyevo^v, yeveaOat', Perf. yeyevrj/jbai, or with 
Active form, yeyova', forms not Attic are iyevrjOrjv, yevrjOrjaofiat 
All these forms are throughout intransitive ; not only in the lit- 
eral sense be born, but also and more frequently in the general 
sense come into existence, fieri. "With this connects itself the 
signification to exist, to be, so that eyevo/jbrjv and yeyova serve at 
the same time as preterites of elvai. Where however yeyova can 
be translated as a Present, i" am, it has always the more special 
sense I a m by birth, or I have become, etc. 



230 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114. 

For yeyova there is a poetical form (ye-yaa) PI. 1 yeydfxev, 3 yeydaaiv, 
Inf. yeydp.ev (for -avai) Part. yeyaoi?, via, Att. yeycos, a>cra, cos (see § 110. 
10), as it seems, from TAQ; hence also the older form yeydneiv in Pindar 
for yeyrjKevai ($ 111. n. 1).* — The form eyevro, yevro, in Hesiod and Pindar 
is syncop. Aor. for eyevero; see also the following article. 
yevro, he seized, an old verb in Homer, from which only this form occurs. — 
In other poets this form stands simply for eyevero, eyevro ; see the pre- 
ceding article. 

yevco let taste. Mid. taste. Perf. Pass, yey evfiai ; but Verbal Adj. 

<yev<TTeos, and therefore prob. Aor. iyevadrjv. 
yx]6eai rejoice, yrjdrjaos, etc. Perf. 2 yeyrjOa synon. with the Present and more 

usual; § 112. 6. 

yrjpdco or yrjpdcr/cco, grow old, h 112. 14, Fut. yrjpdao/iai and 7-57- 
pdaco Plat, is conjugated regularly after the first form ; except 
that the Attics prefer in the Inf. Aor. instead of yrjpdcrai the 
form yrjpdvac. 

This yrjpavai is the Inf. of an old Aor. eyrjpdv (see § 110. 11. 1, 2), to 
which belongs also the epic Part, yqpds II. p. 197 ; yrjpdvreo-aiv Hes. e. 
188. To this old form corresponds precisely the Aor. ebpdv from 8t8pdo-Kco. 
See,§ 110. 6. 
yiyvop.ai, yivojxai, see TEN-. 

yiyvcoo-fcco old and Attic (comm. ytvdycr/cco) know, § 112. 14, from 
FNOI2, F. yvcoao/xcu. Aor. sync, eyvcov, Plur. eyvco/jbev, re, 
aav ; Subj. yvo), yvoos, yv£>, etc. Opt. yvolrjv ; Imper. yvwOi, 
yvcorco, etc. Inf. yvcovat ; Part, yvovs, yvovaa, yvov, Gr. yvovros, 
h 110. 6. — Perf. eyvco/ca, Perf. Pass, eyvuxr^ai, Aor. iyveoaOrjv, 
Verb. Adj. yvocxJTGS and yvwros. 

In the causative sense fo persuade (§ 113. 2), which the compound 
awzyiyiwKco takes particularly among the Ionics, it forms the Aor. 1 
dveyvoDo-a. 

yodca bewail, Aor. 2 eyoov, II. £ 500. See § 96. n. 5. § 112. 7; 

yprjyopea), see eyeipco. II Ti2N-. see yeycova. 



AA-, Sa/co. The forms which belong to this root, have four principal sig 
niiications : divide, give to eat, burn, teach. 

1. Scuoo cut, divide, distribute, has in this form and signification only 
Pres. and Impf. and is solely poetic. To the same sense however be- 
long, as Depon. Mid. the Fut. 8daop.at, Aor. e8aadp.rjv, which are also 
used in prose; and the Perf. 8e8ao-p.aL with Passive sense (am divided, 
cut), whose 3 Plur. follows, for the sake of euphony, the root cWco, viz. 
debaiarai ; see 112. 9. — The Pres. 8areop.ai (see below in its place) 
stands in the same relation to these forms, as ivareo\iai to irdcrao-Bai ; 
§ 112. 6. 

2. §aivvp.i § 112. 15, entertain, give to eat, Mid. haiwp.ai feast, revel, 
consume, (2 pers. Impf. baivvo, § 107. m. 37,) forms, after the analogy of 
§ 106. 8, 12, its tenses from cWg>, which however never has this meaning 
in the Present : Fut. dai'o-co, dalo-ofiai, etc. 

* The anomalous yeyddre (Batrach. 143. Horn. Epigr. ult.) can be explainea 
from the Present-Perfect yeyaa (-dare for -are ; but see Lexilog. I. note or addition 
to Art. 2. 1) ; hence also ettyeydovrai Hymn. Ven. 19S ; this last by a new anomaly 
as Future. 



\ 114, 



CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



23 J 



3. Saiio has also in the Present the sense burn, kindle, set on fire. In 
the Perf. Se^a (§ 97. 4. § 113. 3) it has the intransitive sense of the Mid. 
Satofiai bum, be on fire, Aor. 2 (idaopt]v) 3 pers. Subj. SdyTai.^ 

4. AA£2 unites the causative sense teach, with the immediate learn, 
In the first, only the Aor. 2 occurs, edaov or dedaov (§ 83. n. 10), to 
which the Homeric Se'Sae helongs. But in the latter sense, learn, there 
is found, Perf. (8e§aa) deddaai, dedaas (§ 97. n. 7), Aor. Pass, iddrjv 
(strictly was taught, i. e. learned, § 100. n. 9) ; whence the new Perfect 
8eddr]Ka (§111.3) or deddrjpai, Fut. darjaopai. — From 8e8aa, as from a Pres- 
ent, is derived (6Voacr#ai) beMacrdai become acquainted with, search into, 
Horn. No other Present form occurs from this solely poetic verb, in 
either sense; but the usual Stoaovcco is evidently derived from it; see 
below. 

To this root belongs also the epic o^co, S^eis, etc. an anomalous Future 
with the special signification I shall find. f 

SdfcvG) bite, from AHKI2, F. S^o/iai, Pf. 8i8r)%a, etc. Aor. eSa/cov, 
Ba K elv, * 112. 10. 

dajj-dco see under Select. 

8ap6dvG> sleep, § 112. 11, F. hapOrjao^at, Pf. BeSdpOrjfca, Aor. e&z/>- 
#cw, BapOelv. 

For edapdov a poetic form is ebpaOov (§ 96. n. 7) J and the compound with 
Kara, in the Aorist, passes over sometimes into the Aor. Pass. KareddpOriv, 
Karadapdei? fallen asleep. This form may be considered as Aor. 1 for 
ihdpad-qv (comp. Ketcdpdat for -cr6ai, and irepdai in nepOm) ; or also as the 
sole example of an Aor. 2 Pass, with the characteristic B-; § 100. n. 9. 

dareopai (see Sato 1), Aor. 1. Inf. SareW&u Hesiod e. 795. See § 96. note 
1, and comp. aXiopai. 

bearcu, see doarai. || bel, see Sea). || Set'Sco, see Seicrat. 

SeUvv/M point out, § 107. § 112. 14, Fut. Se/f*>, etc.— MID. 

The Ionics form Fut. degee, eSe^a, oYSey/xai (aVoSede'x&u), see $ 27. n. 3. 

The Mid. SeUvvpai has in the epic writers (II. t. 196. Hymn. Apoll. 
11) the signification salute, welcome, drink to; and consequently this sig- 
nification belongs also to the Perfect with Present sense deLSeypai (for 
dedeiypai) 3 PL SeiSe^arat, 3 Sing. Plupf. as Impf. 8e[8eKTo.X — Rarer forms, 
all of similar signification, are deimvdopai, deiSiaKopai and dedlo-K.op.ai ; 
not to be confounded with 8e8io~o-op.ai, beidto-aopai, frighten, fear, from 
oV/crat. 

EelcraL fear, Innn. from Aor. 1 eBetaa, Fut. Beiaoiiai. The Perfect 
takes the signification of the Present, and has two forms, of 
which the alternate use depended on euphony, hehoiKa (§ 97. 

* The intransitive sense burn, flame, is assigned to the Present form 8cua> merely 
from a misunderstanding of the passage II. e. 4, 7. Comp. II. cr. 206, 227 ; and 
especially II. v. 316. where this verb occurs in three forms : ^778' ottot av Tpoirj p.a- 
Ae/>w Trvpl SdrjTai (intrans.) hawjxevr] (Pass.) Zaiatxi (trans.) 8' 'Aprjioi vhs 'Axaicou. 

x Comp. ks(o) under Kup.ai § 109. II. Both are old Futures in the form of the 
Fut. 2, from AAX1, KEfl ; and are consequently instead of Saeco, Keeca (§ 95. n. 16), 
with a contraction of the first two vowels, as in the Gen. /cAelbs (from /cAeeos) for 
KAeous; see § 53. n. 5. 

t Many refer the form SeiSe/cro to Sexo^ai, because the meaning receive, welcome, 
is thought to come more easily from this. But the primitive idea is unquestiona- 
bly that of offering the hand ; and Sei/ccw probably signified originally simply to 
stretch out the hand • from which likewise SeKOfiai, Se'xo^at, are very naturally de- 
rived. Comp. SeiSoiKa, SeiSia, where the redupl. 8e* occurs in like manner, because 
the radical syllable is also Set. 



232 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114 

n. 1), and SeSZa. From BeSia come syncopated forms: SeSi- 
fjuev, SeBtre, 3 PI. Plupf. iBehicrav, and 'in the Imperat. BeStdi 
§ 110. 10. 

The epic writers have also 8ei8oiica and deidia (comp. the preceding 
SeideKTo) ; so also 8e r L8ip.ev etc. and the still more syncopated Pari, 8ei8v7a 
(in Apollon.) Hence arose a new Present 8ei8u>, which occurs only in 
these poets j but to which all the above forms were formerly referred. 

In Homer the Aorist is always found written ebdeiaa, which is the only 
example of a mute doubled after the augment.* 

The epic poets employ 67co, Impf. %8Xov, in the sense to fear, and also 
to flee, II. x- 251. From this the causative signification (§ 113. 2) is 
cause to flee, frighten away. It is however singular, that Homer expresses 
this idea only by means of the Passive form, 8ieo-0ai, Subj. 8i<£>p.ai, etc. 
In another form Sirjfii, on the other hand, the Active signifies to hunt, 
chase [iv8Ucrav II. ar. 584); and the Pass, to flee, run (dUvrai II. y\r. 475). 
The Infin. hUa-Qai can belong to both these forms, and has also both sig- 
nifications ; II. [i. 276, 304. 

AEK-, see beUvvfii and bexo/xat. 

&e/KO build, Aor. eBeifiq, Perf. 8e8pr]Ka, etc. § 110. 4, 11. — The form 8e[pop,ev 
in Homer is syncopated Subj. Aor. see § 103. m. 39. In the common lan- 
guage olKobofieoo is used for this verb. — MID. 

The same theme furnishes also the tenses for 8ap.d(£> subdue, tame. 
§ 112. 7. Pf. 8ed[xr]Ka, Aor. Pass. e8p.r)6r]v and i8dp,r)v. — The forms 8apa 
and Sanaa are both Present and (Att.) Future; 3 PI. Sa/xoWiv II. £. 368. 
In prose the usual verb in this sense is the regular 8apd£<$. — A strength- 
ened Present-form in epic writers is 8ap.vdco, 8dp.vr)p.i, 8dp,vaa8ai ; but 
only in Pres. and Impf. § 112. 16. 

bepKo/xai or Perf. 2 SeSop/ca see, catch a view of, Aor. eSpanov § 96. n. 7 ; also 
edp&Ktjv and i8epxdr)v, all Active. 

Seyopcu ta&e, receive, Ion. 8eKop.ai, Fut. 8e£op,ai, Aor. ids^dp-qv, etc. In the 
same tense occurs also Aor. sync. (e8eyp,r]v) 3 pers. e'Sejcro fte £oo&, In/. 
hexOai. The Perf. 8e8eyp,ai in epic writers has also the signif. J expect. 
In this its special present sense, which the Pres. Se^opat never has, this 
Perfect exhibits the peculiar anomaly of dropping the reduplication ; e. g. 
3 Plur. bexarai they expect, Part, 8eyp.evos, also Plupf. (as Impf.) i8eyp,rjv, 
which first pers. never occurs in the sense I took, i. e. as syncopated 
Aorist; see § 110. 8, and marg. — Here belongs also the epic 8e8oKrjp.£vo?, 
waiting, lurking, II. o. 730, comp. 8. 107; see § 112. 8. 

Seco bind, Fut. S^W, see § 105. n. 2. § 95. n. 4 —The Fut. 3 Se- 
Brjo-oficu (§ 99. n. 1) takes the place of the Fut. 1 Bedijo-oficu, 
which is not Attic. — MID. 

A Present form diBrjfii ($ 112. 15) is implied by the forms : 3 Plur. 
beacri Xen. and 8[8rj, bibevrav, Horn. 

Seco fail, be wanting ^ h 112. 6, F. Ssrfcro), is usually impersonal : 
hel it is necessary, one must, il faut ; Subj. 8iv, Opt. Seoi, Inf. 
Betv, Part, heov, Fut. Serjcrei, etc. — The Pass, heo/jbai, hey or Beet 
(not contr.), Belrau, is always personal, I need ; Berjcro/nai, iBetj- 
0rjv, § 113. n. 5. 

The contraction into ec in this verb was sometimes resolved, even by 
the Attics, in order to distinguish it from the preceding verb ; e. g. Isocr. 

* Dawes, in Miscell. Crit. p 168, has shewn that the true cause of the long syl- 
lable, by which this orthography was occasioned here and in viroddeiaacra, aSSee's, 
lay in a misapprehended Digamma after the 5 (dv). 



S 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 23fi 

Busir. 2 loaovrov Beets, and in Xenophon often 8eerai, beeadiu. — ^)n the 

other hand Homer has drjaev II. o\ 100; but also another peculiar form 

devojAdi, devrjcrojAai, edevrjcrev. 
AHK-, see bdnvco. II &)co, see AA-. 

SiSda/cco teach, § 112. n. 8, loses the a in conjugation : F. ScM^co, 

Pf. SeSlBa^a, etc. In the poets also BiSao-Krjaoy. It comes from 

zM/2 ; comp. the note under dXvatcco. — MID. 
SSpaGrKO) run away, \ 112. 14, occurs only in composition : airo- 

hihpdaKw, SiaBi&pdcnceo. From APAfL comes Fut. Spdaofiac, 

Perf. SiSpdfca — Aor. sync, ehpdv, d?, a, d/xev, are, 3 PL eSpdaav 

and eBpdv ($ 110. 6 and n. 1), Subj. $pw } a?, a, etc. Opt. Spal- 

t]v, Imp. BpdOi, Inf. hpdvai, Part. hpd$. 

The Ionics have r] throughout : didprjaKoo, bprjaop-ai, edprjv, etc. — This 
verb must not be confounded with dpdoo, see below. 
bi£r)fj.cu seek, § 112. 15, a form from a verb in jut, retaining the 77 in the Pas 

sive, § 106. n. 3; Fut. 8i£r](rop.ai Horn. 
diKelv, edtKov, cast, a defective Aorist, Eurip. 

Biy\rfjv, see § 105. a. 5. || St'co, Sfy/xi, see delo-ai, || AME-, see Se/ico. 

Soarcu or hearai [bearo)\, it seems, Aor. SodcrcraTo, Subj. hodcrcreTai (-rjrai) Horn. 

See Lexil. II. 

SoKeco seem, appear, think, h 112. 6, from AOKI2, F. Sogco, etc. 
The Perf. is from the Passive form, heho^fiai have appeared 

The regular formation (W^crco etc. is poetic. — The epic dedoKijfievos see 
under Se^o^iai. 
hovTveco give a heavy sound, fall, Perf. bebovna (§ 97. n. 4. § 112. 6), Aor. 
edoimr](ra and iyhovir-qaa from a form rAOYII-, which stands in the same 
relation to dovTreon, as KrvTreca to rwrco. 
dpape'iv, 8e8pop.a, see rpe^co. || APA-, see diSpdaKO). 

opaa> <&?, $c£, regular F. Bpdcro) (a), etc. hence Perf. BeSpa/ca, like 
Perf. of Bihpdcrico}. Pass, sometimes with and sometimes with- 
out cr ; e. g. BeSpd/iai, Behpaafiai, hpaaOefc, § 112. 20. 

Biwafiai can, am able, § 112. 15 ; Pres. and Impf. like XaTayuai ; 
2 pers. Pres. hvvaaau, poet, and later Sw>#, p. 184. marg. For 
the Subj. and Op£. see § 107. m. 32 ; and for the augment, 
h 83. n. 5. — Fut. Svvrjcro/Mu, Aor. rj^vvrjOr^v (also iSvvdaOrjv), Perf. 
Se8vv7]jicu. Verb. Adj. Svvaros possible. 

In Homer this verb is commonly Depon. Mid. and has dwrjcraro instead 
Of edwrjOrj, $ 113. 11. 5. 

Sua). This verb divides its forms between the immediate signifi- 
cation go in, enter, and the causative enwrap, immerse, h 113. 
2, The Pres. Act. Bvco has the latter, enwrap, immerse, and 
retains it in the Fut. and Aor. 1 Act. Svcrco, eBvcra, Pass. i8v- 
Orjv, $ 95. n. 4. The MID. Byo/mai, wrap myself up, Svaofiau, 
iSvadfjLTjv, passed over into the intransitive (immediate) signi- 
fication, go in, sink, go doivn, etc. which however again takes 
a transitive relation, e. g. to put on sc. clothes ; comp. § 135. 
4. The significations thus belonging to the immediate sense, 
connect now with this Middle form the Active forms of the 



231 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114. 

Perf. SeSv/ca and Aor. 2 (« 110. 6) eSvv, Subj. Svco (II. p. 186. 
Plat. Cratyl. p. 413. b) Opt. Bvrjv,* Imp. SvOl, Svre, Inf. hvvai, 
Part. Sw9, Svo-a, hvv, G-. SiWo?. To these is still to be added a 
new Active form in the Present, hvvco go in, $ 112. 10 ; 
which, together with the Aor. ehvv, is preferred to the form 
hvoyuai, iSvcrdfirjp, in certain connections and in compounds. 

Such is the general outline of the usage in this verb ; the modifications 
arising from the different turns and shades of the signification, especially 
in the compounds, are left to the lexicon and to observation. — The Aor. 
Mid. idvadjjLrjv has in the epic poets the secondary forms ebvaero, idvcreo, 
Imperat. Svaeo, for which see § 96. n. 9. Here belongs also the Part, 
dvaopevos with Present signification, in Od. a. 24. Hesiod e. 382. — From 
8vvio Herodotus forms also dweovai, § 112. in. 5 ; and late writers an Aor. 
1 edvva. 

E. 

idcpdrj or ia<p6rj, a Homeric form, only II. v. 543. £. 419; either from arrrco 
Jit , adapt (comp. idyqv, id\cov) ; or from enopat follow (see below) for 
elipd?], comm. eWero. See Lexil. II. 87, and Spitzner Exc. 24. 

iyelpco wake trans, has the regular Perf. 1 iyrjyepfca, Pass, eyrjyep- 
fjiai. The MID. takes the immediate sense awake intrans. and 
has by syncope in the Aor. rjypo/^Tjv ($ 110. 4) ; Inf. eypeaOai 
for lypkaQai, see Ausf. Sprachl. — The Perf. 2 ey prjyopa, 
whose anomalous reduplication was probably occasioned by the 
sound of r)yp6fA7]v, belongs, like other Perfects 2 (§ 113. n. 3), 
to the intransitive signification ; but passes over into a new 
Present meaning, strictly I am aivaked ; hence I am aivake 
Plupf. as Impf. iypyyopecv. 

Forms of the Present, which have arisen out of iypfjyopa with like sig- 
nification, are iyprjyopooa in Homer, eyprjyopea) in the later prose, and 
yp-qyopea in the New Testament, etc. — From iypr^yopare arises the Ho- 
meric form eyptjyopBe II. 77. 371. o\ 299 (§ 110. n. 5); and hence a cor- 
responding Infin. iypr)yop6ai II. k. 67, where Wolf accents it eyprjyopdai 
after the scholiast; and by a new anomaly a 3 Plur. iyprjyopOaai II. k. 
419. But see Lobeck in Ausf. Sprachl. II. p. 25. 

e§co, see iaB'aa. || edovpat, see e^opai. 

egofuu, Kade^o/ubac, sit, Impf. only as Aorist ifcaOe^o/xyv. Put. rca- 
6e8ov{iaL, § 95. n. 16. 

The form ei<ade£6pr)v as Aorist occurs e. g. in Plat. Meno. 26. p. 89 extr. 
Xen. Anab. 5. 8. 14. The Pres. Kadefapai is thereby rendered suspicious, 
at least in the earlier Attics • yet in later writers it is found ; also once in 
Horn. e£ eai Od. k. 378, and often in the other moods : e£Vo, e£ev, e^eo-dai 
etc. also K.ade^ovTa.1 Lys. c. Agor. 37. Comp. below t£co, and also § 108. 
II, el era and jjp.ai', which forms properly all belong to one root. — Later, 
writers used instead, of eKaOegopr/v also the Passive form iica6e(rdr]v. 

iOeXoj and ^re\o), will, § 112. 6 ; F. i6ekr)(T(D, ^reXrjcrco, etc. Pf. r)9e- 
\7)fca. 

* Comp. $ 107. m. 33. Hence ixdv/JLev for iic^vrjpev, like bel^ev for ^eirjpey, II 
v. 99- sec Lexil. I. 17. 10. 



\ 11 A. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VEhBS. 235 

€0co. From this verb only the Perf. euoOa am accustomed {k 97. 
n. 2) is usual ; Ion. ewOa. 

Of the Present there remains only the Homeric Part, edcov wont, accus- 
tomed.— For ecodee see § 112. n. 5. 
et'Sco see, an old verb, from which in this signification only eldov, Idelv, I8e- 
adai, etc. have remained in use as Aorist forms of the verb Spaa, which 
see. In the epic language, however, there is found from ei&o, (which as 
Pres. Indie, occurs only in the later poets,) in the same signification, the 
Passive- Middle formation etdo/xai, elo-dfinv, (ieicrdfjLrjv, eeLcrdpevos,) for be 
seen and appear, vicleri. — See also on the signification of this verb § 113. 
n. 10; and for those forms which have the signification to know, o!8a, 
ff8eiv, eto-oftai, etc. see § 109. III. 

eLKco. In this verb the Perfect eoiica is employed as Present, am 
like, seem, Part, eoi/ccos, also elfccbs, especially in Att. prose in 
the Neut. ewco?, e. g. et/co? ecrrt, it is likely, probable ; see p. 
199 sq. marg. Ion. ol/ca, oikgos, ol/cos, Plupf. eojKecv (§ 84. n. 9), 
Fut. etf <». The verb eUco yield, give way, is entirely regular. 
In the same manner as cIkoos; are found also in Attic writers a few 
times, for the sake of the metre, eha and ehevai. Comp. eldas, eldevai. 
under olda, § 109. III. 

The Pres. ewcoo nowhere occurs; and the Impf. ehe (for ewKei) only II. 
o\ 520. For the epic forms Tiktov, iiKrqv, and rj'iKTo, ecTera, also Att. eoi- 
yfxrjv and ei|a<jt (for eoUacri), see the marg. note above cited, p. 199 sq. 

dXvco wrap up, enwrap, F. aAtio-co; Pass. Perf. eiXvpai, 3. pers. elXvarat (v), 
Part. eiAvjueVor. Mid. elXvopai wind myself, crawl, Soph. — Also eXvco, 
whence iXvadrjvai to crouch Horn. On all these forms see Lexil. II. p. 163. 

ft'Xco roll up^ press together, more comm. elXea or elXeoa, F. rjara> etc. Aor. 1 
Inf. eXarcu, eVAcreu, Part. eXaa?. Perf. Pass. eeXpai, .Aor. Pass. i&Xrjg, Inf. 
dXrjvai or dXrjfievai, Part. aXei?, (all which forms fluctuate in the editions 
between the rough and smooth breathings) ; comp. eardX-qv, araXrjvai, from 
crreXXco. From the same root (EA12 or EAAQ) with the simple meaning 
press, impel, thrust, comes also iXavvm (see in its place) ; and hence in the 
special signification, beat, lash, occurs likewise the Aor. eXaai in Homer, 
e. g. Od. e. 132. — Here belongs also (by § 112. 8) the Pluperf. iokrjTo was 
pressed, Apollon. 3. 471. — See on all these forms, Lexil. II. 88, and 76. 7. 

eipaprai see MEIPOMAI. || ei/u and elpi see § 108. IV. V. 

elirelv to say, § 112. 18, an Aor. 2. Indie, elirov (epic eearov), 
Imperat. elire (compound irpoetire, see k 103. m. 4). This Aor. 
is more usual than the Ion. Aor. 1 elira (§ 96. n. 1), Imper. 
elirov, incorrectly elirov, see Excurs. I ad Plat. Meno. The 
Attics however use both eliras and elires equally ; and employ 
the forms elirare, elTrdrco, etc. by preference. 

With this Aor. 2 are closely connected in usage, the Fut. 
ipo> (Ion. epeco) from elpco, which Present is employed by the 
poets ; and also from 'PEfl, the Perf. etprj/ca ($ 83. n. 3), 
Perf. Pass, elpinpuai, Aor. Pass. epp^Orjv and eppe6r)v, (not At- 
tic elprjdrjv, elpeOrjv,) pr\6r\vai, prjOefc ; Fut. 3 elpr\o-o\iai as com- 
mon Fut. Passive.^ — Verb. Adj. fareo?, pifros. 

* The Grammarians further increase the themes of this verb with e'pc'oj, on ac- 
count of e'tpriKa; but this word (ipsco) is either a regular Fut. from e'ipec. or a Present 
fn the sense to ask, interrogate ; see ipeaOai below in its place. But since PE& unde 



236 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERES. $ 114. 

As the Present of this verb the Greeks employed (fa fit, as 
mentioned above in § 109. 1. 2 ; and in some phrases also dyo- 
peveiv (properly to speak before an assembly), e. g. iccucm dyo- 
peveiv Tivd, natcm elirov. In most compounds dyopevco is always 
employed ; e. g. aTrayopevco I forbid, amelirov I forbade ; in 
some Xeyco, e. g. dvriXeyw, avrelirov. 

The poetic Imperat. eo-nere comes from a secondary form with <r insert- 
ed. Comp. XdaKco, itcnca), pLLcryco. 

Entirely anomalous is the poetic ivenco or ewe7ra>, synonymous with 
e:, relv ] to which {rjvKrirov) evicnrov may be referred as Aorist ; since a 
Pres. Indie, ivta-iron does not occur, ^ and the Inf. has the circumflex, eVt- 
cnrelu Od. y. 93. Fut. evto-Trrjcroa or eViS/z'co.t 

elpyco shut out, exclude, F. elp^co, etc. — But eipyvvpLi with the 
rough breathing, shut in, include, F. eup^co, etc. $ 112. 15. 

The old and epic language has for both significations epyoo or eepyco 
(eepyov, iepyvv, iepyjievos). Hence 3 Plur. Perf. eep^arai, and without' aug- 
ment epxarai, are shut in, Horn. 

eipoo, see elneiv and ipeaOat. — In the signification join, connect, lenity it is a 
separate verb ; Aor. 1 elpa (Hdot. 3. 87 i^eipa? exserens), Pf. Zepfiai (on 
account of the Digamma, see § 84. n. 6), Part. iepp.£vos Horn, ipjxevos He- 
rod. 4. 190. 

€ia>6a, see e#co. 

iXavvco drive, $ 112. 10, F. iXdcrco (short a), etc. Pf. eXrjXaKa. 
Pass. Pf. iXrjXafiai, Aor. rjXdOrjv, Verbal Adj. iXaros ; in later 
writers eXrjXacrfiaL, rjXdaOrjv, iXacrro^. The theme e\a&) is rare 
in the Present ; on the other hand iXw, iXas, iXa, etc. Inf. iXav, 
constitute in prose the Attic Future, $ 95. n. 12. 

See also elXco, eXo-ai; and for iXrjXddaro see § 103. m. 24. marg. note. 
— For I\rp\dp.evo? (proparoxyt. e. g. Arat. 176) see § 111. n. 2. 

EAEYG-j EA©-, see epxpfiat. 

iXicco draw, takes the augm. ei (§ 84. 2). Fut. eX£a> and cAkWco § 112. 7, Aor. 
el\£a and efKKuaa. Pass, only et\K.vcrp.ai, eikKvaQ-qv. — MID. 

e\7rcD cause to hope, eXnopai hope, (epic eeX7rouai), Perf. eoXna the same with 
e\7Top.ai. Plupf. as Impf. ecohirtiv, $ 84. n. 6, 9. 

EA-, sec ei'Xco. 'EA-, see oupeco. || Ikva, see eiXuco. 

ENErK-, ENEIK-, etc. see cpepco. || everrco, see etVeu/. 

hr]voBa, an old Perfect, which presupposes a theme ENE012, EN0S2 ; iirevi]- 
vode, Karevrjvode, is, sits, lies on any thing, Homer. See § 97. n. 2, and 
comp. dvr]vo8a above. 



niably belongs among the themes of this verb,.on account of ipp-ftdriv, pr\p.a. ; so a]so 
e'lprjua is most naturally referred to the same theme, after the analogy of ejX??0a, 
el/jLapTcu, § 83. n. 3. 

* II. A. 839 and Od. i. 37 iviffww is Subj. Aor. 

f The <r in ivicnta is here dropped in the Fut. precisely as in SiSacr/cw and oAu- 
jkoo. This Future consequently affords no proof that ivl-arto, to which as to form 
it certainly could belong, ought also to be referred hither. On the contrary, since 
the Pres. iyiirreiv, and also the kindred forms Tjv'nraTrzi/ and iuicraco in Homer, never 
by themselves signify to say, but very often when standing alone signify to chide, 
upbraid, they must therefore all be separated from the radical verb enreiV, and ex- 
hibited separately below : see ivlirrto. Still, a Present form eVnri-w from £i>eir<o is 
used by Pindar at least, Pyth. 4. 358, where ivmrav stands for eVeVcyi/.--For a mi- 
nuter investigation of both verbs, see Lexil. I. 63. p. 279 sq. 



§ 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 237 

fo&eli/j Tjvdo'j, see ep^ofxac. 

ivLTTTa chide, upbraid, (see the last marg. note,) has in Homer a two-fold 

Aorist form; either evevmrov, more correctly ivevlnov (see Lexil. I. 63. p. 

282, and comp. § 85. n. 3) ; or, by § 85. n. 4, with the reduplication at the 

end, 3 pers. rjv'iircmev. 
cuio-ira, £vv£tt(a}, see elnelv. \\ evvvpt, see § 108. III. 

e6Xr]To, see eTXeo. || iiravpeiv, iTvavpiarKopai, etc. see AYP-. 

iTTio-rafiac understand, § 112. 15 ; 2 pers. liridTaaai, poet, iiriara 
or iTTtarr] (see the note on p. 184, and on Soph. Philoct. 798), 
Impf. r/TTLo-Tdfiriv, Subj. and Opt. see § 107. m. 32. — Fut. eVt- 
(TT7}croyLai, Aor. eiricrrrjO^v k 113. n. 5. Yerbal Adj. eiricrT^To^. 

eirco am about something', occupied ivith, § 112. 17. This old 
verb, of which some compounds (espec. Sie7rco) remain also in prose, has 
the augment ei (8l€7ttov), and an Aor. eaivov,^ crirelv, aircov, as eVecr7roz/, 
€7n<T7re7v, peracnraiv, all mainly poetic. — To avoid any confusion of forms, 
compare also eWere and ei/eirco under eiTreiv. 

e-jro/iaifolloiu, elirb^ir\v, Fut. e^ofiat. This very usual Middle 
has an Aorist which corresponds to that of the Active eirw, ex- 
cept that in the Indie, it has the rough breathing : ecrirojjb^v, 
cnrecrOai, airov [aireo, airelo Horn.) which last forms occur 
chiefly in composition, Iitigitov, etc. 

The earlier poets have likewise the e in the other moods of the Aorist ) 
eWco/mt, eaTreo-Oai, tenvopevos ; see the marg. note. But the (later) Pres- 
ent eairerai Od. S\ 826, is a false reading for epxerai. — For edepdr] see abovb 
in its place. 

ipdeo love, poetic epa/xai, (like eiricrTajJiai), takes its tenses solely 
from the Passive form ; Aor. rjpdadrjv (poet, rjpdadprjv), F. epao-Ofjaopai. 
A real Passive is the Pres. ipcbpai, ipdaOai, tpcopevos. — Another regulai 
form ipdeo is found only in composition, igepdaai. pour out, KarepdcraL, etc. 

EPr£2 and epSco, see pe£co. — A form epyco see also in etpyco. 

epeiKa has the signification tear, burst, break in pieces, as transitive • but in 
the epic Aor. 2 rjpiKov, as intransitive. § 113. 2. 

epeiVco cast down, has this causative sense (§ 113. 2) in the Fut. epefy<£>, and 
Aor. 1 rjpei^a, etc. — Plupf. Pass, ipepmro epic, instead of ep-^pmro, § 85. 

* The explanation of this form is. not without difficulty. According- to some 
ZffiTov and t^xov (from e%w) have arisen from syncope (like e?rAe, eVToV^j/, itt4<t6cu, 
§, 110. 4), the rough breathing of eVo? and e'x&> (F. e£a>) at the same time passing 
over into <r ,■ thus : e-crexou, sync, e-trxov, crx^v, etc. In that case the retaining of 
the asper in etrivop.^v is anomaly. But just this form compels us to adopt another 
mode of explanation ; since one cannot well see, why e<nr6p.T}u should still have the 
asper, after this has passed over into <r, and when also epic writers can retain the e 
in the other moods. It is therefore better to assume, that the Aorist-form of the 
two roots 'EX and 'En, by inserting the sibilant <r, became %gx ov -> zo-rrov, ia-ir6p7]j/. 
The first of these changed the rough for the smooth breathing, because of the fol- 
lowing aspirate, tcrxov; in which form, and misled by the close analooy 5 usao-e 
came to regard the strictly radical e as a mere augment, and formed the moods ac- 
cordingly, (rx«, o"%eiV, etc. The same analogy was now followed, without the like 
reason and merely from the close resemblance of the whole form, by the Act. %<rirov, 
and its moods aitdv, aircav, etc. but not by kairop.'qv. This latter retained the asper ; 
and therefore the e being thus emphatically marked as radical, was not dropped in 
the moods, at least by epic writers; until at last they too followed the analogy of 
the Active-form. Hence, it is just %<rirov, and the shorter modal forms in the Mid. 
(Tirov, o-ircaQai, that constitute the true anomaly. 



238 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114 

n. 1. — The Aor. 2 and Perf. 2, rjpnrov, eprjpnra, have the immediate sense, 
to fall down. — Epic Middle dvqpeiip-dp,r]v, impelled upwards, hurried off. 

ipeaOai ask, interrogate, Inf. from an Aor. rjpo/jLTjv, Subj. epcofiai, 
Imperat. epov. Fut. iprjaopbai, h 112. 6, 19. 

The Ionic prose has also a Present eXpopai; hut employs the ImpL 
elpofirjvy with eXpecrdai (so accented) and the other moods, in the Aorist 
sense ; Fut. elprjo-opai. — The epic writers have also synonymous with 
eXpopai the form epecrdai (and, with e inserted, epeecrdai, epeovro) as Pres- 
ent ; as likewise epeco (lengthened ipeeivco) both in the Act. and Middle ; 
which last must be carefully distinguished from the Fut. epeco under ei- 
Tveiv. Subj. epeiop.ev epic for epe&p.ev. — In prose the parts still wanting 
are supplied from epcoraco. 

epeco, see elireiv and epecrdai. 

epifa quarrel, regular ; Perf. Pass, eprjpicrpai, with emphatic Present signifi- 
cation. — Another form is e'ptScuVco, with which is to be connected (§ 112. 
11) the form epiftrjcracrdai II. yjr. 792, with long i on account of the metre. 

eppco go forth, erro, eppr]aw, r/pprjaa. § 112. 6. 

In a causative sense is usually derived from this verb the Homeric 
dnoepcre, dnoepaeie, forced, hurried away. See Lexilog. II. 92. 

ipvyydvco belch, eruct, k 112. 11 ; Fut. ipevfjojiai, from the non- 
Attic Pres. ipevyofiai, Aor. rjpvyov, ipvyelv, later Aor. rjpev^d/Arjv. 

epvOaiva blush, Fut. epvdrjcrco, etc. § 112. 11. Homer has also the theme 
epevOco, ipevcrti), etc. 

epuKoo, long v, detain, impede, Aor. rjpvKaKov, Inf. epvicaKeeiv, see § 85. n. 4. 

epvco or elpva>, draw, has the v short in flexion. Fut. also epvco, Mid. epvo- 
fiai II. A. 454; see § 95. n. 12. Hesiod, however, has (e. 816) the Inf. 
elpvpcevai (short v), after the formation in pi. — In the epic writers the 
MID. ipvop-ai passes over into the signification rescue, deliver ; in which 
some critics, where the syllable must be long, still write the v with one 
o- (elpvcrciTo), as being originally long; while on the contrary in the sig- 
nification draw, they write it with double cr (epvcrcraTo), as being origin- 
ally short. But since it is also found short in the former meaning (e. g. 
II. 8. 186. x- 351), and the significations often run into one another, the 
lengthening of the v is in all cases more correctly marked by era. — On 
the other hand, the secondary form pveadai, which signifies only to rescue, 
has among the Attics long v, eppvaaro ; but in epic writers this also is 
short (pvcrdp.T]v II. o. 29), and should consequently be written, where the 
syllable is long, with crcr, eppvero-aro, pvcrcraro ; which, however, is com- 
monly neglected. — Finally, there is also a secondary syncopated form 
(§ 110. 5) epvcrOai, eXpvcrOai, and pvcrdai, usually with long v, epvro (once 
epvro Hes. S. 304), e'lpvro, elpvarai, pvaro, etc. This syncopated form be- 
longs almost exclusively to the meaning rescue, guard, except Od. x- 90 
eipvro drew ; and must not be confounded with the Perf. and Plupf. Pass. 
of the theme epva, viz. etpvpai, have been drawn. — See further Lexilog. I. 
18, with the additions in Vol. II. 

epxofiat, go, § 112. 18, from EAETOfl, Fut. iXevaofiac, Aor. fjkv- 
6ov, comm. rjXOov ($ 110. 4), Subj. eXOco, Inf. iXdelv, Imperat. 
eX6e, etc. see § 103. m. 4. Perf. eXr)Xv6a. Verbal Adj. iXev- 

(TT60V. 

The Perf. in epic writers has the form el\r)\ovda ; for the augment »o 
k 84. n..l. Also 1 Plur. with syncope eiA^Aou^pey, § 110. 9. 
For the Doric rjv8ov, evBelv, see § 16. n. 1. d. 
Further, it has already been shewn m § 108. V", that instead of tin- 



§ 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 239 

other moods of the Present epxopai, which very rarely occu r, those of elpt 
are far more usual, especially in the compounds; so that in ordinary 
usage this verb is made up thus: Pres. epxopai, Subj. uo, Opt. 'loipt, 
Imp. Wi, Inf. Uvaij'Part. Icov; Impf. §ew or 97a, Perf. eXrjXvOa, Plupf. 
eXrjXvdeiv, Aor. rjXdov, Inf. eXOelv, Fut. elpi. 
tadrjpevos' Ionic, r)<j6r)pevos Attic j a defective Part. Perf. clothed, dressed. 

ia6Lco eat, § 112. 18, from eSco (Horn.) Fut. fto/icu (S 95. n. 18). 
Perf. iSrjSofca, Perf. Pass. iBrjBea-fjbat. Aor. Pass. rjBeaOrjv, Inf. 
ehe&Orivai. — Aor. Act. e<jxvyov from ^AFfl, Subj. (jydyco, Inf. 
cpayelv.- — Verbal Adj. eSeo-ros. 

Part of the forms from e5co come from the old formation with Fut. efie- 
o-co, etc. (§ 112. 6); where the e was changed in the Perf. Act. into the 
alternate o (comp. § 97. n. 1, 2), which in Homer is retained in the Pas- 
sive, edrjdopat, idrjdorai. Homer has also Perf. edrjba, and Inf. Pres. ed/ze- 
vai (§ 110. 5) for edeij/, ebepevai. — The poets have also a shorter form in 
the Present, eaBoa. 

eenrere, eenrov, ecnroprjv, see elrrelv and eVco. || evade see cb&ai/co. 

e{/&», fcaOevSco, sleep, § 112. 6, Fut. evBrjcrco, fcaOevStfao). Augm. 

fca07]v8ov, KaOevhov, and itcdOevhov. 
evpLo-fco) find, § 112. 14, from 'ETPI2, Aor. eupew, Sw#/'. e^co, 

Jmp. ei^oe, Inf. evpetv ; Fut. evp-qaw, Perf. evprjfca, Pass. Pf. et/- 

p7]\xai', Aor. Pass. evpeOrjv ($ 95. n. 4). Yerbal Adj. evperos. — 

Augm. § 84. 5.— MID. 

Writers not Attic form the Aor. Mid. as Aor. 1 evpdprjv, instead of ev- 
poprjv, § 96. n. 1. marg. 

e%#&> hate, only in the Pres. and poetic. Hence a MID. (£%0d- 
voyuai) anreyQavopbai am hated, h 112. 11 ; F. aire^Qr^oybai, Aor. 
rjyfiofJbijp, anTi}ydoiir)v, Inf. with anom. accent anrkyQecrQai ; # Pf. 
air^Oijfjiat am hated. 

e%o> have, § 112. 17, Impf. el^ov, Fut. ef&> with the asper h 18. 
n. 4. — Aor. eay^ov (see above in eirco and marg.) $«#/. <r%cb 
(TXV$ e ^°- m compounds irapacryw 7rapda^rj<; ; 0/?£. <T%cir)p 
(§ 103. m. 13) but in comp. 3 Sing, irapdaypi Plat. Imp. o-^e?, 
a^erco, ($ 110. n. 2,) but in comp. irapdax^ and nrdpaa^e ; 
Jw/. o-^dV) Part, o-^cov. MID. Aor. icr%6p,7]v, Inf. aykaQai, 
Imp. (rx°v> crx^ '® 03 ' m compounds irapdcrxpv. — Hence a new 
Fut. Gyjqcrai, Perf. eayjqica, Pass. Pf. ecr^/^at, Aor. 1 iaxWrjV.— - 
Verbal Adj. e/CTo? and crx eT °s> 

From the Aor. cr^eli/ there has come also another secondary form of the 
Pres. to-^co, which is preferred in certain special significations, (as fo ZioM, 
check,) where also the Fut. o-y^o-co properly belongs with it.f — An old 
Perf. from eyo) is 6'^coKa; II. j3. 218 avvox^<6re.X 

* A Pres. a-rrexdo/jiai is nowhere found ; see Ausf. Sprachl. 

t The I in the Pres. iVx*? stands in the place of a reduplication like that in (jlI}jlj/oj, 
ttltttw, precisely like the t in 'iffTi)p.i, except that in iVx^ the rough breathing went 
over into the smooth on account of the x- 

t This is sometimes derived from OXOH, and oXx^ Ka ( see o?xop-ai) from OIXOH. 
But the true derivation appears from a comparison of the subst. oKooxh- The sim- 
plest Perf. from ex« is o'x«, and with augment &x a \ so a ^ so from OIXH — cpx a - 
With the Attic reduplication both would become in the nmiql mflnnPi- 'A*,.,-** ■#*.*. 



240 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114. 

Homer often uses a lengthened Aorist-form ecrx € @ ov {^ n f- o"X e ^«w) in 
the emphat. signif. to hold fast. But it is hardly advisable to assume a 
Pres. o-xe&o ; see Ausf. Sprachl. § 112. n. 15. 

The following anomalous compounds of e^co are still to be noted : 
avkyp. "When the Mid. avkyeaQai has the signification en- 
dure, it takes the doable augment in the Impf. and Aor. rjvev- 
X°M V > r)v6ayo[irjv, § 86. n. 4. 

dfjureyw envelope, wrap around, Impf. djjbirelyov, Fut. dfju^e- 
goo, Aor. ryinTiaypv, aiimiayelv* — MID. a/juire^ofjiai or aybiri- 
cr %v o v [A a i, wear, have on, F. d^k^oyLai Aor. i)ybiTi<jyoixr)v* 
viri(jyvovp,ai promise, Ion. (Horn. Herod.) virlaypybai, \ 112. 
10. Fut. virocryfiGopai. Aor. vire<jyo\xriv. Imperat. virocryov. 
Perf. virkayrjiiai, Inf. virecryrjaOai. 
efco boil, § 112. 6, F. fyrjaco etc. (Hdot. 1. 48 has Impf. efee, ib. 

n. 5.) Yerb. Adj. e^reo?, e^ro9 or e0#c?. 
iapev, see in aco satisfy. 

z. 

tyo live has §5, gj?, §?* e ^ c - 105. n. 5.) Impf. e£W, ef^?, etc. 
Inf. %yv or J?}^ (s s 105. 4), Imperat. %fj. The rest is made from 
Plow. 

We find also (after the formation in fxi) a 1 pers. Impf. efyv, and Jm- 
perat. grjdt, to which however the preceding forms were preferred. The 
tenses £70-0 or (tjo-oimil, e^aa, efyica, occur in the earlier writers either 
not at all, or very rarely. — The Ionics prolonged ££> into £coco by doubling 
the sound (§ 105. 11. 10); and hence arose a new Ionic formation: ^bco, 
^coeir, £a>ere, e£<oov. § 105. n. 10. marg. 

£evyvv/ju yoke, unite, § 112. 15, Fut. £ei/fa> etc. Aor. 2 Pass. efu- 

^(ovvv/jll gird, § 112. 15, Fut. facrco etc. Perf. Pass. efocr/uLai, more 
certain in earlier writers than efafiai (Thuc. 1. 6), Aor. e§». 
o-^.f— MID. 

IT. 

f){3da?cG) come to manhood, pubescere, § 112. 14; Aor. rjfirjaa 
came to manhood, from Pres. rjftda) am in the prime of life. 

ijyeofxai lead on, suppose. The Perf. rjyrjixai has sometimes the Present sig- 
nification, to regard, hold as, e. g. in Herodotus. Pind. ciyv^ai lead on. 

rj/xai, see § 108. 2. || ^lu, ^v, see 4>rjfj.i § 109. I. 4. 

T]fxv(£> bend down, sink. Hence is best derived the Homeric vneiivqixvKe (II 
X- 491) ; i.e. we can assume that when a verb began with a long vowel, 

Xa; (for the t from dixoi-i-ai would naturally stand only once, as in SeidtKro :) but 
since of two aspirates, the second can likewise be changed instead of the first (§ 18. 
n. 1), there arose also the forms ox<*>xa, of%»/ca; and these were afterwards retained 
for the sake of perspicuity. — Also the Homeric iirci!>xaro were shut to (II. fx. 340, 
eomp. oxeus) may be explained, by transition from d>xa, 2>y/j.ai, as 3 Plur. Plupf. 
Pass, of eVe'xw. 

* The i belongs therefore in the Aor. to the preposition, ^'/xTn-crxof, inasmuch aa 
the Aor. takes the augment, at the beginning, § 86. n. 2. On the other hand, &,u7r 
itrxvovnai like \i^-L<rx v ovfj.a.i from i'crxw ; but Aor. i)iJ.iri-(TX°l iir 1~' / i 

t So at least late writers. Pirt. facrdels ; see Lobeek ad Aj. p. 324, 31G. 



& ±14. QATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 241 

the reduplication shortened it; consequently eprjpvica. instead of rjprjpvKa. 
The metre required the first p. to be doubled ; but instead of this, pv was 
adopted, as is also the case in other words ; e. g. dnakapvos from ndkapr], 
vdovvpvos for v<x>vvjxos. 
fjTrdopai, rj era do pat, am vanquished, only Passive. — The Ionics have a form 
in oca, e. g. iaaovpai, Aor. io-croiOrjv. § 113. n. 5. 

e. 

0AN-, see -Sb^cr/cco. 

Suopai regard with wonder, behold. From this earliest main theme, somrs 
forms of which are preserved in Homer and in Doric writers (3do~6e, &rj- 
vao-dai, Dor. SdaraaQat,, Imp. Sacrai, Sao-dpevo? Theocr.) arose two other 
themes: 1) Baeopai Doric, Srjeopat. Ionic; 2) The common Sedopat, Fut. 
Sedcropai, Ion. Serjo-opai. In Herodotus is found also the form iOrjrJTo 
(§ 105. n. 16. marg.) though commonly with the various reading ed^elro. 
Verbal' Adj. ^arjros, S'tjtjtos; Searo?. As to the signification, Homer (to 
whom the form Sedadai was unknown) has only the idea admire; but la- 
ter writers use all the forms in the simpler sense behold. — This verb must 
not be confounded with 0AQ suckle; see below. 

^dirrco burp, Aor. 2 Pass, irdcprjv (§ 18. 2), yet Aor. 1 i0d<f)6r)v 

Hdot. Perf. Pass, reda^/iai, reOd^Oat, whence 3 Plur. in Hdot. 

redd^arai ; others Terd^aTau. 
0A<£-, Perf. as Pres. rid^na am astonished, where the second aspirate is 

changed; on the contrary in the Aor. eracpov, the first; § 18. 2. 
©AX2, an epic defective, from which occurs Aor. 1 Act. #j)o-ui to suckle, and 

the Mid. SrjcrOai to milk (§ 105. n. 5, 16 marg.) §r)o-ao~Qai to suck. — For 3d- 

ofj.aL behold, see in its place. 
Sedopai, see Qdopai. || #e\co, see e#eAco. 

^epofjLcu warm myself, a defective, from which in prose only the 
Pres. and Impf. occur. Homer has further Fut. Sepcropai (§ 101. n. 3), and 
Subj. Aor. Pass. {£6ep-qv) Sepew. — To the same root belong the defective 
forms : Seppere trans, and Seppero intrans. in Homer. 

Seao-ao-dai, to implore, Biao-avro etc. a defective Aorist. Verb. Adj. #eoTof, 
TroXvdearo? much desired. 

^fico run, F. ^evorofxai or ^evcrov/jicu ($ 95. n. 9, 17). The other 
tenses do not occur ; see Tpe%co. 

Srjeopcu, see Sdopai. || Srjadai, see 0AQ. || 0HII-, see 0A<&-. 

^royydvco touch, $ 112. 11, from QITfl, F. ^l^o/mli, Aor. eOcyov. 
The forms which occur, as Qiyeiv. 3tycov, are probably all to be accented 

as Aorists. 

^vrjcrictD die, k 112. 14. * 110. 11, from OANfl, Aor. edavov, dirk- 
6avov, Fut. ^avov/j,cu, diroQavovyuai, Perf. reOvrj/ca. From this 
Perfect the following syncopated forms are in common use 
(§ 110. 10),. Plur. reOvafiev, -are, reOvacnv, 3 PL Plupf. ireOva- 
crav ; Subj. not found ; Opt. reOvairjv, Imp. reOvaOt, drco, Inf. 
TeOvdvat, Part. reOvem (redveayaa Tedveois $ 110. n. 6. c) Gr. ojto?. 
— From re6v7]/ca arises a secondary Attic form of the Fut. reOvrj- 
%co or reOvrjtjo/jLai, $ 111. n. 3. — Verbal Adj. ^vr/ros mortal. 

In prose we find in most of the tenses the compound dnoOvrjo-Ko* chiefly 
in use ; while, on the other hand, the Perfect with all the forms derived 
from it. is hardly found in composition. The regular Part. Perf. rediy/cas 

0. 



242 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114. 

cia, op, is more used than the syncopated form ; since of this latter only 
the masc. Tedvecos occurs in prose. — The Inf. Perf. redvdvai is found some- 
times for Savelv to die, Plato Crit. init. 

For the Inf. reOvdvai see § 110. n. 6. marg. The Part. Perf. Ionic is 
TedvT]a>s, G. otos, § 97. n. 7 ; and in Homer also retfj/etcor, G. S>tos. 

Sopelv, see ^pcoovcco, || &pdcrcra>, see rapdao-co. 

6PE$-, see Tpecfxo. || 0PEX-, see rpex<o. 

^rpv7TTco break, Aor. 2 Pass, irpixpr/v, § 18. 1. 

^pcoo-KG) spring, leap, h 110. 11. § 112. 14, forms from QOPfl 
the Aor. eOopov, Fut. ^ropovpuac Ion. ^ropeo/iai. 

0Y$-, see rv^co. || £uo>, see § 18. n. 2. § 95. n. 4. 

I. 

tSpuco se£, j}Zace, has in Homer (and also in the later writers, ol kolvoI) Aor. 
1 Pass. IdpvvdTjv, as if from'lAPYNO. With this compare § 112. 10 ; also 
dp.TTvvv6rj under ttv£<s> and IdvvTara § 115. n. 6. 

T£g>, /codify), seat, seat myself; Mid. seat myself; Fut. Att. Ka0i<o, 
Mid. KaOi^rjo-opiai § 112. 6. Aor. i/cdOto-a, Perf. iceicaOiKa. 

A secondary form is t£ai/o> in both significations, § 112. 11. — The affinity 
of the three verbs KaOLfa, Ka8egop,ai, and Kadr)p.ai, is manifest. We may 
here bring together for the current prose all the forms connected with the 
ideas to set and to sit, in the following manner: KaOl^ui comm. I set, 
seat, F. kclOlg), Aor. eKdOicra; ica0L£op,ai I set or seat myself, F. Ka6i£rj- 
aop,ai and Ka8e8ovp.cu, Aor. eKa6e£6p.r}v ) Kadr)p,ai, I sit, Impf. it<a0r)p.r}v 1 
sat. — A later Aor. is eKadeaB^v I set myself. 

l/cveofiai, come, § 112. 10, oftener afyiKveopbai, Fut. tj-opuu, Aor. Ikq- 
pjiqv (Imper. p. 160, marg.) Pf. lypLai, dtyuypLab Inf. afylyQai. 

The Pres. iKVovpai occurs in its simple form in epic writers only in the 
special signification to travel ; in the tragic writers a very common mean- 
ing is to supplicate; in both which uses it takes an accusative. In the 
signif. to come, epic writers have i'/cco (whence Aor. Igov § 96. n. 9), while 
tragic writers espec. have tmvco, § 112. 11, and n. 6. Further, both in 
form and signification there belongs here fad) come, am come, am here ; 
which in its current forms has in part supplanted those of dcpiicveiaOai. 
We may here arrange all the forms in the most common usage connected 
with the idea to come, in the following manner : Pres. dcpinvovixai (poet. 
1k(3>, iadvo)), Perf. rj/coo, Plupf. tjkov, Aor. d(piKop,r]v, Fut. j^co. 

It is further to be noted, that the Pres. t'/cco has i long; and hence, in the 
epic language, all the forms belonging to this Active, (and these are solely 
Pres. and Impf.) occur also only as long. But the form iKop-rjv is Aor. 2, 
and has therefore as to its root a short i, which in the Indie, only is made 
long by the augment ; while in epic writers, who can neglect the aug- 
ment, it is therefore sometimes long and sometimes short; but in the 
other moods (iKecrBai, iKoip.r]v, etc.) it is always short. The derived form 
LKava, on the other hand, has in the Pres. short i. — The Part. 'Up.evo? 
(Aor. sync. § 110. 8) is a doubtful reading in Soph. Phil. 495; others 
lyp,€vois. — For anix-arai see § 103. m. 22. 

IXdcTKopac expiate, § 112. 14, Fut. Zkacrop.ai (short a) from the 
less usual tk&fiai § 112. 15, for which Homer has also l\aop.ai II. j3. 550. 
— The Active has the intransitive sense be propitious ; hence in the poets 
Imperat. 'ihr}6i and l\adi, Subj. and Opt. Perf. (as Pres.) ikrjica), ikrjKoipi. 

i7TTap,ai, see irerop,ai. || io^/xi, see § 109. III. 4. || 'ia-\w, see e^co. 



! 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 243 

K. 

KAA-. 1) KeKaafiai., K€Ka8p.ai, see Ka.Lvvp.ai. 2) KeKadetv, Fut. rjaeiv etc. see 

kt]8(o and x^C" 3 ' 
Kade£o[iai, naOevbco, Ka.6rjp.ai, Kadifa, see e£bficu, euSco, r)p.ai, t£co. 
Kaivvfxai am distinguished, surpass all; here belongs the synonymous Pcrf. 

KeKacr/Jiai, Dor. K*Ka8p,at ; with which comp. also paiva, pdcra-are, eppdSarai. 

(Perh. from Kabvvp.ai by § 112. 15. d.) 

fcalco burn trans. Att. k&cd (long a and without contraction), F. 
/cave-Co etc. § 95. n. 9. In the Pass, the Attics have Perf. /ce/cav- 
jxai, Aor. 1 i/cavOrjv ; in Horn, and late writers is found also Aor. 
2 etcarjv (short a). Verb. Adj. tcavo-Teos, KavaTos, kclvtos. Comp. 

fc\CLLG). 

The epic writers have also an Aor. 1 without <r, eKrja (§ 96. n. 1) ; and 
hence by shortening the 77 into e arises the Part. Keas, which occurs in 
Attic poets, JEsch. Agam. 858. Eurip. Rhes. 97. In the epic language 
this e is again lengthened into « (comp. ore/co, /3a'co, etc. § 107. m. 43) in 
Imperat. Kelov, Mid. kcluvto, etc. and in the Subj. Kecop-ev (for Kr)eop.ev § 103. 
m. 39) which stands instead of the Fut. II. 77. 333 ; see § 139. m. 5. — 
The forms of the Present /07CO, Keiai {Inf. K<xTaK€iep.ev II. 77. 408) are of 
doubtful authority. 

fcaXeco call, secondary form ^lkXtjctko), § 112. 14, Fut. rcaXeaco Att. 

KaXw § 95. n. 12 ; Aor. eicdXeo-a, Perf. KeKkrjKa, Aor. 1 Pass. 

ifcXtfdrjv etc. § 110. 11. Perf. Pass. KeKk^pbav am called, Opt 

KeKk,r]fJb7]v, KefcXyo, etc. $ 98. n. 9. Fut. 3 KeK}J)croi±ai shall he 

called.—MID. ' 
tdfjuvco am weary, from KAMfl, § 112. 10, Aor. etcafwv, Fut. /ca- 

fjLovfjicu. — Pf. K6K/jL7]Ka (as if from KMAI2, § 110. 11), epic Part 

KeKf.irjo>^ Gren. otos and cotos, $ 97. n. 7. 
KaraTrpoL^adai, Ion. Karcnrpotgeo-Oai, a defective Fut. in the common phrase 

ov /cara7rpoi|ei, you shan't get off free, followed by a participle. 
tcavd^cus; see ayvvpn. II Kelfmi, see § 109. II. 

K€Kacpr)6?, a defect. Part. Perf. Act. from the root KA<£- in Homer, gasping 

for breath, as one dying- § 97. n. 7. 
ice\op.ai call, command, § 112. 6, F. Ke\r)cropat, etc. — Aor. €Keic\6p.r)v (k€k\€to) 

§ 110. 4. b. — But exXeo see in ^Ae'co. 
KevTefa prick, regular. But Homer II. -^. 237 has the Jw/. Aor. 1 Kevacu 

§ 112. 6, from the theme KENTQ (whence kovtos pole). 

(cepavvvfii mix, or Kipvdco, /cipvrj/M, old and epic Kepdco (h 112. 15, 
16), Fut. fcepdcro), Aor. ifcepacra with short a. In the remain- 
ing forms occurs the metathesis (§ 110. n. 7) with long a, as 
Perf. Ke/cpa/ca, Perf. Pass. Keicpafiai, Aor. 1 i/cpd07)v, Ion. Ke/cpr]- 
fiai etc. Still we find also KeKepaafxai, ifcepdaOrjv. 

Homer has in Aor. 1 also Kprjcrai. Od. 77. 164. — Further, the accent is to 
be noted in the Homeric Subj. Kepavrai II. 8. 260 ; which implies a form 
Kepapai after the analogy of § 107. m. 32. Comp. Kpep,dvvvpi, Kpep.apai, 
Subj. Kpep.(op.cu. 

Kephaivw gain, among the Attics regular (Aor. Kephdvai) ; in Ionic 
and many later writers KepSrjo-oficu, iicepfyaa, etc. Perf. /ce/cep* 
&r)fca Demosth. and K€Kep$a/ca p. 145. marg. 



244 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114. 

Kevdo) cover, hide, regular. Aor. in Horn, (eaevaa) imKevcrrjs, and (envdov) 
nvde, KeKvdaxri. Perf. kskcvOu as Pres. II. %. 118. In tragic writers both 
Pres. and Perf. intrans. am hid. 

Kea>, see Kelfiat. and kcuco. 

fa;Sco make anxious, § 112. 6, Fut. kj^S^ctco ; ktjSo/xcu and KeiajSa am anxious; 
whence the Homeric Fut. KeKadfjo-ofxai (II. £. 353) with short a for rj (like 
reOrjha, re&iAvia), Imperat. Aor. Mid. /cqSecrcu for -?ia-ai iEschyl. 

Kivai/co and Kixdvop-ai, reach, attain, find, § 112. 11, Fut. Kixwopcu, Aor. e«- 
xrjerd^v. — Aor. 2 sklxov. — Further, it takes a secondary form of the Impf. 
and the dependent moods of the Pres. from KIXHMI, which in most cases 
leaves its rj unchanged ; eKixvp-zv, eKixr)Tr]v. — Subj. (kix^>) /ayetco, Opt. ki- 
X«V» Inf. Kixnvai, Part. /ayeis 1 , kixw^vo?, etc. § 112. 15. — For the quantity 
see § 112. n. 6. 

KLxprjfii, see XP" 00 - 

Kt'co go, occurs seldom in the Indie. Present ■ but so much the oftener in the 
poets in the Impf. eiuov and the dependent moods, e. g. kloljxl, Part, kivv, 
which has the accent on the last syllable without being Aorist, just as 
Icov from a/it ; of which verb in general the above are to be considered 
as secondary forms (I£2, KIQ). — The epic pereKiaOov see in § 112. 12. 

Kkafyo sound, cry, k 92. n. 3, F. KXdy^co etc. Pf. KeicXayya, the 
same with the Present, § 113. n. 13 j hence Fut. /ce/cAay£co and KeicXdygo- 
fiai. — The poets have, without the nasal sound, Aor. eickayov Pf. KeKkr^ya. 
Part. K€KkrjyovT€9, § 111. 2. — But e/cXa^a see under /cAeuo. 

fckaicd weep, Att. tcXaco (long a and without contraction), F. kXclv- 
aofjLcu or KXavcrovpiaL, Aor. eKXavaa k 95. n. 9, 17. — Less fre 
quent is the Fut. fc\cur]crco or tcXcnjcrco. — The Pass, fluctuates 
between the formation with and without <x: Perf. KeKXavfiai 
(iEschyl. Soph, only in late writers /cefcXavcrfAcu), Aor. e/cXau- 
aOrjV. — Verb. Adj. KXavareos, kXclvgtos, kXclvtos. — MID. 

/cAato break, Kkdo-a (short a), etc. The Passive takes o\ — Part. Aor. 2 poetic 
Kkas (dnoKXas) § 110. 6. 

fcXelco shut, regular. — Perf. Pass. ickicXeiyuCLi and KeicXei<T[iai, Aor. 

eKXeicr8r}v. Ionic secondary form kA^ico (F. to-co) Att. kAtJco; hence also 

KeKkr)fj.aL, 3 PI. in Hdot. 9. 50 KeKkearat, like the same person from KaAeco; 

Aor. eKkrjcrdrjv. From the Fut. KAr/i'crco comes the Doric /cAa^co (properly 

KAa^co), e/cAa^a. 
/cAeco, KAeico, celebrate, Kkeojiai am celebrated, i/ckeo 2 pers. Impf. for e/cAeeo 

§ 105. n. 7. — But KeKXrjKa belongs to KaAeco ; and Ke/cAero to KeXo/xai. 
kAuco hear, a poetic verb, of which the Impf. <?k\vov has the signification of 

the Aorist, § 96. n. 3. Imperat. xXve, Kkvere, and k\v6l, kXvt€ (§ 110. n. 

2), or with the reduplication (§ 83. n. 10) k€k\v6l, KeKkvre. Part. Pass. 

Kkvfxevos celebrated, § 110. 7. 
KMA-, see Kappa. || Kvdoo, see § 105. n. 5. 

/coXovco dock, cut short, takes o- hi the Passive ; yet /ce/coXov/jLai 
and eKoXovOrjv are also found ; Thuc. 7. 66. 

Kopevvv/M satisfy, satiate, § 112. 15, F. Kopeaco etc. Perf. Pass. 
fce/copecr/icu. 

Ion. KeKoprjfxai. Epic Part. KCKoprjo)? ($ 97. n. 7) with Pass, significa- 
tion. — The form Kopea, eW, is Ionic Future. — This verb must not be con- 
founded with Kopeco, 770-00, sweep. 

(cpd^G), comm. Perf. 2 /ce/epdya, cry, § 113. n. 13, Plur. tceicpaypbev 



t 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 245 

fceKpax@€, Imp. fcetcpaxdi, Inf. iceicpayevai, etc. ($ 110. 9.) Fut. 
KeKpd^oixai, Aor. etcpayov. 

Kpaivo) accomplish, admits in the epic language in all its parts the resolution 
iito the double sound (§ 105. n. 10) ; iicpalaivev, Kprjrjvai (Aor. 1), Keicpd- 
avrai. 

KPA-, see icepavpvfii. 

«pe[jb[Jidvvvpbi hang trans. (Att. secondary form Kpr)jjbvr][xi,) § 112. 
15, 16 ; Fut. Kpefidaw (short a), Att. Kpe/iw, a?, a, etc. (epic 
tcpejjLooi) ; Aor. ifcpefiao-a. Pass. Kpefiavvvfiai am hanged, and as 
Mid. hang myself; and for both significations Aor. ifcpefjidcrdrjv, 
Fut. Kpe/iacrdrjao/jiaL There is too a special intransitive form, 
Kpi[iafiai (like Xarafiai) hang intrans. Subj. fcpe/xcofiai, Opt. 
KpefjLai/jL7]v and KpepLolfi^v.^ Fut. Kpepbrjaofxai I shall hang, hov- 
er ; Aor. again iicpefjLdcrOrjv. 

This distribution of the forms and significations will in general be 
found to hold good in the Attic writers ; but it must not be expected, 
that writers kept the analogy so constantly in view, as never to deviate 
from it.f Kpe/xaco as Present is used only by the later writers. 

fcrdo/iac gain, Depon. Mid. — Perf. as Pres. Ke/crrj/jLat possess, also 
€KT7]iiai h 83. n. 1 ; Subj. and Opt. see in § 98. n. 9 ; and for 
Opt. K6KTa>fM7]v see Ausf. Sprachl. § 98. n. 17. Hence Fut. 
fcefcrrjcrofiai, shall possess. But Aor. efcrrjOrfv is always Passive ; 
see § 113. n. 6. 

fcrelvco kill, slay, (Att. secondary form /ctlvvu/lli,) Fut. KTevw etc. 
§ 101. In good writers the Aor. 1 efcreiva and Perf. 2 etcrova 
are more usual than Aor. 2 e/cravov and the non- Attic Perf. 1 
€KTa/ca and etcTayKa. Instead of the Passive the Active of 
^vtj(tkco is in common use ; e. g. direOavev vir avrov. 

Homer has also a Future Kravem (see Ausf. Sprachl.) and the Mid. of 
this form as Passive, II. £. 481 KaraKraveeaSe. 

Besides these there occurs the poetical Aorist (§ 110. 6, 7) eVrai/, ar, a, 
3 Plur. %ktov for -aaav, Subj. Kreco for ktg> (§ 107. m. 41), Inf. Krdpev, 
urdpevat, for /cravat, Part. kto.s, Pass. eKrdprjv, KTapevos, KraaOai, all with 
short a, by § 110. 6. 7. Homer has also Aor. Pass. eKrddrjv and eKrdvBiju, 
§ 101. n. 6. 

Besides the above Perfects, there is still a form i/cTovrjica (§ 112. 8), 
whose Attic character is doubtful. 

icTipevos; see § 110. 7. 

KTvneoi resound; poet. Aor. 2 zktvkov § 96. n. 5. §112. 7. 

kuXii/Sco roll, later kiA/co, Fut. kiA/o-co, Aor. eKvXicra, Pass. Perf. KeKvXicrpai, 
Aor. €kvXlo-6t]v. Mid. Kv\iv§ea6ai Horn, also nvXivdelo-Oai from Att. kiAh/- 
decc. For the various secondary forms, e. g. (aAiVSco) egaXlaai to let roll 
sc. a horse, as also the derivatives, see Lexil. II. 

Kvvico kiss, § 112. 10, from KTfl, Fut. awo), Aor. e/cvcra, with 

short v. The compound irpoaKvveco prostrate myself adore, is usually 
regular ; but in the poets also Trpoo-Kvaai, etc. — Another verb kvco see in 
its place. 

* Aristoph. Vesp. 298 KpefioLtrOe, see § 107. m. 34, and comp. (iapvolp.r)v. 
t It is just the same in English with the forms hung and hanged. 



246 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114 

Kupeta find, hit upon, is regular ; "but has also a secondary form Kvpa (long 
v) § 112. 6, Depon. Kvpopai, Impf. e<vpov, F. Kvpcro), Aor. eKvpaa, § 101. 

Kvco or /euea) aw pregnant, kvlctko) or -cytat conceive, § 112. 6, 
14, is regular like uvea. But the poets have also an Aor. 1 Act. eKvaa 
impregnate, fructify, e. g. opfipos ewers yalav iEschyl. also Aor. 1 Mid. 
eKvadprjv^ conceived. — Comp. also Kwea. 



A. 

\ay%dvco obtain, receive, by lot or fate, k 112. 11, from AHXfl, 
F. Xrjgofiai, Aor. eXa^pv, Pf. eiXtj^a (§ 83. n. 3), or XeXoy^a as 
if from AETXn. 

The Ionics made in the Fut. Xdgopcu § 27. n. 6. — The Homeric Aorist 
XeXa^eTj/ has the causative sense, to impart, cause to share. 

AAK-, see Xdcnca>. 

\afA/3dv(D take, § 112. 11, from AHBfl, F. Xrj-tyofiai, Aor. eXafiov, 
Imp. Xd/Se and Xa/3e § 103. m. 4 ; Pf. eDi^a § 83. n. 3 ; Pass. 
Pf. et\7]fjL/jbaL (poet. Xekrjfifiai), Aor. eXrjcfrdrjv. — MID. 

The Ionics formed XeXd^rjKa (§ 111. 3), and (from AAMBQ) Xdpyj/opai, 
eXdp(p8r]u, XeXappai, XapitTeos. 

XavOdvco, less often XrjOco, am hid, concealed, § 112. 11, F. Xrjcra), 
Aor. eXaOov, Perf. 2 XeXrjOa. — Mid. XavOdvoficu, less often Xr)6o- 
jjcat, forget, F. Xr\(Joyiai, Aor. eXaOo/ub^v, Pf. XeXrja-fiai. 

Homer has in the Aorist XeXadeiv, XeXadeadai ; the former however 
only as a regular causative of the Middle, make forget ; in which sense 
Homer has also the Pres. Xrjddvic, and also Aor. 1 iiriX^a-ev Od. v. 85. — 
In the Perf. Pass, the Ionics have short a, as XeXao-pai, § 27. n. 6. 

In the signif. to forget we find further iXrjadprjv in late poets, Xaa6ri - 
pev (Xrjadrjvai) Theocr. eiriXeSada Pindar. 

Aao-Kco mai« a noise, rattle, talk, (Ion. X^kccd Dor. Xa.Kea>) § 112. n. 8, from 
AAKJ2, Aor. 2. eXdicov, and as Mid. XeXaKoprjv (Hymn. Merc. 145), whence, 
according to § 111. 3, Fut. XaKrjaopat, Aor. 1. eXaK^cra.f — Perf. as Pres. 
XeXtim Ion. XeXrjica (§ 113. ii. 13) ; epic shortened form XeXaKvla, § 97. n. 3. 

Xdco, see X<5. II AErX-, see Xayxdvco. 

Xeyco in the signification to say has no Perf. Active ; in the Perf. 
Passive, XeXeyixai, eXe^Oijv. In the signification to collect, in 
which especially" several compounds occur, it has Perf. Act. el- 
Xo%a (avvelXoj(a), and in the Perf. Pass, most commonly eiXe- 
y/jLciL (§ 83. n. 3), Aor. eXeyrjv (e. g. KareXeyrjcrav § 100. n. 5) ; 
together with a MID. — Moreover haXeyoixat converse with, has 
also Pf. SieiXey/jbac, but in the Aor. ^leXe-^Brjv, Fut. hiaXe^ofiai, 
less often ScaXe^Orjcro/iaL. 

Homer has also the syncop. Aor. iXeyprjv joined myself, Od. i. 385; and 
XeKro counted, Od. 6\ 451; see § 110. 8. 

Different from this is the old poetic Xegai to lay down, let lie down, 
XegavOai to lie, rest, which along with this form has also the syncopated 

* The common orthography Kvavafxevr} rests merely on the seeming relation to 
tKixra from Kvvico. 

t The short a is found e. g. Aristoph. Pac. 382. The passage Aristoph Nub 
410 lo ctAaxricrao-a) is different. 



* 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 247 

Aorist ($ 110. 8) iXeyprjv, Xe/cro, Imperat. Xe£o and Xe|eo by § 96. n. 9. 
This verb however belongs to a different root ; see Lexilog. II. 78. 9, 10. 

XeXeixpore? lapping, playing with the tongue; a defective Part, in Hesiod; 
see Lexil. I. 1. p. 7, note. Ausf. Sprachl. § 110. n. 14. 

XeXiqpat. strive, hasten, an epic Perf. that seems to belong to AIAQ, but cor- 
responds to none of the significations of that root. The suggestion is 
therefore probable, that it stands for XeXiXrjpai, dropping the last X for the 
sake of euphony, from XtXaco, XiXaiopai, desire, strive* See Lexil. I. 21 

AHB-, see Xapfidvcn. I! XfjOco, see XavBdvco. 

XrjKeco, see Xao-Kco. II AHX-, see Xay^dvoo. 

Xly£e twanged, a defective Aor. in Homer. 

Xiao-opai, rarely Xiropai, beseech, § 92. n. 2, F. Xiaopai, Aor. iXiadprjv and 
eXtropiju; comp. eirerov and eVeo-co in ixmrai. 

Xovoj wash. In the Impf. Act. and in the Pres. and Impf. Pass, 
the Attics shorten all the forms which have e and o as the end- 
vowel and union- vowel ; e. g. 3 pers. Impf. e\ov Plur. ekovfiev, 
etc. Pass. Xov/jLcu, (\oveo) Xovrac etc. \ova6cu. Impf. iXovfzrjv 
(i\ov) i\ovro etc. Perf. Att. only XeKov^iai without <r. — MID. 
The fuller forms are themselves contracted from the old Xoeco (Horn. 
ikoevv, Xoeo-aai) ) the shorter forms however have not arisen from syn- 
cope (e. g. Xovfxai not like olpai § 110. 5) ) but are in like manner con- 
tracted from the theme AOO, whence the Homeric Aorist X6e. This is 
shewn by the accentuation eXovpev, IXovto, (not eXovpev, e'Xouro, like e/cei- 
to. epvro), and by the Inf. Xovv, which is also adduced. — See the Ausf. 
Sprachl. for the forms which actually occur. 

\vco, see § 95. n. 4; and for Xvto, § 110. 7.— Opt. Perf. XiXvro § 98. n. 9. 

XS) will, X??r, Xrj, 3 PL Xa>vn, a Doric defective. 

M. 
aaivofiai am mad, furious, F. fiavovfjuai, Aor. i/jLavrjv, Perf. fii/jirj- 
va, synonymous with the Present. But the Aor. Act. e/nyva 
(Aristoph. Thesm. 561) has the causative sense to make mad, 
in which the compound ifCjjLaivco is more usual, § 135. n. 1. 

Theocritus (10. 31) has pepdvrjpai (§111. 3) with the same Present 
signification as palvopai. 
palopat, see MAO. || MAK-, see prjKaopai. 

fiavOdvco learn, k 112. 11, from MHOI2, Aor. efiaOov, F. /naOrjo-o- 

fJLCU, Pf. fjL€fjLa07)Ka, § 111. 3. 

The Fut. fiaOedfxat see in $ 95. n. 16. 
[xaneeiv, see papnTOi. 
pdpvapai strive, fight, § 112. 15, like larapai; only in the Present, and in 

Impf. 2 pers. pdpvao, § 107. m. 37. Opt. papvoiprjv, § 107. m. 32. 
p,dp7TTco take hold of, seize, F. pdp\jfco, etc. Part. Perf. pepapno)?, Aor. 2 

(epapnov) pepapTTov, and syncopated (§ 96. n. 7) epanov, pankziv, 3 PL 

Opt. pepdnoiev. 

(Jba^o^ai fight, § 112. 6, F. fia^eaofjiac comm. /xa^odfiaL (§ 95. n. 

* Such sacrifices of analogy for the sake of easier pronunciation are not uncom- 
mon in the earlier formation of a language. A case similar to the above is the 
poetic word tKirayAos striking, terrible, which unquestionably comes from iKirXayrj- 
vcu , not however by transposition, but with the ending Kos (§ 119. 13. e), for e/c7r\o- 
yAos. In like manner irveAos stands for irAveAos from irAvw, ttAvvu. 



248 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114. 

15, 16), Aor. e/jLa%€ad[ir)v. Pf. fiefia^fjiaL. Yerb. Adj. fjua^ereo^ 
and fJba^rjTeo^. 

From the Fut. arose the Ion. Pres. paxeopai; and Homer has not only 
pax^topevos, but even paxeovpevos, all as Present. — For the sake of the 
metre the epic writers have Fut. paxwopat, hut Aor. epax^o-o-aro.^ — For 
the non-Att. Aor. epax^crOnv see Ausf. Sprachl. 
MAQ an old verb, which occurs chiefly in three forms, viz. 

1) Perfect as Present, strive, (pep a a) pepdaai, pepacos (Gen. pepacoros 
and pepaoTo?), and with syncope pepapev, pepare, 3 PI. Plupf. pepaaav, 
§ 110. 10 sq. 

2) Present Middle, p.a>pai, desire, seek, pcd>pevos, contracted from pdo- 
pai) but the a remains predominant, and therefore e. g. Inf. paxrOai and 
Imperat. paeo (like pvcoeo from pvdopai, pvtbpai) ; see § 105. n. 10 ult. 

3) Pres. Mid. paiopai touch, feel after, seek, § 112. 9: Fut. pdaopai, 
Aor. epaadpnv, with short a, especially in compounds ; thus in Homer the 
Impf. eirepaiero Od. i. 441 corresponds exactly to the Aor. inLpacradpeuos 
ib. 446. Comp. 8aia> MaaaOai, vaiio vdcracrOai. 

(leOvco am drunk, fjueOvaKOfiai get drunk, § 112. 14 ; Aor. e^eOv- 
crdnv from the Pass. The other tenses of the Active, except the Imper- 
fect, belong to pe6vaic<o make drunk, as epkOvaa etc. § 112. n. 7. 

peipopai obtain, Aor. eppopov, Pf. eppopa,f § 83. n. 2. From the causative 
sense (§ 113. 2) of the Active MEIPQ divide, distribute, (whence pepos 
part, portion,) comes the Perf. Pass, as impersonal and with the syllable 
et instead of the reduplication (§ 83. n. 3), viz. eXpaprai it is fated, is ap- 
pointed by destiny, Part, elp.app.evos (rj elpappevrj sc. polpa, fate.) — We find 
also pepop-qrai and pepoppevos. 

/xeA-Xo) am about to, will, k 112. 6 ; F. /jLeWtfaco etc. For the 
Augm. see § 83. n. 5. 

fieXco concern, be laid to heart, is in the Active employed most- 
ly in the third person, /xeXeL, /meXovat, F. /xeXijcrec etc. — Pass. 
/jueXofiac I lay to heart, am solicitous, (more commonly hripe- 
Xo/JLai and iTrc/ieXov/jiat,) fieXtfcro/AaL, i/j,€\rjdr}v. 

The poets use the Passive in the same sense as the Active : conse- 
quently peXerai. for peXet. Further, they use the Perfect in the same 
sense as the Present; thus Act. pepnXev, and Pass. pepftXerai (Horn. 
Hesiod), which is formed from pepeXnrai, by § 19. n. 1, and by shortening 
the rj) comp. pepveo in pipvf]o-K.u>, and dp-fipepai in dpaplo-Kia. 

fiivco remain, has in the Perf. iiefievrjKa § 101. n. 9. § 112. 6. — 
Yerb. Adj. fievereos. 

A poetic secondary form is pipva, § 112. 13. — From another MENQ, 
not extant in the Present, (whence pevos,) comes the Ionic and poetic 
Perf. pep,ova intend, purpose (comp. peveaLvo), which is related to pepaa ) 
comp. yey ova yeyaa.% 

* Some critics for the sake of uniformity write also iuax-fi^aro etc. contrary to 
the text which has come down to us. 

f In the earlier epic writers there is found only the 3 pers. eppope, and in most 
instances clearly as Perfect, like KeKT^rai, e. g. Od. e. 335 ; also in II. a. 278 it may 
be taken as a Perfect. The Aorist-form (e. g. epitopes Ap. Rhod. 3. 4) seems there- 
fore unknown to the early epic writers. 

t The lyric passage, Eurip. Iph. Aul. 1495, where fxefxova is Perfect of the com- 
mon fxeuoo, can prove nothing, isolated as it is, against the otherwise invariable 
usage, which prevails not only throughout the Attic poets, but even in the prose 
of Herodotus (6. 84). The two verbs must be carefully distinguished, even /? it be 
thought advisable to arrange them under the same etvmoloqv. 



§ 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 249 

METIO. pep-enpevos, see § 108. I. 5. 

fXT]Kdo[xai bleat, low, § 112. 7. Old poetic forms are Part. Aor. pdi<cov, Perf. 
peprjKa, whence the Homeric pepaitvia is derived by shortening the vowel, 
§ 97. n. 3. Hence, since it has the signification of the Present, there is 
formed another Impf. ipeprjKov, § 111. 2. 

fiiaivco stain, soil. The Aor. assumes tj. 

The Homeric pidvBrju II. 8. 146, is explained as the 3 pers. Phir. for 
fxiavBrja-av, piavBev (Lobeck in Ausf. Sprachl. § 110. 9), but is more proba- 
bly the 3 pers. Dual of the syncop. Aor. (Sing. iplav-ro) 3 Dual ipidv 
a6r]v, ipnavdrjv, § 110. n. 3. 

fjLiyvvjLLL, also filayco, mix, § 112. 6 ; F. fiitjco with long c ; hence 
Inf. Aor. /ufjai. Pass. Aor. land 2. 

(MfivijcrfccD remind, k 112. 14, from MNAfl, F. fivrjcrcQ, etc. — Pass. 
{iL/jLvrjcr/co/jLcu call to mind, recollect, mention, F. ixv^aQriaoyuai, 
Aor. 2 IfivrjaO^v, Yerb. Adj. fiv^aro^. — The Perf. Pass. fj,e/j,v7]- 
fiac becomes Present, call to mind, i. e. am still mindful ; Subj. 
/uLe/jLvcD/jLaL, 7), rjraL, etc. see § 98. n. 9. Opt. fiefiv^/iTjVj Att. pe/jL- 
voifjaqv, or also /iefiva)/ir]v, fie/xvajTo, contracted from the Ionic 
fj.e[jbve(pii7)v, fiefivewTo, II. i|r. 361 ; see on these the Ausf. Sprachl. 
§ 98. n. 15-17. To this Perfect belongs the Fut. 3 /jLe/ivrjao- 
fiat, will remain mindful. — The compound diro\iiixvr]cncoiJLai 
(X^ptv) has a Fut. Mid. Thuc. 1. 137. , 

Shortened forms are the Homeric pepvrj (pepveat) for pepvqcrai, ancf 
Imperat. pepveo (Hdot.) for pepvrjcro. Comp. above pepjSXerai in peXco. 

The simple form (pvdopai) jj.vcoiJ.ai in the above signification is merely 
Ionic; and nvecopevos, pvccovro, pvcoeo y etc. (§ 105. n. 10) are Ionic length- 
ened forms. But in the meaning to court, ivoo, pvaoSai belongs also to 
the common language. 

fxokelv, see /3Aa>cnca>. 

pvfa murmur, grumble, whence inepvgav in Horn. — Not to be confounded 
with pv^co suck, § 112. 6, F. pv£r]o~<£> : nor with pvo~o~co {cnropvTrvi) F. [xvgco 
etc. wipe the nose. 

livKa.op.ai, bellow, roar, is to be noted on account of the epic forms tpvuov, 
pepvm, from MYKQ. Comp. prjKaopai. 

uvco shut, e. g. the eyes, has v in flexion, as pvaav II. co. 637; Karapvo-r] 
Aristoph. Vesp. 92; Perf. pep.vica shut the lips, be silent. — But the com- 
pound Kappvco has icappvo-ai Batr. 191. 

N. 

vai(£> dwell, § 112. 9, takes its tenses from the Pass, and Mid. of NAO with 
short a, F. vaaropai, Aor. ivdoS-qv or evao-dprjv, Perf. in late writers vkva- 
apai. The Act. evaaa (evao-cra) has the causative sense, cause to dwell. — A 
secondary form is vaierdco, vaurdaaKov, vaierdcoaa, § 105. n. 10. 

vaacTCD stuff, F. vd^co, etc. — vevaafiav, vclcttos. § 92. n. 2. 

vefjuco allot, distribute, k 112. 6, F. ve/nco and vefjurjaco, Aor. evec/ia, 

Perf. vevefir}Ka, etc. Aor. Pass. evefirjOrjv and evefjueOrfv. — MID. 
vecfrei, comm. avvvecpei, it is cloudy, Perf. o-wv£vo<fyev. 

vico, 1) heap up, occurs in the Pres. and Impf. chiefly in the Ionic 

lengthened forms vTjeco, vrjveco. — Fut. vrjcrio, Aor. cvrjtra Ion. evrjrjo-a, etc. 
Pass. Pf. vevrjpcu and vtvrjcrpai, Aor. ivrjdnv and evf]a6r]v' ; Verb. Adj. vtjto? 



250 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS § 114. 

2) spin, also regular, F. vrjaw, etc. But in the Pres. the 
vowels eo, eov are contracted not as usual into ov, but contrary 
to analogy into co, as vcoac, vwvtos, etc. Yerb. Adj. wjtos, as 
also ra vrjOevra Plat. Polit. p. 282. e. — A new Present-form is 
vrjOw, k 112. 12 ; whence Perf. Pass, viv^cr/icu. 

3) swim, F. veiKTo/jLat and vevcrov/jLat, § 95. n. 9, 17 ; Aor. evev- 
era. A secondary form is voj^co, vfypfiai, § 112. 17. 

4) The poetic verb veecrdcu to go away, turn back, has in the Indie. Pres. 
commonly the signification of the Future, veo/xai or vevfiai, 2 pers. velai, 
§ 105. n. 7. 

vl^co wash, § 112. 17, takes its tenses from the less usual Pres. 

VL7TTQ) ; thus Fut. vtyco, etc. — MID. 
voeco think, is contracted and accented by the Ionics like /3odco ; e.g. vaxreo, 

evcoaa, evevcoro. 

vvard^o) nod, sleep, F. vvardcrco and vvend^w, etc. § 92. n. 4. 

B. 

£upeco shave, § 112. 6; Middle commonly ^vpofiai, but Perf. i^vprjpai. 

o. 

ohvaaadat to be wroth, Aor. wdvadfi-qv, Pf. oScboW/uu Horn. 

#5» smeZ/, i. e. emit an odour, § 112. 6, F. of^cro) (Ion. ofeVo)), 

etc. — Perf. oScoSa has the force of the Present, 
otyco or o'lyw[xi, open, § 112. 15, in the epic writers separates the diphthong 

in the augmented forms, atyvvvra, ou£e.— The following compound is most 

used : 

dvolyco or dvouyvvfii, open, has the anomalous augment men- 
tioned in § 84. n. 8 ; Impf. dvewyov, Aor. dvewga, Inf. avoifjcu, 
etc. Perf. 1 avkqya. The Perf. 2 dveaya has the neuter (in- 
trans.) signification, stand open, § 113. n. 3 ; for which how- 
ever the Attics commonly have Perf. Pass, dvkwy^ai. The forms 
rjvoi^a, rjvolyrjv, belong to late writers. 
otSa, see § 109. III. 

oioficu suppose, § 110. 5. § 112. 6. § 113. n. 5 ; Impf. (po^v. Pres. 
1 pers. Sing, also ot^ai, Impf. co/^.* — Fut. olrfao/xai,, Aor. eo^- 
07}v, olrjOfjpai. 

The epic writers employ also the Active forms, and moreover resolve 
the diphthong : otoa, oio/jlcli, (long i,) whence aucrap7i>, atto-Brjv. 

oh/piiau depart, am gone, § 112. 6, Impf. (as Aor.) w-xp^v de- 
parted ; F. olyjqaoiiai, Pf. wyj)imi or Qiycaica, see the marg. note 
under e^co, o%cofca, above. 

Homer has also a>x 7 7 Ka > tFapw^Ka II. k. 252. — On this whole verb, see 
the Ausf. Sprachl. 

OI-, see oLoficu and cpepa). 

* According to the ancient Grammarians, the forms ol/xai, ynw, were employed 
only in cases of entire conviction ; where however Attic urbanity avoided, in this 
way, t <e harshness of positive assertion. 



$ 111. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 251 

nkicrOdvw (comm. -atvco) slip, glide, § 112. 11, F. bXca-Orjaco, Aor. 
coKlcjOov. 

oXXvuLi cause to perish, destroy, § 112. 15, from OAJ2, F. oXw, 
Aor. cokecra, Inf. okeaai, Perf. 1 oXcbXe/ca. — MID. oWv [iau per- 
ish, F. oXovficu, Inf. bXeocrOac, Aor. gdXo/jltjv, Inf. oXeaOai; to 
which belongs Perf. 2 o\(o\a, § 113. n. 3. 

The poetic Part. oXopevos; ovkopevo?, passes over into an adjective, 
with the active signification destructive, fatal. — The epic secondary form 
oAeKco arose out of the Perfect; comp. § 111. 2. 

ofivvfu sivear, h 112. 15, Fut. o/jLodficu, el, eirau, etc. Inf. bfielaOai, 
from OMI2. The further formation is as if from OMOI2, Aor. 
cofiocra, Inf. ofioacu, Perf. dfAcofiorca, Perf. Pass. d/jLoofioo-jjicu, Part. 
6fMcofiocrfjL€vo<; with euphonic cr ; but the other forms, together 
with the Aorist, more commonly without cr, as b/uLcofiorcu, o>/z6- 
drjv.— MID. 
dfiopyvvju wipe off, § 112. 15, Fut. b\xbp%w, etc. — MID. 
bvlvr)\ii* am of use, profit, S 112. 15, (like Ilctttj/m,) has no Impf. 
Act. but for it employs axfiikovv, and takes its forms from 
ONAI2, F. bvrjcrco, Aor. covrjcra. — MID. bvlvafiau have profit, am 
benefited, F. bvrjcro/iac, Aor. 2 chvtf/jLTjv (rjcro, rjro, etc.) or chvd^v, 
Opt. 6val/j,7]v, Inf. ovacrOai. — For the redupl. see § 112. 13. 
The Indie, chvdprjv belongs to late writers. In Homer however it comes 
from ovo[xai' } see the next verb. — The Aor. Pass. u>vr]6r]v also occurs, Xen 
An. 5. 5. 2. 
ovopai insult, § 111. 15. cj radical farm ONOO $» hence the Pres. and Impf. 
like didofJLai, viz. 2 pers. Sing, ovocrai, Opt. ovoiprjv, Imp. ovoa-o. — Fut. ovo- 
aofxat. Aor. av6o-6r)v and oivoo-dp-qv. — Homer has also, from the simpler 
form ON£2, 2 Plur. Pres. ovveaBe, Aor. covaro. 

bpdeo see, h 112. 18, Impf. Ion. copcov, comm. icopcov (§ 84. n. 8), 
Perf. ecopa/ca.f — Aor. elBov, Subj. lSco, Opt. Ihotfit, Imp. the 
Att. ISe etc. Inf. ISeiv, Part. IScov, Mid. elhbfiTjv, IhecrOau, ISov, 
and as Interjection IBov lo ! See elBco above. — Fut. o^opbai 
I shall see, from OUTH. — PASS. Perf. ecopafiat, or cbfifiac, 
ay^rai, cotttcu, etc. axfiOat. Aor. ot(f)07}v, bcpOrjvat (in late writers 
also opadijvcu). Yerb. Adj. bpareos, bparbs, oitto^. 

The Perf. 2 on con a have seen, belongs to the dialects and poets. — For 
07ra>7j-ee see § 112. n. 5; and for oprjai (Horn.) see § 105. n. 16, with the 
marg. note. 

From eVo^o/zcu must be carefully distinguished the antique eirioyj/opat 
choose, select, Aor. enicoylrdp-qv. 

opvvpi move, excite, § 112. 15, from OP£2, F. opo-co, Aor. 1 copcra, § 101. n. 3. 
— Mid. opwpai arise, come into existence, Aor. topop-qv, 3 Sing, copero and 
atpro (§ 110. 8), Inf. opOat, Part, oppevos (for opecrdcu, opopevos), Imp. opcro 
and opaeo by § 96. n. 9. — The Perf. 2 op co pa belongs to this intransitive 

* The Inf. ovivdvai is probably to be read in Plato Rep. p. 600 ; Part, dvivacra 
(not ovivaffa) Plato Phileb. p. 58. 

t In Attic poetry the Perfect, and this only, was shortened at the beginning ; 
and according to traces in the manuscripts, as often in the later vulgar language, 
was written and pronounced kopaKa. See Jtusf. Sprachl. I. § 84. n. 12. p. 325. 



252 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERF° § 114. 

and immediate signification, have arisen, exist; but the form apopev (§ 85. 
n. 3) is Aorist (e. g. Od. r. 201) like fjpapev, and has also like that form 
more commonly the transitive and causative signification, he excited. — 
With the Perf. 6'pcope coincides as to sense the Passive form opaperai ; 
comp. above apvpa, dprjpep.ai, in apapiaKco. — Finally, Homer has also forms 
of the Pres. and Impf. from opopac and dpeop.ai, hurry, move about, (Od. f. 
104. /3. 398,) which however are not without difficulty; see the Ausf. 
Sprachl. 

oacfrpaivo/jicu smell, perceive by the smell, k 112. 11, F. b<j^>pr\ao- 
p.ai, Aor. a>cr(pp6p,r]v Ion. 6o~cppdp,T)v (Hdot. 1. 80, 26) by § 96. n. 1 and marg. 
Later, <bo~(ppr)o-dp,r]v and a>a(ppdv6r]v. 

ovX6p.€vos, see oX\vp.i. \\ ovvecrde, see ovop,ai. 

ovpeco void urine, F. ovprjcropbai, Impf. eovpovv etc. § 84. n. 5. 
ovrd(£> wound, F. ovrfjcra), etc. — Syncop. Aor. {ovrav § 110. 6, 7,) 3 Sing, ovra, 

Inf. ovrdp-ev (for ovrdvai), Part. Pass. ovrdp.evos. — Along with these exist 

also the forms ot»ra£cD, ovracre, ovTacrp,evos. 

ofetkco, 1) owe, e. g. money ; 2) ought, must ; $ 112. 6. — F. b$ei- 
\rjaw etc. 

The form a>cpe\ov, er, e, (comm. ocpekov,) occurs only as expressive of a 
wish; see Syntax, § 150. m. 20. — In Homer we find instead of dfeiXa 
also ocpeXka (II. r. 200), and for axpekov on account of the metre also 
axpeWov (II. £. 350) ; which forms must not be confounded with those of 
6(peXk<£> increase, glorify. From this last verb Homer has in the Opt. Aor. 
1 by anomaly, 3 pers. Sing. d^eKXeiev II. tt. 651. Od. /3. 334. 

6<p\l(T/cavco incur, forfeit, § 112. 14, F. ocpXrjcrco, Pf. cofyXTjica, Aor. 
axfiXov, Inf. 6(j>\eiv, Part. ocpXcov. 

Comp. necpvcov. We find also accented ocpXtiv, e. g. Plato Rep. p. 451 
and often. For axjAee see § 112. n. 5. 

IT. 

iraiCp play, jest, F. Tral^ofjuat, irai^ovpbai. We find after this 
formation in late writers also enai^a, ireiraiypai etc. but good Attic writers 
always have errato-a, 7reTvaujp,ai etc. notwithstanding the similar tenses of 
the following verb. 

iralod strike, § 112. 6, F. iraiaco and Tracr/aco, but the other tenses 
come only from the first formation : eiraicra, irkiraiKa, irkirai- 
orfjuai, 67raia6r]V. — MID. 

7raAAco swing, brandish, Aor. 1 Trrj\ai, etc. Sync. Aor. Pass. TrdXro § 110. 8 ; 
Act. dp.7reTra\cov Horn. § 83. n. 10. — Here belong also the Homeric forms 
dvenaXro, KarenaXro, (not dvendXTo,) e. g. II. S. 85; but eTraXro, Kareivak- 
p.evo?, belong to a\\op.aL, II. v. 603. A. 94. See Spitzner Exc. XVI. 

LTAP-, Trenapelv, see in rropelv. 

TrdaaaGat, acquire, eTrdo-dfirjv, Pf. ir^ap-ai (Xen.) possess; — different from eVa- 
(idp.rjv, TveTvaafxai, see 7ra.Te0p.cu. 

irdcrxco suffer, § 112. 18, from UH&fl, Aor. eiraOov ; — also from 
IIENOfl, Pf. nreirovOa, Fut. TrelcrofMao according to the rule 
$ 25. 4. — Verb. Adj. iraOriTos. 

From U.HQQ comes also 7reiradvla (Horn.) and the doubtful forms Trrjao- 
pat., enrjaa. — For jreTroo-Be instead of 7re7r6vdaT€ see § 110. n. 5. 

JJ7T7W0-CO, See TfKr](T(T(i>. 



k 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 25*3 

Tra.Teop.ai taste, eat, § 112. 6, Aor. e7racrdpr)v, Perf. Tveirao-pai : comp. dareopai^ 
ddaaadai, under 8aia>, and Trdo-aaOai above. 

iravco let cease, stop, F. iravcrco, etc. Mid. cease, Perf. ireiravixai, 
with Fut. 3 nreiravaoijuai ivill cease. Pass. Aor. iiravOrjv and 
€7ravcr07]v. Verb. Adj. always Travareo^. 

. The Imper. 7rat)e stands often for Travou cease. — In Od. 5. 659 pvrjo-Trjpas 
is to be read in Acctis. 

7T£i6co persuade ; Pass, believe, obey ; to which signification be- 
long also R iretcro[jLai, Pf. irkireiaixai. But Perf. 2 irkiroiQa trust 
Poetic forms are : 1 PL Plupf. eiremOpev belonging to nevoida § 110. 9 , 
for the Imper. iveTteivQi in iEschyl. see Ausf. Sprachl. Aor. 2 enidov, iiri- 
6opev, ireirtdov, for eiretaa) and Mid. erndoprju for eTvelo~6r}v etc. — Hence a 
new formation: F. 7rcdrjo-a>, Aor. iirL6r)(ra (§ 111. 3), in the signif. o6e7/, 
£r«s £ / it en: idrjcr<£> persuade . 

ireivrjv, see § 105. n. 5. II rreia-opai, see 7racr^;co and ireWa. 

7re/cco, 7re/creco, epic neUoo, shear, comb, F. 7re£co, etc. — MID. 

7reXa£o) 5 old 7reAaw, approach, epic secondary form niXvrjpi, § 112. 9, 16, and 
in the earlier language cause to approach, has also in the poets the Aorists 
formed by metathesis (TreAa, 7rXea, § 110. n. 7), viz. eTrXdQrjv (long a, 
falsely iiikdcrOr^v), and enXrjprjv, nXrJTo, both in the sense approach; Part. 
Perf. iv€irkr]iievos . — Another secondary form is 7reXdda> (a), or with long a, 
rrXadio, § 110. 12. Whether also 7rXd£<», which occurs twice in Homer 
{npocreTrka^, Trpoaiikd&v) in the signification approach, while TreXdfa in 
Horn, is always cause to approach, is a secondary form of this verb, is 
doubtful ; since it can also be referred to nXdfa, F. 7rXdyg<o. 

neXco or neXopai, I am. This Doric and poetic verb suiFers a syncope when 
it takes the augment (§ 110. 4) : 3 pers. Impf. eVXe or en-Xero, 2 pers. 
enXeo, enXev. The remaining tenses do not occur. This verb moreover 
has the peculiarity, that the Imperf. of the Middle form very commonly 
has the signification of the Present, errXev thou art, etc. — To the same 
verb in its earlier signification move about, am occupied, versor, belong 
also with the same syncope the compound epic participles imnXopevos', 
irepnfXopevos. 

IIEN0-, see irdcrx^. 

TreTrapetv, 'neirope'lv, rreirp cor ai, see iropelv. || 73-eVrco, see necrcroo. 

Trepalvw finish, Aor. eirepdva etc. Perf. Pass, ireirepaapiai k 101 , 
3 Sing. 7re7repavTai or because of the metre 7re7reipavrat Od. p.. 37. 

7repda> pass over, cross over, regular nepdaco with long a (Ion. nepr}o-a>). But 
the formation 7repdcrco etc. with short a, in the epic poets, belongs to 
7rL7rpdaK(£> sell^ which see in its place. 

TrepSco, comm. 7rep8opai, Aor. enapfiov, Fut. Trapftrjcropai, Perf. Treiropfta. 

irepOat desolate, destroy, Aor. errpadov § 96. n. 7. — Homer has also a synco- 
pated Aor. Pass, with Inf. ivepOai (as from eirepOp-qv), strictly izepB-Qai (or 
TrepaOat) like bi x -^h k HO. 8. and n. 3.* 

necrelv, see ttIittco. 

Treaaco, irerTO), boil, bake, cook, h 112. 17, F. ire-^jrco etc. from 
7re7TTw, which occurs in the Present only in late writers. 

freravvvfu, secondary form TUTvaco, ttltvthjli, h 112. 15, 16, expand, 

* Lobeck derives this very anomalous form by metathesis from the kindred 
theme irp£a> (Aor. iirpiixr}v — eitep^v), irp^Oa); see Lob. in Ausf. Sprachl. II. p. 19. 



254 CATALOGUE OP IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114, 

F. irerdcrco, Att. irerw, etc. — Perf. Pass. ireirrdjuaL § 110. 4; 
rarely ireireTacriiai ; but Aor. Pass, again eireTaaOriv. 

7reTO{iatfly, § 110. 4. § 112. 6 ; from this theme comes by syncope 
an Aorist eirTo/Jbi^v, irreaOai, Trrofjuevos, etc. Fut. Trerrjoroiiat 
comm. nTTrjo-ofxai. Along with these exists also a formation in 
fit, § 112. 15; Pres. I irrapb at, Aor. iTrrdfjbrjv, TrrdaOat, irrd- 
/jlevos, etc. and from the entirely obsolete Pres. Active of this 
formation, comes another Aorist eTrrrjv, irrrjvat, irrd^, etc. syn- 
onymous with the two former, k 110. 6. 

The forms of the Pres. Trerapm and nerdofiai., with the Aor. ineTacrBrjv 
(e. g. Anacr. 40. 6), belong to the poets and the later prose. As Perfect, 
only 7re7r or^cu seems to have been in use. The poets employed also 
the Pres. TroTa.op.ai) irwrdopai, § 112. 9. 

IIET-, see 7ri7rrco. |] 7T€v8o[xai, see irvv6dvo\iai. 

Trecfjvov, errecpvov, I hilled, the reduplicated and at the same time syncopated 
Aorist, § 110. 4, from <f>ENQ (whence <p6vos). The participle of this 
Aorist, contrary to analogy, is accented on the penult, irecpvav.^ Pass. 
Perf. Trecpa/JLaiy Inf. necpdadac, Fut. Trecp-qo-ofiai. ) comp. reiVco, Terafiai, § 101. 
9, and for Tre^rjaofxai see § 99. n. 1. See also cpalvco below. 

irrffvviii fix, make fast ; in late writers also irrjo-crw, irrjTTco, h 112. 
15 : F. 7rr)^(o, etc. Pass, become fast, solid, with Aor. eird^v 
(eTrfyOiiv is simple Pass.) and Perf. 2 m-eir^a intrans. stand 
fast, k 113. n. 3. — MID. fasten together, build, etc. 

7rl/jL7r\7]{u fill, Inf. irtprnkdvat, \ 112. 15 and 12, declined in Pres. 
and Impf. like icrTrjfit. — Fut. ttKyjo-w, etc. Pf. Pass, irkifk^ajiat, 
Aor. Pass. eirXrjcrOriv (late also eir\r)6r)v), from TIAAfl or ifkrj- 
6co ; which last form however has in the Pres. only the intrans- 
itive signification to be full. — MID. 

"When in composition fi comes to stand before the initial it, 
the fi in the reduplication falls away, as lixirlifkafiat ; but it 
reappears so soon as the augment intervenes, as eveirliiifkaa-av. 
In contradiction to this rule, the poets, for the sake of the metre, em- 
ploy the form with or without the p.. — The formation in da> (TnpnKav, 
efjLTwrXav) is not good Attic, except in those instances where it occurs also 
in Ho-TTjfLi.. 

For the Passive Aor. ijv\r]prjv, Opt. 7rXeip.r]v,-\ Imp. tAtjo-o, etc. see § 110. 
7. It was not unknown to the Attic language ; Aristoph. ipiik-qpevo^ 
ipTrX^iprjv. 

From the intrans. 7r\rjd(£> there occurs as a poetic Perfect, TreTrkrjda with 
the like meaning, am full. 

7rl/jL7rpr)fu bum trans. Inf. irtfiirpdvat, § 112. 15 and 12, declined 
in the Pres. and Impf. like torrjfii. The rest comes from IIPAfl 
or irprjOoy (Horn.) e. g. Perf. TreTTprjcr/jLat (more certain than 7re- 

* That iricpvwv is really Aorist, is clear from the connection in the two passages,- 
II. 7T. 827. p. 539. Comp. 8cp\av. 

t The orthography irX-pp^v has no analogy. Instead of ei, one might indeed 
have expected the diphthong at; since the form iripirXavai presupposes a theme 
riAAfi. But in the same manner xph, which comes from xp™ (see below), has 
also in the Opt. XP^V 5 ant * a t l ieme nAEH (Lat. compleo) is implied in the form 
-iriu.Tr\f.vcrai ot Hesiod, &. 880. 



$ 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 255 

7rpr)/jLcu), i7rpr)a6r]V. — "With epmlirprnii, heiripnrpap,ev, the case 
is the same as in irlfjuTrXiifu above ; and so also with the for- 
mation in day, from which however Xen. has iveirlfnrpzdv, Hell. 
6. 5. 22. 

The shortened form eirpecre for errprjae in Hesiod (-9. 856) is to he re- 
marked ; since the analogy of iiripirpapev would lead us to expect here an 
a. — A rare secondary form is jrprjdco; II. i. 589 evetrprjOov. 

ttlvcd drink, h 112. 18. from ITI/2, Fut. irlopbai (95. n. 18), Aor. 
eiriov, Trielv, etc. Imp. comm. ttWl (h 110. n. 2), poet, irk Od. t. 
347. — All the rest is from IIOS2 ; as Perf. irknrwica, Perf. Pass. 
ireirofiai, Aor. Pass. iiroOyv. Yerb. Adj. irorioq, 7toto9. 

The i in iriopat is commonly long (see Athen. 10. p. 446) • but in emov 
etc. short. — The Fut. iriovpai belongs to late writers, ^95. n. 16; the 
Pres. niopac (l) occurs in Pind. 01. 6. 147. 

The forms 7riVco, eVicra, have the causative sense give to drink, and he- 
long to the Present ttltt'lo-kco, § 112. 14. 

TTiirpdaKco sell. Ion. 7TL7rprjcrK(D, epic secondary form irkpvrwxi, \ 112. 
14, 16. Fut. and Aor. wanting. The forms in use are : 7re- 
irpdKa, Triirpaficu, eirpdO^v, F. 3 irerrpdaoiiai instead of Fut. 1 
7rpa6}j(To/LLcu, which is not Attic ; and in like manner the Perf. 
ireirpaaOai very often stands instead of the Aor. irpaOrjvai. 
The Ionics have all these forms with 77. 

The common language^ supplied the tenses still wanting, by means ot 
anodcoaopat, aire§6pr]v. The old and epic language had Fut. rrepdaai with 
short a, and hence contr. 7repa>, nepav, Aor. eVepacra, from 7repaco, which 
we have seen in its place above in a kindred signification, and with long 
a in flexion. From this 7re pdaai arose afterwards the other preceding 
forms by the metathesis mentioned in § 110. 11. 7. — An isolated form is 
7re7T€ prjpevos instead of Treirprjpevos, II. <p. 58. 

wItttco fall, § 112. 13, (long i, hence Imp. Trlirre,) forms its other 
tenses from TIETS2 ; Fut. with Doric form Treaov^ao (Ion. ire- 
akopbai), Aor. ewecrov § 96. n. 9. — Perf. ireirrcoKa. 

Poetic syncopated forms of the Part. Perf. are Attic Tmrraw (comp. 
(3e(Sp£)T€s from (iiefipcoKa) and epic 7mrrea>s, § 110. n. 6. The latter im- 
plies an original Perf. form neTTr-qua (from IIETO like dedprjica from depot) , 
whence TveirraiKa has been formed with an alternate vowel (§ 27. 1) ; see 
Lexil. I. 63. p. 295. 

The regular forms of the Aor. from IIETi2 also occur ; as Aor. 1 enecra 
Eurip. Troad. 291. Alcm. 465; Aor. 2 enerov in Doric writers, e. g. 
Pindar. Comp. XiWopai. 
niTpeco fall, Aor. eniTvov § 96. n. 5. § 112. 6. — But iriTvaoa, Trlrvrjpi, is the 
same with Tverdvvvpi. 

irXd^co cause to wander about, Pass, wander about, rove ; F. 

nrXdry^o) etc. § 92. n. 3. 
IIA-, see 7reAc0. || IIAA-, 7rX^co, see TreXd^m and TrlpTrXrjpi. 

irXeco sail, F. TrXevaofiat, irXevaov/iao, i 95 ; Aor. eirXevcra, etc. 

Pass. ireirXevapbai, eirXevaO^v, Yerb. Adj. irXevaTeos [airXev- 

oto?). 
An Ionic form is 7tXcocd, TreirXaKa, etc. Hence Verb. Adj. nXcoros, and 

the epic (syncopated) Aorist eVXcoi/, or, co, wpei/, etc. Par£. 7rXa)r, for whioh 

see § 110. 6 and n. 1, 3 



256 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114 

ttXiJo-ctg), TfkrjTTw, strike; rarer form ifkr^vvpa. It retains the r\ 
in the Aor. 2 Pass. hfKffpiv, except in those compounds which 
signify to terrify, as i^eifKa^v, KareirXd^v, Fut. iK7r\ayrjao- 
fjuu. — In the signification to strike, the Attics never employ 
the Active of this verb, but instead of it ttcltcujgw ; which lat- 
ter they never use in the Passive. 

The Perf. 2 irerrk-qya has in later writers also a Passive significa- 
tion, § 113. n. 4. Homer has likewise the Aor. 2 Act. and Mid. but with 
the reduplication, Treiikqyov, ireTrkr)y6pr)v. 

Trvecd bloiv, F. 7rv6vcrofiaL and irveverov/JLcu, Aor. eirvevaa, etc. Perf. 
Pass, ireirvevcrfjiaiy Aor. eTrvevcrOrjv. Yerb. Adj. irvevaro^ (S-eo- 
TTvevaTos). 

The Perf. Pass. TreTrvvfiai (§ 98. n. 4) is merely poetic, with the special 
signification to be animated, intelligent; hence by some it is not derived 
from 7rveo), but compared with ttivvtos. After the same analogy occurs 
also the syncopated Aorist uprnvvTo (Horn, for dvenvvro § 110. 7) ; further 
d/jL7Tvvvdr) for aveTTvvdrj, comp. idpvco, I8pvvdr)v j also the Imperat. apnwe re- 
cover thyself. 

7rodea>, see § 95. n. 4. 

noveco, toil, suffer, F. Trovr)(ria\ but in the signif. suffer pain, F. 7roi/eo-co, 
Perf. 7T€7r6vr}Ka, § 95. n. 4. See also § 113. 2. 

iropelv (Hesych.) enopov gave, Part, iropav, a defective poetic Aorist. To 
the same theme, with the sense divide out, allot, belongs by metathesis 
(§ 110. 11) the Perf. Pass. 7reVpcorai it is appointed by destiny, Part. 7re7rpa>- 
[xevos. 

The Infin. Trerrapelv or Tvenopftv in Pind. Pyth. 2. 105, is better referred 
to a separate theme of its own, with the meaning to shew, cause to see. 
The former is the best orthography. See Bockh. 

IIO-, see 7rlvco. — ireiTocrOe, see 7racr^co. 

IIPA-, 7vpr]8u>, see 7TiTrpdaK(o and 7rip.7rpr]pi. 

irpdcrcrw do, fare, long a. For the Perf. see § 113. n. 3. 

nrplaaOai buy, § 112. 15, a defective Aorist (like e.irTdp,r)v), the 
forms of which are used only as Aorist of the verb wvelcrOai, 
viz. iirpid[Jb7]v, Subj. nrploopbai, Opt. irpiaipb^v, Imp. irpiaao, irptWy 
Inf. irpiacrQai, Part, irpidfievo^. 

IITA-, 1ITO-, see ireravvvpi, 7T€Topai, ttt^cto-co, and ttltttoo. 

TTTTjcra-a) stoop down, is regular. The form KaraivraK^v in JEschyl. Eum. 
247, implies k as the characteristic. — In the poets there are a few forms 
from IITAI2; e. g. 3 pers. Du. Aor. 2 KaTairTrjTrjv § 110. 6; Part. Perf. 
TTeTTTrjtos. But -neTTTecos see in ntTrrco. 

irvvOdvofjiai inquire, perceive by the senses, learn, § 112. 11 ; 
from the poetic irevOopiai, Fut. Trevcrofjiai, Aor. i7rv06pbrjv, Pf. 
irkizvapuai. Yerb. Adj. 7revo-Teos. 

P. 

paiva sprinkle. For pdcraare and ippabarai see § 103. m. 24. 

pefa and epdco, do, § 112. 19, F. pz£a or (from EPri2) ep£co, etc. Perf. eopya. 

Pass. Aor. p€x^ vai - But €px^n v % eepyftat, belong to el'/ryco. 
peco flow, h 95. n. 9; F. fisvj-ojjbcu, Aor. eppevcra. In this Active 



$ 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 257 

signification however, the only genuine Attic forms are Aor. 2 

Pass, eppvrjv, with the Fut. pvrjcro/jLai, and a new Perf. formed 

from this Aorist, viz. eppvrjtca, § 111. 3. 
C PE-, see elne7u. 
pijyvvfM tear trans. § 112. 15 ; F. prj^co, Aor. Pass, ippcvyrjv. — Perf. 

2 eppcoya (§ 97. n. 2) with intrans. signification, am torn in 

pieces, § 113. n. 4. 
puyeco shudder, § 112. 6. § 97. n. 4; Perf. eppiya the same with the Present. 
plirTw and purreco, cast, § 112. 6 ; the characteristic is <£, $ 92. n. 

1. In the Pass, and Impf. both forms are in use ; all the other 

parts come from the first form, as pu^rw etc. The i is long ; 

hence plirre, pl-tyai. — Aor. Pass, eppfyrjv (short v) and epplcpOrjv. 
piTTracrKov. poL^aaKe, see § 103. m. 11. 
'PY-, see peco. — pvop,ai, see ipv<a. || 'P£2r-, see pfjyvvfii. 

pcbvvvfu strengthen, § 112. 15, Fut. pcoaw etc. Perf. Pass, eppco- 
fxat am strong, Imper. eppcoao farewell. Aor. Pass. eppcoaOrjv. 
But eppao-dfxrjv (Horn.) belongs to pao/iai rush on. 

2. 

craXirityd sound a trumpet, Fut. crdkiriy^w, etc. \ 92. n. 3. Later 

form (rdXirtcra). 
craoG), see aa>^a>. 
(xda> an old form for o-fjdoi sift, whence a&ai in Herodot. I. 200. Secondary 

forms in the Pass, without or (o-earjixai, arjdets) for the sake of euphony, 

were derived from this form. 

affivvvfu extinguish, § 112. 15, F. crfticrco etc. Pf. Pass, ea-^ecrfiai, 
Aor. io-fieo-Orjv. — The Perf. eo-ftrj/ca (with tj), and the Aor. 2 
e<rftr]v PI. €afti)[JLev, Infin. aftr/vac, (flexion in $ 110. 6,) have 
the intransitive signification to go out, he extinguished, which 
is elsewhere expressed by the Passive aftevvvpiai ; § 113. n. 3. 

cretco, dvaaaeiaaKe, see § 103. m. 11. 

crcvco move, impel, has most commonly the augment like verbs beginning 
with p (§83. n. 2) ; and takes in the Aor. 1 no a, as eWeua, icro-evd^v, 
§ 96. n. 1. Perf. Pass, eWu/xcu, am moved, strive, long for, Part. <Wv/xe- 
vo? (proparox. $ 111. n. 2); Plupf. eWu/x^i/, which form is at the same 
time syncopated Aorist (§ 110. 7 and n. 4), whence o-vto, 0-vp.evos; the 2 
pers. is eaavo for eacrvcro (§ 103. m. 17) j Aor. Pass, in the same signifi- 
cation, i(ro"v6r]v Soph. — Forms with a single o- (e. g. icrvd-qv, egeo-vOrj) 
are less frequent ; and those without any augment (e. g. aeva, o-vto) be- 
long to the Ionic-epic dialect. — We find also the Pres. Pass, syncopated 
(§ 110. 5), e. g. o-evrai Soph. Trach. 645; more commonly however 
with the alternate ov (§27. 1), as.o-ov/iat run, hasten, Imperat. o-ovao, 
o-ovaOu), aovade, a familiar call or exclamation in common life. — Finally, 
here belongs also the Laconic form dneaaova he is off, gone, which is 
found in Xenoph. Hell. 1. 1. 23, and is explained as Aor. 2 Pass, for 
eo-avrj. 

o-tceMvvvpLi, scatter, disperse, § 112. 15, 16, F. G-Kehdaw, <rfce$co,. 
etc. Pf. Pass. ia/ciSao-fiai. Secondary forms are GKiovr\p,i epic 



KiovTjjjLi, fceSdvvv/JU. 



R 



258 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114. 

ariciXkG) or o-fceXeco, dry, make dry, S 112. 6 ; Pass, dry up, with- 
er. To this immediate sense of the Passive belong the Active 
forms, Aor. cctkXtjv, aKX/Pjvai, cnckaLr}v, \ 110. 6 ; Pf. ecrfcXrjKa am 
dried up, with Fut. crfcXtjaofiat. 

The Homeric ovc^Aeie (Aor. 1 ecrKrjXa) implies a theme (r/caXXco, which 
elsewhere has the wholly different meaning to scrape; and hence arise, 
by the metathesis 2KAA- § 110. 11, the forms cr/cA^at, aKXairju, etc. 

a/co7T(b or Mid. atcoTrovfiai, look at, contemplate, used only in 
Pres. and Impf. The rest comes from the Depon. Mid. cr/ce- 
7TTO/JLCU, o-Ketyofjuu, etc. Perf. ea-Kepb^ai has also Passive signifi- 
cation. — Verb. Adj. cnceTTTeos. 
The Pres. and Impf. of cr/KeVro/.iai are more poetic and late Attic. 

cr/jbdco rub, rub on, a-fifo etc. § 105. n. 5. Fut. (t/jltJctcd, etc. But 
the Aor. Pass, is always eV/x^^"' § H2. 17, from the form 07*77x00, which 
in the Present is not Attic. Verb. Adj. o-jjuiktos. Comp. -v/mco. 

aovp.ai etc. see aevco. || orreiV, (nrio-dai, see eVco. 

o-TrevSa) pour out, F. cnrelcrw, Pf. Pass, eaweurfjuu, § 25. 4. — MID. 
2TA-, see IdTqpn. || orr^ere, see p. 187, marg. 

arepio) and a-repla/cco bereave, deprive of, k 112. 14 and 6, is 
conjugated regularly after the first theme, F. a-reprjcra) etc. Fut. 
Mid. areprjaofiaL for Pass. <7T€pi)6r}GO[jLai. Herewith exists in 
the Passive the simpler form o-repofiai, expressing a state 
or situation, am bereaved, deprived of, go without. 

The Pres. arepS), Pass, arepovpai, is scarcely used except in composi- 
tion. Homer has the flexion with e, as crrepeVai. For o-Tepijdel? the poets 
have also an Aor. 2 Pass, orepels. 
cttcvtch, (TTevvrai, <tt€vto, see § 110. 5. 

(TTopevvvfjbi, aropvvfjLi and crrpwyvvfii, spread, strew, § 106. 8. § 110. 
7. h 112. 15, form both (rropecrco, icrropca-a, and crrpcoo-co, earpco- 
era. Perf. Pass, eo-rpco/jiai,, Aor. 1 Pass. carpcoOriv, late and Ion. 
forms earo pea-pat,, iaropeaOrjv. Verb. Adj. ot/ogoto?. 

(TTvyeio fear, hate, is regular, $ 112. 6; but has in Homer still an Aor. 2 
earvyov (§ 96. n. 5) ; and also in the causative sense render terrible, the 
Aor. 1 earvt-a (Od. A. 502), which however later poets use again in the 
first signification, e. g. Apollon. IV. 512. 

(rxelv, %<jypv, etc. see e^co. 

awtyd save, has in the Perf. Pass, besides cea-(oo{jbai in the early 
writers, also aeacofiai ; and in the Aor. 1 Pass, always i(ra>07}v s 
from the older form aaoco, i(raa>07]v. — MID. 

From o-adoa are found in epic writers : 1) The regular formation o-a<a- 
a-co, eVacoo-a, etc. 2) Pres. and Impf. with a contraction of the first two 
vowels (cradco, aaoeis) crcoco, o-wety, etc. whence has arisen the common 
form o-o)£cd- and again shortened (croco) Subj. (Toys, o-6rj> aoaxriv. 3) The 
3 pers. Impf. (eadov) and the Imperat. (adov) again contracted would form 
€o-&>, era) but the epic writers resolve these last forms into the double 

' sound (§ 105. n. 10) ; yet not as usual by means of o, but with a, just as 
in vauTCLUHTa (§ 105. n. 10. ult.) ; hence 3 pers. Impf. io-aco, aaco, II. (p. 
238. 7r. 363: Imperat. o-aoo, Od. v. 230. p. 595; instead of eVcofe and o-o>£e. 



§ 114 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 25H 

T. 

TAr-, see TA-. II rakdm, see rXrjvai. 

ravvco stretch, takes a in the Passive, and has v short in flexion. — Fut. also 
ravvco, Od. (p. 174. ($ 95. n. 12.) Pass, epic rdvvpai. 

rapdaaco, ttq), disturb, has contracted secondary forms, viz. 1) 
Among the Attics the Present, Spdrrto, where r becomes S, and the vowel 
is made long ; hence Part. Neut. to Spdrrov. 2) In the epic writers the 
Perfect, but with an intransitive signification, rkrpr\xa am disturbed, un- 
quiet, where the Ion. rj takes the place of long a.% — MID. 

racpeiv and racprjvai, see #a7rrco and 0A<I>-. 

TA-, the apparent stem of reivco, re'raica, etc. (§ 101. 9.) To a similar theme 
with the meaning lay hold of take, belongs the Imper. rrj take; kindred 
with which (from TAro) is the epic Part. Aor. 2 redupl. reraycop, 
taking hold of. See Lexil. I. 41. p. 162. 

TEK-, see rUrco. 

Tefxvco cut, § 112. 10, F. re/jbco, Aor. erefiov. — The further forma- 
tion is (by h 110. 11) : rer/miKa, TeT/jqficu, ir/jLrjOrjv. For the 
Subj. Perf. Pass, see $ 98. n. 9. 

Less frequent is the Aor. erapov. The Ionics say also in the Present, 

rdpvio) and Homer has further the stem-form Te/xco, as II. v. 707 repei; 

see Ausf. Sprachl. § 92. n. 13. — An epic form is rprjyoa, Aor. erpr}£a and 

erpayov, Pass. irpdyrjv. 
ripTT(£> delight, in the Passive form ripiropai am delighted, satisfied, has in the 

epic language a threefold Aorist, erepcpdrjv or erdpcpdrjv, and erdpnrjv, 

whence by transposition (§ 96. n. 7) Subj. rpaireiio for rapirto,— and Aor. 

Mid. (irapnoprjv) TerapnopTjv, Subj. rapucopeOa and rerapTvcopecrda. 
repaopai dry intrans. Inf. Aor. 2 Pass. reparjvai and reparjpevai. — But rep- 

oratVco dry trans, dry up, ircpcxrjva, etc. is regular. 
T€T€vxrjcr6at to be armed, Od. x- 104; a defective Perf. Pass, from ra reject. 

Comp. iaBrjpivos. 
rerpov, ererpov, meet with, find, Subj. rerpy?, rj, a defective Aorist. 
T€Toprjo~(£>, see rope'eo. || rerpaivo), see rirpdio. 

rev^a). Two kindred verbs must be here carefully distinguished : 

1) rev^co make, a poetic word, regular, rev^co, erev^a, rervypai, ervxBrjv, 
tvktos or revKros, § 98. n. 4. 

2) Tvy%dv(D happen, take effect, attain, § 112. 11. § 111. 3, 
F. t6v%o/jLcil, Aor. erv^ov (epic e.Tvyj](ra), Perf. reru^/ca. 

The idea of rvyxdvio has arisen out of the Passive of reu^co ; hence in 
the epic writers the Passive forms rervypai, ifvxOfjv, very nearly coincide 
in sense with rvyxdvio, ervxov. And the Perf. rerev^a, whose Part, in 
Homer has the Passive signification of rev^co (Od. p. 423; see § 113. n. 
4), passes over wholly into the signification of the Present rvyxdva in 
Herodotus (3. 14. ult.) and in the koivoi or later writers. 

The Perf. Pass, rervypai takes also the diphthong ev ; hence in Homer 
3 Plur. rerevxarai, and Fut. 3 only rerevgopai, § 99. n. 1. 

To revx<o belongs, with the Ionic change of the rough mute (§ 16. n. 1. 
e), the Aor. 2 rervKelv, rervKeaOai, prepare ; hence a new Present-form nrv- 
VKopai, § 112. n. 8. The form roo o~ai for rvx^v see in its place. 

* For this metathesis see § 110. n. 7. Analogous is the Adj. /j.a\aKos — j3Aa|» 
/SAcwcJs. For the change of t into &, see p. 28. marg. — Moreover from this verb 
is derived the Adj. rpaxvs, Ion. rprjxvs, rough, uneven, and not the verb from the 
adjective. Lexil. I. 52. p. 210. 



260 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR "SERBS. $ 114 

TIE-, TeTLrjfiai. am afflicted. Part. rert^/ieVor, and also t€tit]u>? from the Active 
form. § 97. n. 7. 

tlktco bear, § 112. 17, from TEKfl, Fut. regco, comm. Tegoficu, 
Aor. ereKov (poet. €t€k6/h7}v), Perf. reroKa. 

In late writers we find also rereypaL and irexOrjv. — For the Fut. reKtl- 
a6ai see § 95. n. 16. 
rtVco, see r/co. 

TLTpdw bore, § 112. 13, from TPAfl, F. rprjcrco, etc. A second- 
ary form more used by the Attics is rerpalvco, rerpavw, ereTpr]- 
va, later -ava. The Perfect is always from the usual theme, 
Terprj/ca, reTprj/JLcu. 

TiTpcbo-fco) ivound, § 112. 14, F. rpcoaco, etc. Perf. Pass. rerpcofAcu, etc. 
The simpler form rpoxo, with the more general signification injure, is 
found in Homer. Both forms are connected -with, ropelv through the 
metathesis TOP, TPO, § 110. 11. 

7-/g> honour, is in this signification only poetical, and is conjugated regularly. 
Part. Perf. Pass, renpevos. — In the signification to pay, atone for, it is 
in the Pres. and Impf. solely epic ; in prose we find instead of it the fol- 
lowing form, viz. 

rlvco pay, atone for, h 112. 10, Fut. rlo-co, Perf. reraca, Perf. 
Pass, rencr pal, Aor. 1 Pass, irl(T07]v. The MID. rlvo/iai 
(TLcrGfjLaL, eTLcrd/jLTjv, direrccrd/jLyv) has the signification punish, 
avenge. The Ionic form of the Present is rlvvvfu, TivvvpLat,, 
h 112. 15. 

The i in tiVco is in the epic writers long ; in Attic writers short, accord- 
ing to § 112. n. 6. The Attic poets shorten also the first syllable of 
riyvfii. See the Ausf. Sprachl. § 112. n. 19. 

rkrjvai to bear, venture, sin Inf. from sync. Aor. erXrjv (§ 110. 6), 
Opt. rXaLTjv, Imp. rXfjdi, Part. rXds, Fut. rXTjcrofiaL, Pf. TerXrjrca. 
From this Perfect are derived (by § 110. 10) the forms rerXapev etc. 
rerkdvai, Opt. rerXairjv, Imp. TtrkaOi, and the Ionic Part. TerXrjois § 97. n. 
7 ; but all these are found only in the poets, and with a Present mean- 
ing. — An epic secondary form is the Aor. 1 erdXao-a. — The place of the 
Present is supplied by dvexopai or vnopevoo. 

TM-, see repvco and rirpov. || rprjyan, see repi/oo. 

ropelv pierce, thrust through, eropov (§ 96. n. 5), a defective Aorist; comp. 
rirpcbo-zcco. — In the kindred signification, to yield a piercing sound, Aris- 
tophanes has the Fut. reroprjaoa and the Pres. ropevco. 

roao-ai an Aorist synonymous with rvx^v, from which there occurs in Pindar 
the Part, roaaas and the compounds introvert, eiriroa-aas: 

rpcnreiii), see re'/wco. II TPAT-, see rpcoyco. 

rpi(j)CD nourish, support, F. ^peijrcD (§ 18. 2), Perf. rerpocpa, Perf. 
Pass. rWoa/jb/jLai, reOpdfyOat, (less correctly rerpdcpOai,), Aor. 
Pass. irpa(j)r]v 3 less often i6pe(p0r)v. Yerb. Adj. ^e7rro?. — MID. 
In the early language rpecpa had the immediate signification to become 
thick, stout, large ; and the Passive also adopts this signification, as Pass. 
am nourished, become stout, etc. Hence in Homer the Aor. 2 Act. and the 
Aor. 2 Pass, are used synonymously, e. g. erpacpe the same as erpdcprj ; 
rpacpepev (rpacpelv) the same with the common Tpacprjvai. See the Ausf. 
Sprachl. — The Perf. rerpocpa has both significations ) see § 97. n. 1. marg, 



§ 114 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 261 

rpi'xpi run, k 112. 18. § 111. 3, seldom forms its tenses from it- 
self, as ^pego/jLcu, Wpe^a, k 18. 2; most commonly from APE- 
MI2, Aor. eSpctfjLov, Fut. hpafJuovpLcu, Perf. Se^pd/irj/ca, epic Se- 
hpo/jua. 

TPY$-, see SpinrTco. 

rpvxco wear away, exhaust, consume, h 112. 7, forms its tenses 

from the less frequent rpv^cxo ; as irpvx^cra, Terpvxco/jLevos, etc. 

Tpcoycd eat, $ 112. 19, F. rpco^o/jbac. Aorist erpayov from TPHTfL. 

rvyxavoo, rervKelv, see under rev^co. 

Tvirroo strike, § 112. 6, has in Attic writers commonly TvnTr)(jw, 
TeTinrrrj/juai, TV7rT7]reo^. Aor. Pass. efvTrrjv. — MID. 

rv^co smoke, burn, trans. F. ^v^co etc. § 18. 2. — Aor. Pass. 
irv(f>r]V. 

T. 

hiTHTXveoiicu, see under e'x«. II V7rep,vr}p,vice, see ^/wo>. 

(palvG), 1) trans. sAottf, j9om£ oz^, FTcpavto, Aor. e<prjva, Perf. 7re- 
<f>ayfca. Pass, ^aivopxii am pointed out, Aor. icfrdvOrjv, Perf. 7re- 
fyaaiiai, h 101. 2) Intrans. shine, give light, only Pres. and 
Imperfect ; comm. (palvofiao § 113. n. 5. Aor. i(f>dvr)v, F. </>a- 
vovfiai and (fravrjcrofiai,, Perf. again Tri^ao-fiac, comm. Perf. 2 
irk$r\va. — MID. in compounds. 
Homeric forms are: the Iterat. cpdv evict appeared (from e<pdvrjv), an 

Aorist from the simple theme (§ 112. 10) ; cpde shone, appeared, (Od. £. 

502,) with which belongs also a Fut. 3 necprjo-opai will have appeared II. p. 

155 (comp. also above under necpvov) ) whence too the secondary form 

(paeOoo, Part. tpaeOav § 112. 12; and the form with the double sound 

e(padv6r]v, cpdavBev, in the signif. of ecpdvrjv. — The Fut. <pav£> has a long; 

see Ausf. Sprachl. 
<£A-, cpd(TK(o t see (prjpi \ 109. I, tpaiva), necpvov. || <J>Ar-, see eaSico. 
(ptiSopai, spare, regular. Hence the epic Aorist-forms with redupl. 7re$i- 

hto-Oai, irefadolprjv ) and from these again by § 111. 3, the Fut. necpibrjao- 

l&ai II. o. 215. 
<I>EN-, see 7re(pvov. 

(f)£pco bear, carry, § 112. 18, forms its tenses from quite different 
roots : Fut. olaco, with an Aorist Imper. olae, for which see § 96. 
n. 9. Then Aor. 1 fjveyica, Subj. ivey/cco, Opt. ivey/cai/M, Imp. 
(evey/cov) ivey/cara) etc. Aor. 2 tfvey/cov, Opt. iviyfcoifju, Imp. 
eveytce, Inf. iveyicelv, Part, iveyfccov ; from the former are espec. 
in use the Indie, and those endings of the Imper. which have 
a ; from the latter espec. the Inf. and Participle. Perf. ivrj- 
voya \ 97. n. 2 ; Perf. Pass. ivrjveypLai, 3 Sing, ivrfvefcrai and 
-eyicrai, Inf. ev^vexOai, Aor. Pass. rjvexd^Vy Inf. ivexOrjvai. — 
Fut. Pass. iveyQr\<jop,ai or ol(T07](TOfiaL Verb. Adj. olcrreos, ol- 
<7to? } poet. fepTos. — MID. Aor. 1 r)v€yKdfir]v etc Imp Aor. 2 
eveyicov or iveytcov Soph. OC. 459. 



262 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114 

The Ioniss have an Aor. fjveiKa, iveiKai, eveiKaadai, Pass. TjveLxdrju. The 
theme ive'iKco occurs as Present in Hesiod a. 440, avveveUerai. — It is incor- 
rect to consider ivey<eiv as a compound with iv ) it has arisen by means of 2. 
reduplication, like rjyayov, akakiceiv, etc. (§ 85. n. 3,) from a theme ErKQ, 
from which again ENEKQ and ENEIK& are lengthened forms, like AAKQ, 
AAEK12 ; see Lexil. I. 63. 23. — Homer has in the Imperat. Plur. (fiepre. 
— For (popelv see § 112. 8, and n. 1 ; and for (poprjvai see § 105. n. 16. 

Infrequent forms coming from o'io-a> are Infin. Aor. 1 dvaaai and Verb. 
Adj. dveo'io-Tos in Herodotus (1. 157. ib. 6. 66), where the to has no gram- 
matical basis; and the Perf. irpooio-rai in Lucian (Paras. 2), where the 
diphthong oi, which remains unaffected by the augment, is according to 
§ 84. n. 2. 

(pevycoflee, F. fyev^ofiai and fev^ovficu, Aor. ecfrvyov, Perf. irefyevya. 
Verb. Adj. cpev/cTeos, favKTos. A secondary form is (ftvyydvco 
§ 112. 11. 

Homer has the Part. Pf. Pass. ire(pvyp.£vos with active sense, escaped , 
also the Verb. Adj. cpvKTos, whence acpvicros Attic; and a Part. Perf. ne- 
(pv£6re? fugitives ; comp. <pv£a flight. 

<j)0dv(D am beforehand, anticipate, § 112. 10 ; for the quantity of 
the a, see § 112. n. 6. Aor. 1 ecfeddo-a and sync. Aor. 2 e<j)07jv, 
cf)6(x), (f)6r)vaL, <f)dds (epic Mid. cj>0d/juevo(;) , § 110. 6. Fut. </>#??- 
(jo/juai, less often (in Xen.) and later fyOao-co, Perf. ecpOdfca. 

In II. k. 346, 7rapa<p0air]cn is an unusual form of the Opt. for -avq. See 
the Ausfl Sprachl. § 107. n. 33. marg. 

(f>6elp(o corrupt, ruin, is regular ; but the Perf. 2 e^Oopa, SiefyOopa, 

has in Ionic (also II. o. 128) and later writers the signification 

am ruined; Attic, have ruined, the same as e<$>6apica. k 113. n.4. 

Homer has Fut. cpBepcroo. — Fut. 2 Mid. with alternate a, diacpdapeop-ai. 

intrans. occurs in Herodotus for the comm. (pdaprjaopLcu or <p0epovp,ai. 

<pdiu>, a verb which in this Present form is only Homeric, with both transi- 
tive and intransitive signification: consume, destroy (II. o\ 446), and per- 
ish Od. /3. 368. The other forms are more usual, but still on the whole 
more poetic. Fut. and Aor. (pOlo-a, ecpdicra, are simply transitive. — On 
the other hand the derived Present <p0lva>, § 112. 10, (secondary form 
(pdiiw8(o § 112. 12,) is commonly intransitive, and borrows its tenses from 
the Mid. of (pdioa, viz. Fut. (pdiaop-ai, Pf. ecp6ip.ai, Plupf. e(j)6lp.rjv, which 
last form is at the same time syncopated Aorist (§ 110. 7 and n. 4), and 
therefore has the other moods, viz. Opt. cpdipirjv, To, Tro, (Od. k. 51. X. 330 ; 
see § 107. m. 33. marg.) Infin. <p6la0ai, Part. <fi0ip,evo?, Subj. (pdloapai, 
shortened cpdiop-ai, (pdUrai. — Later writers have the formation <p6ivr}(ri£>, 
etc. (Plut.) 

The t in (pdlva> (§ 112. n. 6), as well as in (pdlcroa, etc. is in epic writers 
always long; in Attic writers, short; ecpdi/iai, etc. is everywhere short. 
— For a7re(pdidov see Ausf. Sprachl. 

(piXeco love. Instead of the regular Aorist from this verb, Homer has the 
Middle form ecpiXaro, Imper. (pTXai, with long t, (a Deponent from the 
simpler theme 3>IAG § 112. 6,) where the long i comes from the nature 
of the Aorist; see § 101. 4. 

(ppafa say, intimate, § 92. n. 3. § 83. n. 3, has in the earlier poets an Aorist 
necppadov, enecppadov, Inf. Ke<ppa8eeiv, and a Perf. Pass. irecppabfMai, § 98. n. 5. 

cppeco, used only in the compounds : iicfypeZv, elafypeiv, hiafypelv, 
to let out, in, through, F. (pprjo-a) etc. — Imp. etcr^pcr § 110. n. 2. — MID. to 
admit, F. el(r(ppr]ao}xaL. 



$ 114 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 263 

(ppla-ao), cfrpLTTQ), shudder, $ 92. n. 2, F. (f>pl^co etc. Pf. •nkfypiica 
from $PIKf2, whence also the subst. ippifcrj, etc. 

(JivXda-a-oo watch, guard, Mid. beware. The form 7rpo(pv\ax6e in Hymn. Apoll. 
538, is anom. Imper. with active signification. 

(j>vpco mix, knead, $ 101. n. 3. § 112. 7 ; old Fut. (pvpaco, ecfrvpaa, 
comm. (j)vpdcrco etc. Ion. (frvprjaco. Perf. Pass, irk^vp^ai and 
7r€(j)vpa/uLai,. — MID. 

(f>va) generate, produce, F. fyvo-co, Aor. e(f>v<ra. — But the Perf. 7re- 
<j>vfca and sync. Aor. 2 ($ 110. 6) e^w, fyvvai, Subj. (f>vco (Xen. 
Hier. 7. 3), Opt. <\>vr]v (Theocr. 15. 94), Part. <fa, have the 
Passive or intransitive signification to be produced, come into 
existence, arise, for which in the Pres. and Fut. we find </>uo- 
fiat, (frvo-ofiat, $ 113. n. 3. 

Writers not Attic employ instead of cpvvai, cpvs, etc. an Aor. Pass, cpvrj- 
vaiy (pveis, etc. — For the Homeric forms irecpvavi, 7T€<pvco?, see § 97. n. 7. 
For the Opt. cpvrjv, see § 107. m. 33; and for iire<j)VKov f § 111. 2. 

X. 

Xafa, comm. x^H^h yield, give way, is regular, but has in Homer an Aor. 
2 with the reduplication and a change of % into k, KeKabeadai, $ 92. n. 3. 
But the Act. K€Kadelp (iceKadwv), with a Fut. of its own Keicadrjcrco (§ 111. 3), 
has in Homer the special transitive signification to rob, deprive of. — The 
form KeKadrjaofiai see in tcr}8co ; como. II. o. 574. A. 334. S-. 353. Od. <£. 153. 
— For Ie^aSoj/, see in ^ai/Saz/co. 

\aiv<o see ^/dcrKa). 

Xa//9G> rejoice, k 112. 6, F. ycuprjcrw, Aor. (from the Pass.) e^dprjv, 
and from this again a Perfect with emphatic Present signifi- 
cation, iceyapr\Ka or ice^apr/pcai, exult, § 111. 3. 

From the regular formation there is still found in the poets, Perf. Pass, 
/ce'xap/xat, Aor. 1 Mid. ixrjpdp.rjv, and Aor. 2 with redup. Kexapop-rju. — The 
Fut. x a PW°l xa '' belongs to late writers ; Homer has icex a PW<»> and -opai, 
$ 111. n. 3. 

Xavddvoi grasp, contain, § 112. 11, Aor. i'xadov. — Perf. Kexavda (same with 
the Pres.) Fut. ^ei'tro/itu Od. °"- l^j as if from XENAG; comp. arirevha 
fr7reiVco, and TriirovOa Treiaofxai. 

ya<jKw open, gape, h 112. 19, forms from the Pres. %atW (which 
is not used by earlier writers) Aor. e%aiw, F. yavovpbai. Pf. 
Kkyjqva am open, gape. 

Xe£a>, Fut. ^ecroOjixat, Aor. e^ecra and %x e(T0V - Perf. nexoda § 97. 4. a, c. 
X^icrofxai, see ^avSai/co. 

%ea> j9owr, epic %e/«, Fut. also %ea), %et?, %et, Fut. Mid. %kotiai 
see § 95. n. 12 ; Aor. 1 e^ea (§ 96. n. 1), e^ea?, e%ee(z/), see 
p. 174, marg. Inf. %kai, Imp. %eov, ^edrco, etc. Perf. Keyyua, 
Perf. Pass. Kkyyyiai, Aor. Pass. e.yyQr}v, h 98. n. 4. — MID. 

The forms ^eucrco, e^euo-a, are not usual ; although they were the orig- 
inal ones, as is shewn by the subst. x € ^H- a ^ an< ^ the f° rms °f flexion e^u- 
tfr/z/, e^eua, etc. See § 95. n. 9. 

The epic language has Aor. 1 e'xeva, whence the Subj. x^co passes over 
into the future signification Od. j3. 222 \ see § 139. m. 5. — Aor. Pass, sync 
exvfflv, ^u/zei/or, etc. to be poured, gush, § 110. 7. 



264 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ J 14. 

Xpaiafj.e'iv to help, expaurpov, a defective Aorist; whence arose Fut. xpuvph- 
o-co, expalcrnrjcra, §'111. 3, and Lexil. I. 

Xpdo). From this verb there exist Jive different forms of flexion, 
with their respective significations ; all with the contraction 
into 7] in the common language, Ionic into a, contrary to the 
usual analogy. 

1) xpau) utter an oracle is regular, § 105. n. 5 ; F. xP^ a(D 
etc. Pass. /cixpV <T / J ' a h ixpwdrjv. — MID. ^pdofiai consult an 
oracle. 

The contraction in rj is found Soph. El. 35. OC. 87. Herodotus has it 
in a, or changes am into e'co (xpeovo-a 7. Ill); whence again in Homei 
lengthened, ^petW Od. 3-. 79. 

2) KL%pr}{u lend, § 112. 15, is declined like lorrjfii ; F. XPV" 
aco, Aor. e.yjyr](ra. — MID. /cl^pa/iai, borrow, xprfcroficu. 

3) xpdofiai use, XPV (2 Sing.) xp*1 Ta h Inf- XPV a ^ a h e ^ c - *he 
rest regular. F. XPV <70 / JLCU , Aor. ixp7]crd/jLr)v, Perf. /cexpVf Mai 
usually with Pres. signification. Verb. Adj. ^770-To?, p^crreoz;. 

The Perf. Kexpypai has in epic writers also the signif. I need, want ; 
hence Part. Kexprjpevos often as Adj. needy ; and in Theocr. 16. 73 a spe- 
cial Fut. Kexprjcropai. The Verbal Adj. implies an Aor. expwdrjv, which 
also is sometimes found with a Pass, signif. e. g. Hdot. 7. 144. — Here too 
the Ionics contract into a, and change dco into eco, § 105. n. 8. 15. 

4) yjpr) (with anom. accent) Impersonal, it behooves, is nec- 
essary, oportet, follows in part verbs in /u : Inf. xpv vai i Opt. 
XP e hj Subj. XPVi Part- ( T °) XP e( * v * Impf. e'x/^t or XPV V 
(never expy). — Fut. xpW ei " 

5) onroxpv it ^ enough, sufficient, Impersonal ; the form 
airoxpa is not Attic ; PL diroxp&o'iv, Inf. diroxpfiv, Part, cuttq- 
Xpu> v -> wva, <*>v* Impf. dirixpy, F. dwoxpweL, Aor. direxprjcre. 
— MID. airoxp&fiai have enough, am contented, like no. 0.% 

XpcovvvjjLL colour, § 112. 15, F. xp^^ e f°- Perf. Pass. Kexpcoo-fiat^ 

Aor. exptecrdrjV; later without a. 
yGxwvpi heap up, dam, § 112. 15 ; in earlier writers we find the 

regular simple form : %oo), Inf. %ow ; Fut. ^oScrw etc. Perf. 

Pass. Kexwcr^ai, etc. 

W. 

^/•dco rub, contr. into 77. § 105. n. 5. — The Pass, forms of the Perf. and Aor. 
were in earlier writers by preference derived from the secondary yj/rjx^' 
e. g. e-^-TjKTaL, hjrrix&} v ) prob. for the sake of euphony and for the same 
reason as in oymco, § 112. 17. 

* See further on this Particip. § 57. n. 1. This Participle also is to be explained 
by the Ionic change of ao into e&> § 27. n. 10 ; while the accent is still anomalous. 
And since the Ionics generally transformed verbs in aw into c'&j, we can thence ac 
count for the e in the Opt. x/> e "7 5 comp. the marg. note under iri/xTrXrifjLi. 

t This anomalous accentuation, instead of expw (§ 12. 2. a. § 103. m. 1). is 
founded on ancient usage; comp. Eustath. ad Od. k. 00. 

t Herodotus has atrexp^ro impers. for airexpa. The Active was used imperson 
ally only for the most part, not always : as is shown hy the Plur. olwoxp^o-lv. 



* J 15. PARTICLES. PREPOSITIONS AND ADVERBS. 265 

yJAvx^ cool, § 112. 19, forms the Aor. 2 Pass, after the analogy of opvaaa) 
(secondary form optica, see Catal. of reg. verbs) ; e. g. €\jfvyr)v Aristoph. 
On the other hand in Plato Phsedr. p. 242, the reading airo^rvxfi is now- 
preferred, which presupposes a form tyvxnv } see Ausf. Sprachl. 

a 

coOeco thrust, push, $ 112. 6, has the syllabic augment (icbOovv) 
§ 84. n. 5 ; and forms Fut. wOrja-w and (from flGfl) coaco, Aor. 
eaxra, Inf. axrat, Perf. Pass, ecocrfiac, etc. — MID. 

wveofiai buy, § 112. 18, has also the syllabic augment {iwvovfirjv 
etc.) § 84. n. 5. Instead of the regular Aorist of this verb 
{iwv7](rdfir]v, cov7]ad/jbr)v) , the Attics employed the forms enrpid- 
/jltjv, irpiaaQai, etc. which see above. On the other hand, ico- 
vrjOrjv was only Passive ; see § 113. n. 6. — Perf. i&prjpat, both 
as Act. and Passive ; Demosth. 



PARTICLES. 
§ 116. Prepositions and Adverbs. 

1. The Particles are said to be indeclinable, because they ad 
mit of no declension, flexion, or conjugation. Still there are 
among them certain minor changes, or mutual relations of one to 
another, (comparison and correlation,) which may here be sepa- 
rately exhibited. 

2. Under the general idea of particles we distinguish first the 
Prepositions, viz. the following eighteen : 

dfJL^l, dvd, dvri, anrb, Sid, els, ev, ef, eirl, Kara, fierd, irapd, 

irepl, 7Tp6, 77-/90?, CTVV, V7T€p, V7T0. 

These have always been called distinctively the Prepositions 
of the Greek language ; we call them Primitive Prepositions, 
With these alone are verbs compounded in the simplest manner, 
i. e. without change (§ 121. 2) ; which is not the case with other 
particles, although they may be just as much prepositions, e. g. 
dvev, eveica, iyyvs, &>? to, etc. 

3. The most common form of Adverbs is the ending gj?, which 
may be regarded as a termination properly belonging to the for- 
mation of the adjective ; since it is appended only to adjectives 
and participles. The ending o>? takes exactly the place of the 
oase-endings ; so that it is only necessary to change the ending 
of the Nom. or Gen. o?, into «?. Where the Nom. ending 09 has 
the tone, the adverbial ending retains it as a circumflex ; and if 
the ending o? (Nom. or Gren.) suffers contraction, the same is re- 
tained in the adverb. E. g. 

(filXos, (pCkcos ' cro(f)6<;, cro^w? 

(T(^(j)pCDV ((T(t)(f>pOVG<;), (TCOCppOVCDS ' ^<Xpa?, €VTO<?, ^dpia'TCD? 



2(56 PARTICLES. PREPOSITIONS AND ADVERBS. $ 115. 

evOvs, eo?, evdeoos ■ Part. XvcrtreXcov useful, ovvtos, \vo~t- 
rekovvTGas. But 7ra? (7raz/T09) itclvtoos, see n. 1. 
aXrjOrjs, eo? contr. 01)?, akrj0ico<; contr. akrjdcos ; aifkoos, o£?, 
a7rXco? # evvovs, evvcos. 

Note 1. In strictness, all adverbs which come from adjectives in rjs G. 
eor, ought to have the circumflex on the ending cos, as arising from contrac- 
tion (ecos — coy). Nevertheless, some are paroxytones, and are consequently 
formed without contraction of their own from the similarly accented Nom. 
or Gen. (especially when the Gen. Plur. is a paroxytone, § 49. n. 4,) e. g. 
avvrjdrjs (crvvr)d(£>v) o-vvrjOcos', but voaa>8r]? (vo(tg)8ov?, voaodwv Plato Rep. p. 
438 j vocr<£>da>9 J comp. above was (navTos; iravT&v) iravras. — In like manner 
adverbs formed from adjectives in -voos, -vovs, follow in their accent the 
analogy of those adjectives in declension (§ 60. 5); hence from eiivovs — «/- 
j>a)s; but better evvo'iK.5)?, as in the next note. 

Note 2. Adjectives of one ending, which fluctuate as it were between 
substantive and adjective, in order to form the adverb in cor, assume first 
an ordinary adjective termination; thus i/o/zaSiKcor, /3AaKt/caj?; comp. § 63. n. 
3. § 66. 4. marg. 

4. Certain cases and forms of nouns, by virtue of their inher- 
ent power which will be explained in the Syntax, and also by el- 
lipsis, often supply the place of particles ; and when such a form 
occurs in this manner particularly often, it passes entirely for an 
adverb. E. g. the Dative: 

icofuhfi lit. with care ; hence, very, very much. 

airovhfi lit. ivith zeal, with pains-taking ; hence, hardly, 
scarcely. 
Further a number of feminine adjectives, where the idea 68w 
from rj 6$6s ivay, manner, lies at the basis ; e. g. 

ire^jj on foot, KOivfj in common, IBia privately, h^fioala pub- 
licly, etc. Comp. aXkrj and the like, h 116. n. 7. 
So the Accusative : 

dpyfiv and rr]v dp^v, lit. in the beginning, foundation, 
plan ; hence, wholly, entirely. 

TrpoLfca gratis, from irpotf; gift. 

fjLa/cpdv (sc. 6B6v) far. 
See also note 3. — The Neuter of an Adjective likewise forms an 
adverbial Accusative, when it stands, either in the Sing, or Plu- 
ral, instead of an adverb. This usage nevertheless, except in the 
comparative and superlative, is for the most part peculiar to the 
poets (§ 128. n. 4) ; though in some few adjectives it is the com- 
mon usage in prose ; e. g. Tayy swift, puicpov or \xiKpd little. 

Note 3. In the manner mentioned in the preceding paragraph have arisen 
many particles, whose radical form as a noun is either obsolete, or occurs 
only in the poets. Datives of this kind are then usually written without i 
subscript; e. g. dicrj in vain, 8ixV twofold; comp. § 116. n. 8. Here belong 
also the Genitives: e£rjs in order, successively, dyxov near, 6}xov at the same 
time (epic adj. 6fx6s) ; the Neuter forms Trkqo-iov near (poet. adj. ir\r)(rios\ 
a-Tjfxepov to-dxy, avpiov to-morrow; and particularly many in a, as fxaka much, 
*dpTa very, §t'y;a in two, apart, etc. Here it is to be remarked, that these 



? 115. PARTICLES. PREPOSITIONS AND ADVERBS. 267 

last in a are paroxy tones, even when adjectives derived from the same root 
are oxytone ; e. g. ra^a (raxys) swift, perhaps; acpodpa (a<po8pos) very; 
crdcpa (aa(pr)s) clearly; \iya, g>k<x, etc. Contra, Sa/xd (whence Safxees) often. 

Note 4. When, besides the neuter forms cvdv and Idv, we find also evOvo 
and lOvs as adverbs (§ 117. 1), it is only accidentally that this adverbial 
form coincides with the Nom. Masc. of the adjective ; since here, as well 
as in eyyvs, the y belongs to the adverbial form, just as it does in dfxpls 
from dfACpi, ^XP IS f° r ^XP 1 ' orp^P- a ^ tQT drpefia. 

Note 5. Some adverbs are real cases of nouns with a preceding preposi 
tion; e. g. 

Trapaxprjfjui lit. ' along with the thing itself,' hence, on the spot, im- 
mediately. 
Ka6d and KaOdrrep, for ko.6* a, Kad' awep, so as, like. 
816, for 6V o, on account of which, wherefore ; but dion because comes 

from did tovto, oti. 
7rpovpyov, for irpb e'pyov, lit. 'for the good of the thing' (§ 147 npo), 
i. e. suitably, appropriately. 
Here also belong some forms, of which the noun by itself is not in use ; e. g. 
egalcjjvT)? suddenly. Some words _which have thusjae^me, compounded, 
exhibit slight variations in orthography an<T "acceiHuatidn ; &s~ e kit o 8 a> v 
out of the way, aside, for etc 7ro8a>v; ip.iv oh a>v in the way (which is at the 
same time syntactically irregular for h ttoctiv) ; iirio~x € P < * > successively, by 
turns, for -<£, from a Nom. ax^pds. 

5. In regard to Comparison, it is the almost exclusive usage 
that 

the Neuter Sing-, of the Comparative, and 
the Neuter Plur. of the Superlative . 
ot adjectives, serve at the same time as forms of comparison ior 
the corresponding adverbs ; e. g. ao^axrepov irocel^ l thou actest 
more wisely ;' aio-^to-ra SteTeXeo-ev i he spent his time most in- 
famously.'' — Less frequently the degrees of the adverb are form- 
ed, by appending the termination oj? to the degrees of the adjec- 
tive. This last is done more especially, when the idea of man- 
ner is to be made conspicuous ; e. g. KaXkiovois in a more elegant 
manner ; hence peydXcos in great style, compar. fieu^ovco^. The 
Superlative in -rdrco^ is not used. 

6. An older adverbial ending is o instead of w? ; hence ovrm 
and ovrco (§ 26. 4). This ending is found particularly in some 
adverbs derived from obsolete adjectives, as cxpvco suddenly, oiriaoa 
behind ; and in some formed from prepositions, e. g. 

€%C0 without, eaco and elaco within, avw above, 
k&tcd below, it poaco forwards, iroppco far* 
These all form their degrees of comparison in the same manner, 
i. e. in co, as dvcoripo), avcordrco. With the same ending are 
formed degrees from some other particles ; e. g. diro far from 
(§ 117. n. 3) dirooTdrco very far off; evhov ivithin, ivSordra) ; e«ra? 
far, ifca<7Tep(0 ; d<y%ov near, dj^ordrco ; fiarcpdv far, fiaKporepQ). 

* These last two particles, with the Doric irSpcrca which lies between them, are 
strictly synonymous ; but in usage irp6<Ta> signifies fonvards, and ir6pp<a (ir6p<reo),far. 



268 CORRELATIVE PARTICLES. § 116. 

7. Ail particles which take the degrees of comparison, without 
being derived from adjectives in actual use, observe the analogy 
of the adjective in forming their degrees ; as iyyvs near, eyy vrepco 
or iyyvrepov, etc. or also efylov, eyyca-ra. Here too the same pecul- 
iarities and anomalies occur as in adjectives ; see note 6. Com- 
pare especially the following with the forms in § 67. 3, and $ 68. 

ayyt, near, aaaov ayyiGTa 

pudka very, fiaXXov pudXiara, 
and the adverbial forms which belong to the comparative r)o-<Tu>v, 
viz. 

rjacrov, rjrrov, less, r\KivTa least, h 68. 2. 

Note 6. As peculiarities of the forms of comparison, we may notice also 
the following i 

nepa (§ 117. 1) — 7repairepa> or irepalrepov 

7r\r)(TL0V — 7rkr)cnaiT€pov or -ecrrepov 

vvKrcop — WKTiairepov 

irpovpyov — Trpovpyialrepov. 
Further, from 16 v straight forwards, the Homeric XQvvrara instead of I6v- 
rara', comp. the marg. note to anom. tSpvco, § 114. — That some such ad- 
verbs, in their forms of comparison, actually become adjectives, has already 
been remarked, § 69, 2, and marg. 

Note 7. Some forms of verbs have, in common usage, become particles, 
and chiefly Interjections. We have already mentioned etev, p. 193. marg. 
note; axpeXov, in 6(pet\a>, § 114; rrj, in anom. TA- ; l8ov lo! in anom. 
6pd(£>. An old Imperat. of the same meaning is rjvide, by apoc. rjvl and fjv. 
So aye, <fiepe, 'id i, ay pei, all signify well! come on! See also dfieXei 
$ 150. m. 20. — All such Imperatives retain commonly the form of the Sing, 
even when addressed to several persons; with the exception of 'ire and 
dypelre. 

Note 8. The adverb bevpo hither, stands also as Imperative for come 
hither. In this case it has a Plural when applied to several persons, 8evre, 
which is explained as an abbreviation from 8evp > 'Ire. This last phrase is 
sometimes found fully written, e. g. Aristoph. Eccles. 882. 



§ 116. Correlative Particles. 

(Compare the correlative Adjectives, §§ 78, 79.) 

1. Several of the relations of place are marked by annexing 
syllables or syllabic endings to words. So the following, viz. in 
answer to the question 

Whence? — ^ev e. g. aWoOev from another place 
Whither? — ere — aXXoae to another place 
Where ? — &t — aXKoOi in another place. 
The vowel before these endings has some variations, and can best 
be learned by observation ; e. g. 'AQrjvrjOev, ovpavoOev, ay pod l in 
the field, 7roripco6c on which of the two sides ? iroTepwcre to ivhich 
of the two sides ? erepcodi on the other side. The accent is com- 
monly retained on the syllable where the radical word has it, or 






$ 116. CORRELATIVE PARTICLES. 269 

as near it as possible ; except that words with o before the end- 
ing, are chiefly paroxytone, e. g. ttovtos nrovrodev, kvk\o^ kvk\6(T6. 

Note 1 . But those from or/cor, na?, aXkos, eV(W, £ktos, follow the general 
rule ) as o'UoOev, Travroae, aXkodi, eKrodev. 

2. In answer to the question whither ? the 

Enclitic he 
is also appended ; and always upon the form of the Accusative 
without change ; e. g. ovpavovBe to heaven, akahe (from aX?) to 
or into the sea, epefioaOe from to e/06/3o?, etc. 

Note 2. The forms oi/caSe home from oikos, and cpvyaBe to flight from 
(/>uy?7, are deviations, probably for easier pronunciation. — In 

'A6r)va£e, Qrj(3a£e 
the § (in 6V) has passed over with the a of the Ace. Plur. into £, by § 22. 
n. 2. Still some words have assumed the f without being in the Plural, as 
$vpa£e, epa£e, ^a/mfe 'OXv/Mrta£e; so that the ending £e may best be regarded 
as a special local-ending, like 6V. 

Note 3. Homer sometimes joins to the Accus. in this form still an ad- 
jective ; e. g. KdWS° evvaio\ievr\v II. £. 255 ; and he even repeats this local 
ending like an ordinary case- ending in ovbe bopovde to his house, from 
bs dofxos. — When however Homer in a'idoo-de appends this 6> to the Geni- 
tive, it arises from the fact that this Genitive commonly stands in an ellip- 
sis; eh aido? sc. dojiov, § 132. n. 30. 

3. In answer to the question where ? the ending env or an is 
appended to many names of cities ; so that it becomes rjcri, after 
a consonant, and den after a vowel ; the accent of the radical 
word being retained ; e. g. 

*A6r}V7](TL, IFkaraiacriv, 'OXv/nridcn, 
from ^AOrjvai, UXaraial, '0\v{i7rla.* — Some other like names re- 
ceive oi, as 

'Iadfiol, UvOol, Meyapol, 
from 'lo-^/io?, IIvOco, rd Meyapa. This ending always has the 
circumflex, except in oikol at home.i 

4. To the three preceding relations of place, the three follow- 
ing common interrogatives likewise have reference ; but only in 
the earlier language and the poets : 

TroOev; whence? nroae', whither? iroOu) where? 

* The ending yvi very often has the i subscript ; and 'Ae^rjcri is then explained 
as the Ion. Dative. But the ending acri shows that this orthography is false. 
Nevertheless, these endings come strictly from the Dative Plural, comp. § 133. n. 
8 ; and then, like a(e, passed over to names in the Singular. See the reverse of 
this in the next marg. note. — 'OXvfnridcri with short o is from f) 'OAv/xmds. 

t This form is the actual Dative of Uvdd>, and in the other instances it is the 
Dative of Dec. II, with the ending somewhat changed ; which then was appended 
to Plural names (Meyapa), and to other words, as ivTavQot from ivravOa (see Text 
8). We must therefore not consider these forms as correlatives of the following 
interrogative iro? whither ; although this very ivravdo? sometimes actually stands in 
answer to the question whither; e. g. Aristoph. Lys. 568. Plut. 608. Such inter- 
changes of the correlatives, however, not unfrequently occur; see the note on p. 
271, and on Soph. Philoct. 481. On ivravQoi see espec. the Ausf. Sprachl. § 116 
n. 28. 



270 



CORRELATIVE PARTICLES. 



U16. 



In the common language they read thus : 

iroOev ; whence ? irol ; whither ? irov : where ? 
These and some other interrogatives — of which the more common 
are irore and TrrjvUa where ? 7rw? how ? tttj which way ? how ? — 
stand with their immediate correlatives (indefinite, demonstrative, 
relative) in the same analogy as the correlative Adjectives in § 79. 
E.g. 



Interrog. 


Indefin, 


Demonstr. 


Relat. 




all enclitic. 




simple, compound. 


noTe; when? 


7rore 


TOT€ 


6W — onore 


ttov; where? 


TTOV 


. . . 


0V OTTOV 


7toi ) whither ? 


rroi 


. . . 


ol OTTOL 


rroOev ; whence? 


nodev 


rodev 


66ev — orroOev 


7ra>s ; how ? 


TTtoS 


T<as, see 5. 


a>s OTTCOS 


7rrj ; how ? 


7TT) 


rfi ' 


fj OTTT}^ 


ir-qv'iKa ' } when ? 


. . . 


TTJVlKa 


■fjvUa — OTrqviKa 



until. 



The significations follow the analogy of § 79. Thus e. g. irore at 
some time, once ; nroQkv from some place, etc. — Further, as the 
postpositive article o?, besides the compound Saris, is also strength- 
ened by nrep {oairep etc.) so the same thing occurs with several 
of the relatives which belong here ; as coairep, fjirep, ovirep. There 
are also two minor and defective sets of correlatives : 

Demonstr. re'cor ) ■, Relat. ecoy ) 

rocppa poet, j °." ocppa J 

Note 4. Of poetic forms we further adduce the following; viz. for irov 
etc. the complete series : 

nodi ; where ? nodi toBl odi and oirodi. 

So for 77oT and ottoi, — 7roVe, orroo-e. There belongs here, further, the old 
epic adverb of time : rrjpos {tthiovto? Hes.) the?i, relat. r^ios (strengthened 
oTrrjjxos) when. 

5. The demonstratives in the above table are the original sim- 
ple ones ; like 6, y, to among the correlative adjectives, § 78. 1. 
But of these, only rore then, at that time, is in common use ; the 
others occur only in certain phrases (see k 149. m. 14), or in the 
poets. Moreover, instead of the poetic tgos we sometimes find W9 
as a less frequent demonstrative ; and as such it takes the acute 
accent, to distinguish it from the relative form &>?. In this form 
it is usual also in prose especially in these phrases : /cat w? even 
so ; ovf? w?, fjLT}^ w?, not even so, in no way. 

6. There are some other demonstratives, which instead of hav- 
ing the initial t, come from an entirely different root, and have a 
more definite sense. Such are 

ifcel (poet, iiceWi) there, i/ceiOrjv from thence, e/cecae thither; 

answering consequently to the interrogatives ttov ; iroOev ; 

ttoI ; — Ionic and poetic forms are also /celdi, /ceiOev, Keiae. 
Bevpo hither, answering to ttoI ; 



For the Iota subscript in this series, sec note 8. 



§ 116. CORRELATIVE 1 ARTICLES 27 1 

vvv now, answering to 7roVe ; 

evda here, there ; evOev hence, thence ; 
which last two have this peculiarity, that they are at the same 
time relatives, synonymous with ov and oOev, and are usual in 
prose. 

7. Of the demonstratives hitherto adduced, five exhibit the 
twofold strengthened form described in § 79. 4. Hence arise the 
common demonstratives of prose, in the following manner ; for 
the accent see § 14. n. 3. 

rrjvLKa TrjviKa.be TTjviKavra 

ev6a evOdbe^ evdavra Ion. ivravBa Att. 

evQev evdevde evBevrev Ion. evrevQev Att. 

rfj Tfjhe ravrrj 

cos &§e ovtcos or ovrco. 

On the last two series see note 7. 

8. Some of these demonstratives assume in addition the 

Demonstrative i, h 80. 
E. g. ovtcdctI — from ovrcoalv see § 80. n. 3. 

ivrevOevl, ivOahl, d>Sl 

hevpi from Sevpo • vvvi from vvv. 
'EviavOa forms in this manner not only ivravOl, but also more 
commonly evravOol', comp. p. 269 marg. 

9. The relatives here, as in adjectives (§ 80), in order to 
strengthen the idea of generality, append the particles 

ovv and hrjirore. 
E. g. ottovovv wheresoever, ottcdg-ovv (and with rl inserted, oirco- 
cttlovv), oirovhrjiroTe, etc. 

Note 5. Just as the corresponding adjective forms ($ 79) give rise to 
still other correlatives, by appending their characteristic endings to words 
expressing general ideas (such as dWolos, ttovtoIos etc. § 79. n. 2), so like- 
wise do the adverbs, e. g. iiWore another time; aWy (corr. to interrog. 
nr}) in another way, manner; 7raiTcoy, iravrrj (to ircos, 7rrj) in every way, 
wholly; avrov, avrodt (to irov, nodi) in the same place, there, etc. — Very 
commonly however the adverbs derived in this manner from aXXos, 7ro\vs, 
nds and eKaarros, are lengthened by inserting the letters ax ', e. g. 

aXXaxov elsewhere, TtavTayov everywhere, noXXaxov in many places, 

€Kao-Taxp6ev from every quarter, aXXaxrj, etc. 
Also from the obsol.'AMOS (whence a}ia) are derived the Homeric dpodev 
from some place or other ; and in the Attic language the phrases : dfxcos ye 
ircos, dfirj ye -nr], a\i66ev ye irodev, ci/xov ye irov, in some way or other, etc. 

Note 6. In most of the above relations, there are also formed correspond- 
ing negatives, (e. g. from ttotc and na?,) just as from ris, mostly by compo 
sition : 

ov7TOTe> jir]iTOTe, never; ouVcof, fiances, by no means. 

* This demonstrative-ending Se is of course not to be confounded with that cor- 
responding to the question whither (Text 2 above) . The two however were some- 
times confounded even by the ancients, and in this very word eV0a5e ; see the note 
to Soph. Philoet. 481. Comp. also p. 269. marg. 



272 CHANGES IN PARTICLES. § 117. 

These latter forms in Homer drop their $■ before a consonant, oujtco, /x^rcD, 
II. y. 306. p. 422. They must then not be confounded with the adverb of 
time, 77co, — o#7roo, ^777700, woi yet. — Most commonly however the negatives are 
formed from the old and Ionic adjective ovdap,6s, /x^Sa/xor, none : 
ovda.fjLG)s by no means j ovdaixjj, ov8ap.ov, ovbafiodev, etc. 

Note 7. It is evident that the simple demonstrative and relative forms 
come from the prepositive and postpositive articles, of which they are in 
part actual cases, as 777, 77, ov, and so also ol for <w (comp. p. 269, marg. note) ; 
and that the others are adverbial derivatives from the same articles, formed 
in a particular manner. Indeed, just as obr, w?, and rear are adverbs of 
quality from or, 6, to, so likewise odev, ore, are formed from them with other 
endings * In like manner the forms ravTrj, rfjbe, ovrcos, aWy, aXXcor, come 
immediately from other pronouns, and outgo, code (from ode) have the ad- 
verbial form -co instead of wr, § 115. 6. From eKelvo? also, in answer to 
the questions 71-77 and 7ra>r, the forms i/ceivrj and eKeivoos are used. The 
forms ttoO, nr), nus, etc. and others of which no Nom. is extant, as ^avrrj, 
navraxov, etc. are formed after the analogy of the preceding. 

Note 8. The 1 subscript under 77 is improperly written (§ 115. n. 3) in 
those forms of which no actual Nominative, as root, is extant ; consequently 
77J7, 077-77, TrdvTT], aXXaxr) j on the other hand, 77, rrj, ravrrj, 0AX77. Many how- 
ever, for the sake of uniformity, write the former in the same manner. 

Note 9. The forms rore and ore, when they stand repeated (and some- 
times when they stand only once) for TTore . . . 7707-6, sometimes . . . sometimes 
(§ 149. m. 14), take also the accentuation of 7rore; thus rore — , ore — . 

Note 10. Dialects, a. Epic writers double the 77 for the sake of the 
metre, in otittcos, oTrnore, etc. 

b. The Ionics have k instead of 7r in all the above forms; e. g. kco?, kov, 
o/ccor, oKodev, ovkio, see § 16. n. 1. c. 

c. The Dorics for nore, ore, etc. have tto'kct, oica, etc. ibid. For ckcI they 
have rnvei, § 74. 11. 1. 

d. Instead of the ending 3ev the poets have the shorter form Se, e. g. 
uKXode, eKToade. 

e. For 77 an epic form is rj^i or r^t. 

f. For rewr and- ecor there are epic forms reiW, elms. Hence in Homer, 
when recoy and k'cos stand in the place of a trochee, one must read re 10 s 
and elo?; see Aasf. Sprachl. II. p. 358. 

g. Other epic particles are : r lit re wherefore ? for r/ 7rore, avdi for avrodi 
there, ^a/mSir for ^a/jia£V, iiKkvbis for aXhocre. 



§ 117. Mutations of some other Particles. 

A. In the Letters. 

1. "We have already treated of the changes in ov, ovk, ob% and 
6%, etc, as also of the movable final v or 9 at the end of certain 
particles ; see h 26. "We remark further here, that in some of 
these last, there arises by this means a difference of sense. So 
the following : 

irepav, trans, beyond, on the other side, chiefly of rivers and other waters. 
On the other hand ire pa, ultra, over, etc. where the object is conceived 

* With the ending fav compare the Genitives of some pronouns, which end in the 
same manner, § 72. n. G. 5. 



4 117. CHANGES IN PARTICLES. 273 

as a "bound, limit. Both are used as prepositions and as adverbs. See 
Lexil. II. 69. 

dvriKpv and dvrcKpvs, with different accentuation. Homer uses the first 
form in all the significations. But in regard to Attic usage the Gram- 
marians give the rule, that dvriKpv is to be employed only in the literal 
local sense, straight forward, over against; and avTiupvs only in the 
metaphorical sense, straightway, without hesitation, at once. But there 
are many opposing examples of both kinds. See the Ausf. Sprachl. 

evOvs and evdv, § 115. n. 4. In the relation of time only eidvs, immedi- 
ately, is used ; but in the relation of place, commonly evdv, straight to, 
directly to ; e. g. evdv AvKeiov, evdv 'E(peaov, straight to the Lyceum, to 
Ephesus ; and seldom, for the metre or to avoid hiatus, evdv?, Eurip. 
Hippol. 1197. — The Ionic forms Idvs, Idv, are used without any differ- 
ence, and solely in the local sense. 

2. The following differences of form are employed without any 
difference of sense ; and either belong to the Attic poets, or as 
Ionisms are also not unknown to the Attics : 

idv, fjv, au, if, (see § 139. m. 24,) in the first and third forms with long a. 

arjpepov, Att. rfjpepov, to day ; — xdis and ex&es yesterday. 

avv, old £vv, with ; — eh, Ion. er, in. 

iv, Ion. ivi, in; see further in n. 1. 

del, Ion. and poet, alei and alev, ever. 

evena or evenev (and this even before consonants, e. g. Xen. Hier. 3. 4. ib. 
5. 1), Ion. etveKa, e'iveKev, on account of. 

eWra, Ion. enetrev, afterwards. 

on because, in common language also onr) (Aristoph.) comp. § 77. n. 2. 

For ov no, not, and vai yes, the Attics use for the sake of emphasis ou;(/ 
(Ion. ovk'l), vaixh § 11. n. 2. 

Note 1 . Other differences of dialect are the following : 

For npos to, old irporl, Dor. irori. — For perd with, iEol. rreSa. 

For ovv therefore, Dor. and Ion. Z>v. 

For avdt? again, Ion. avns. 

For Ke, KeV, an enclitic particle used by the epic writers for av (§ 139. m. 

10), Dor. kol. Hence oiaca instead of orav. 
For ye at least, Dor. ya. 
For el if, Dor. at, which form is used also by the epic writers, but only 

in at Ke, al yap, and aWe, § 139. m. 7, 8, 66. 
Other epic forms are rje for fj or, as; eiretr] for eVetS?; since, because; 

elv, eivi, for ev and ivi) pdv, pev, for pr\v, tridy; air dp and drdp 

but. 
Some prepositions, especially irapd and into, take in the earlier poetry, 

instead of a and o, the ending ai; as trap al, inr at. 
Some other differences of dialect see in § 116. n. 10. 

Note 2. The conjunction apa, and the prepositions 7rapa and ava, often 
drop the final vowel among the Dorics and in the epic language, even be 
f'ore consonants, as ap, nap, av (or av) ; e. g. 

ovt dp (ppevas, nap Sea, dv 8e. 
When in this case av comes to stand before a lingual, it is an old usage, 
instead of av neXayo?, av peya, and the like, to write 

apire\ayos, appeya. 
See § 25. n. 4. — The same apocope occurs also in the prep. Kara; but since 
t cannot stand at the end of a word (§ 4. 5), this preposition connects itself 
in like manner with the following word. The r is then alwajs assimilated 
to the following consonant, which consequently is written double : or 

s 



274 CHANGES IN PARTICLES. § 117. 

where this latter is a rough mute, the t becomes the kindred smooth mute 
before it 3 thus 

Karrov • Kadde, Kappiv, Kayydiw,^ Ka7T(pdXapa, 
for Kara tov, koto. Se, koto. piv, Kara, ydw, Kara cpdXapa, etc. The Doric 
vori (for 7rpo'y) does the same, but only before another r, e. g. irorrdv for 
7tot\ rov.f — We add further that all these changes and modes of orthography 
occur also in compound words ; thus : 

7rapdefX€Voi, 77ap<rracra • dvcrravres; dvveipi) • aXXe£at, dy{;ripaiv(£> 
Karravvaai, KarBaveiv • Ka/3/3ar, KaKKeiovres, KaWnrov, Kappvco, Kavvevaas, 
KaTrrreare, Kappzfa • Ka/c^euat. So to avoid the concurrence of three con- 
sonants, we find KaKrave, Kao-xe#e, apvdo-et, for KaKKrave, Kaa-ax^Oe, 
dfifivdaei II. X. 702. Pind. Pyth. 4. 54. 
In like manner the prepositions and and vird are also apocopated in compo 
sition, though seldom, and only before kindred consonants, as aTrirepneiv, 
vj3(3d\eiv. 

B. Changes in the Accent. 

3. Most of the primitive prepositions of two syllables (§ 115. 
2), which have the accent on the last syllable, draw back the 
tone in the following manner : 

1) "When they stand in the figure Anastrophe,t i. e. after the 
noun which they govern ; c. g. 

rovrov irepi for irepl tovtov 
^rewv diro for airo ^ecov. 
But from this rule are excepted dpfyi, dvri, hid, and dvd. 

2) When they are used alone, instead of forming compounds 
with the verb elvcu ; or, more accurately, when the .verb is omit- 
ted, and they stand alone as adverbs ; in which case the common 
language also adopts the Ion. ivl for iv ; e. g. 

eyoo irdpa, for Trdpeijii 
eiri, evL, v7ro, for hreariv^ etc. 
to which we must also reckon ava for dvdo-rr)0L, up ! 

Note 3. More exact critics accent the prepositions in the above manner, 
when in poetry they stand after their verb, e. g. Xovar) airo, for diroKova-r] • 
and when also in poetry they stand as adverbs, e. g. irkpi very, before others. 
They write also airo, when this preposition means not merely from, but 
apart, remote from, comp. § 115. 6. But in all this, and in the exceptions 
from the preceding rules, there is no uniformity in our editions. 

Note 4. Another rule is, that when in the first of the above cases, (the 
anastrophe,) the preposition is elided, it takes no accent, as £ea>z/ an — , not 
Secbv aV — ; but not so in the second case, e. g. ov yap eV dvr]p (for eirecrnv). 

* In this single instance 77 is of course pronounced like gg, and not like ng. 

t Recent editors mostly prefer to write ap. ireAayos, /co5 Be, Kap ph, Kay y6vv x 
tot t6v, by which means they separate in writing, that which is united in pronun- 
ciation. If we would be consistent, we must write av iriXayos, just as we divide 
the EMnTPI of the ancients into eV irvpi. But then follows of course Kar Se, which 
is absurd. It is better therefore to write /ca55e, Karrdv, etc. like dol/xdriov, ovttI, 
cy<p8a, etc. 

t This term was ambiguous even among the ancients, since they employed it 
also to designate the drawing back of the tone in both the cases here mentioned. 
See the JLusf. Sprachl. 



H 118, 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. 275 

— The same transposition of monosyllabic prepositions is mentioned § 147. 
n. 10. For e£ and e£, <uy and ek, and the like, see § 13. 4. 

Note 5. The Interjection & has also a twofold accent, viz. the circumflex 
in the sense of calling, etc. i. e. before the Vocative ; but the acute or grave, 
when employed as an exclamation, i. e. before the other cases ; e. g. Soph. 
Aj. 372 o) bvarp.opos> bs fxedijica, unhappy man that I am! a> rrjs dvcudcla? 
O the impudence ! & fioc wo is me ! and so also in the exclamation <o ttottoi. 
But there is as little uniformity in respect to this word, as in the former ex- 
amples (note 3) ; see the Ausf. Sprachl. 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 
§ 118. Derivation. 

1. The formation of words, in the fullest sense of this expres- 
sion, lies beyond the limits of ordinary grammar. The analogies 
in the older or primitive portion of a language are often changed 
or obscured by time and by the mixing together of roots. Hence, 
on the one hand, it is impossible definitely to mark these analo- 
gies ; while, on the other hand, a full understanding of them pre- 
supposes an extensive and profound course of study, which, un- 
der the general name of philology, is, for practical reasons, sep- 
arated from ordinary grammar. 

2. Certain kinds and forms of derivation however, — which 
may for this reason be regarded as more recent, — have been pre- 
served so complete, and lie within such definite limits, that they 
can with certainty be reduced to a systematic arrangement. 
Such a method of bringing them together, under a general view, 
so much facilitates and promotes the knowledge of a language, 
that the grammar can well afford a place for an exhibition of this 
kind. 

3. Under this general division, however, we can here include 
only Verbs, Substantives, Adjectives, and Adverbs; since the 
other parts of speech either belong to the old primitive formation 
above referred to, or have been already treated of in this work 
under other heads. The general subject of the derivation of 
words, we may divide into two principal parts : 1) Derivation 
hy Endings. 2) Formation by Composition. 

k 119. Derivation by Endings. 

1. In appending derivative or formative endings, there existed 
two principles, viz. the tendency to express like significations by 
the same endings; and the tendency to adapt the endings as 
much as possible to the form of the primitive word. That from 
the collision of these two principles there arose a manifold con- 
fusion in the analogy, will be very obvious from the following 
specifications. 



276 FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. * 119. 

I. Verbs. 

2. Of verbs, we are to consider here chiefly those which are 
derived from nouns, either substantives or adjectives. This deri- 
vation is commonly made by means of the following endings : 

dco, eco, oco, evco, d^co, l£w, aivco, vvco. 
These endings take the place of the Nominative-ending, when 
the primitive word belongs to the first or second declension ; and 
also in words of the third declension, if the Norn, ends in a vow- 
el, or in ? preceded by a vowel ; e. g. tl/jLY) Tifidco, irrepov Tnepoco, 
^avfia ^av/jsdfo, oXtjOtj^ ak7]6evco. In other words of Dec. III. 
these endings take the place of o? in the Grenitive ; e. g. /coXaf; 
KoXa/cevco, irvp (irvpos) irvpoco. 

Note 1. Nominatives of the third declension in a, ay, *y, which assume 
a consonant in the Genitive, can pass over only into kindred verbal endings, 
as a and ay into d£co, alvcc, — tr into i£co; e. g. Qavpa 3avp,d£a> and &avp.alva, 
e'X7j-ir ek7ri£a. Every ending not thus kindred is appended to the consonant 
of the Genitive ; e. g. (pvyas (pvyadevco, XPW a XPW 17 '^- 

3. As to the signification of these endings, we can here take 
into view only general usage, and specify the primary idea of the 
greater number of verbs under each ending. 

a. — eco and evco. These verbs are formed from nouns of al 

most all endings, and mostly express the state or action of that which their 
primitive word signifies; e. g. Koipavos ruler : , Koipavkm rule; koiv&vos partak 
er, Kowcaveco partake; SoOAoy servant, dovXevco serve; KoKa^ flatterer, KoXaKevca 
flatter; aXrjdrjs true, dXrjdevca speak the truth; (3acri\ev? (Ba<ri\eva>, etc. They 
are most commonly intransitive ; sometimes however transitive, e. g. cplXos 
friend, cpikeca love. . 

In general these two endings are the most common ones in derivative 
verbs, and serve therefore to express a multitude of relations, which are 
likewise partially included under the following endings ; thus especially 
the practice of that which the radical word signifies, e. g. iTo\ep,eli>, ddXelv ; 
Tvop-ireveiv, yopeueiz/, cpoveveiv, (BovXeveiv ; or whatever else is in each case the 
most natural relation, e. g. ai\6s flute, avkeiv play the flute; dyopd assembly, 
dyopeveiv address an assembly; hnvevew ride on horseback, etc. — The ending 
■eco more especially, as the simplest of all, is used for most of those deriva- 
tives which are first formed by composition, as evrvx^co, e7nx et p«o> olKo8op,ea>, 
epyoAa/3eoo, p^o-tKajceco, etc. — In all instances these endings are most com- 
monly intransitive. 

b. — dco. These verbs arise most naturally from words oi 
Dec. I, in a and rj, but also from others. They express chiefly the posses 
sion of some thing or quality in a special degree, and also the performance 
of an action ; e. g. Kop-rj hair, Kop.qv to have long hair; xoXrj bile, xoXqv to hav 
much bile, be angry ; X'nro? fat, \iirqv to have much fat, be fat ; J3or} cry, yoos 
lamentation, — fioqv, yoqv ; rokp.a boldness, rokp-qv dare. Hence, as transitive, 
they denote the performance of an action towards others ; e.g. Tifirj honour ^ 
rifiqv nva to honour any one.^ See also the verbs of disease in m. 13, below. 

* Here and in other similar cases it may appear strange, that the abstract noun 
should be the primitive word, from which the verb is derived. But this case is not 
rare ; if, as is very common in all languages, the substantive is first derived from 
an older and simpler verb, and then again forms from itself a verb, which supplantc 



I 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. 277 

c# — 6co, These come mostly from words of Dec. II, and ex- ? 

press: 1) The making or transforming into that which the radical word 
signifies; 8ovX6a> make a slave, drjXooa make known from hrjkos known. 2) 
The working with or applying the thing signified by the root ; xpvcroco S^j 
fxikrooo paint with vermilion (ptXros), nvpoco put in the fire, ropvoco form with 
the ropvos; turn, fypwoi punish from fypia. 3) The furnishing with or impo- 
sing the thing signified by the root j arecpavooi crown, mp6<o give wings to 
(iTTepov), aravpoco crucify, etc. 

d — a£© and itfia. The first ending comes most naturally 8 
from words in a, ns, as, etc. sometimes also, for the sake of euphony, from 
other endings. Both comprehend so many relations, that they cannot well 
be brought under definite classes j e. g. diicdfa, xei/id£a>, irpooipidfa, opinio, 
(LteXifea, Sepl^, XaKri^, etc. Still it deserves to he noted, that when they 
are formed from the proper names of nations or persons, they mark the 
adoption of the manners, party, or language of the same ; e. g. pr)8i£eiv to 
become a Mede in sentiment, tXXrjvi&iv to speak Greek, dapidfciv to speak 
Doric, $ikimrt£etv to be of Philip 1 s party. See also below in m. 14. 

e. — alvco and vvw. The latter ending comes always from ad- 9 
jectives, and expresses the making or causing to be such as the adjective 
signifies ; e. g. rj^vvetu to make sweet, aepvvveiv to make venerable, dignify. 
It must here be observed, that those adjectives, whose degrees of compari- 
son in i.W, lo-ror, presuppose an obsolete positive in vs, form the verbs in 
vv<£> from this last; e. g. alaxpds (ato-^iooi/ from AI2XY2) — atcr^uj/co ; so 
fxctKpor, KaX6s,—prjKvva>, KaXXvva, etc. — The same signification is often found 
in verbs in aiVto, as Xivizaiveiv to make white, KoiXaiveiv to hollow out, etc. 
Still several of these have a neuter signification, as ^aXeTrcuVeiz/, (W^epcu- 
v€iv, become angry, etc. They come sometimes also from substantives, 
especially those in pa (arjpa arjpali/co, Selpa, oVi/xaiW>), and express various 
relations. 

4. A special mode of deriving verbs from nouns, is simply to 10 
change the ending of the noun into a); and then the preceding 
syllable, according to its consonants, receives one of those addi- 
tions which we have noted in § 92, as giving a strengthened form 

to the Present. 

Thus are formed from noiKiXos ttolklXXco, ayyeXo? dyyeXXco, mdapos Ka- 
&alpa>, paXaicos 1 paXdacrw, (pdppaKov (pappdcraa), /xeiXt^or peiXicrcrco, nvpeTos 
irvpecr<ra>, ^aXeTror ^nXeVrco, etc. The relation of the sense to that of the 
root, is in every instance the most natural and obvious one. 

5. There remain still the following more limited classes of de- i j 
rived forms of verbs : 

1) Desideratives, which mark a desire, and are commonly 

formed by changing the Future in -o-co of the verb expressive of the thing- 
desired, into a Present in -aeico; e. g. yeXacrtico I should like to laugh, iroXe- 
prjo-eloi I long for war, etc. 

Another class of desideratives, is formed in don or idea, derived properly 12 
from substantives, e. g. Savarqu to long for death, a-Tpar^yiqv desire to be 
leader ; then also from verbs, by first forming these into substantives, e. g. 
bwelaQai (wvrjTr)?) — wvrjTiqv to wish to purchase j kXcu'co (KXavcris) — KXavcriav to 
long to weep. 

This form passed over very naturally into a sort of imitative verbs, e. g. 13 

the first. This is manifestly the case in t/w, ti/xtj, ri/j.dco ; and it may therefore well 
be assumed in others, as £077, v'ikt). etc. although in many instances neither the one 
uor the other can be definitely maintained. 



278 FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. 5 119. 

rvpavviav to play the tyrant. But it is incorrect to reduce under this head 
the verbs of disease, as ocpdaXptav, vdepiav, y^copav, etc. which are better re- 
ferred to m. 6. above. 

J 4 2) Frequent atives in £&>, e. g. piirrd^eiv (from piTrreiv) to cast 
hither and thither. Mid. to cast one's self hither and thither, be unquiet; ore- 
vd£ecv (from o-reveiv) sigh deep and often; alreiv ask, alrigeiv beg; tpiveiv creep, 
£p7rv£<Eiv creep slowly. 

3) Inchoatives in <tkq>, see h 112. 14, and n. 7. 

II. Substantives. 
6. We here begin with substantives derived immediately. 

A. From Verbs. 
In respect to these it must be premised in general : 

15 1) That the endings beginning with a consonant or with a 
vowel necessarily accord with the corresponding forms of flexion 
in the verb only in those points, which rest upon the fundamental 
rules of the language, (§ 16 sq.) e. g. Nouns in oy? with the Fut. in 
era), as i^era^cD -daco -a<n,$, rplftco rptya (i) rpfyc? ; those in fios, fia, 
Ijlt], with the 1 pers. Perf. Pass, as 7fkifcco ireifkeyixaL r 7T%iy/jLa, etc. 
In all, others there exists indeed a frequent accordance between 
the similar endings of the verb and the verbal nouns, but not a 
necessary one ; e. g. in respect to the vowel before the ending, as 
in Seft> {hrjaw, hehefiat) hefia and ScdSrjfia ; but /3coco {fiiocxjojiai etc.) 
(SioTos, and the like. 

16 2) That the endings beginning with a vowel (as rj, o?, ei>?) are 
also formed from contracted verbs in ico and dco in such a man- 
ner, that e and a fall away ; except however in the shorter verbs, 
which cannot drop then* vowel, as belonging to the root, but only 
change it, as peco, por). 

17 Note 2. Before r and p. the letter a Is inserted, as in the Perf. and Aor. 
1 Passive ; and this in all nouns der twd from verbs whose characteristic is 
a lingual, a few poetic forms excepted; § 102. n. 1, Savparos. Those from 
verbs pure, on the contrary, sometimes take the cr and sometimes not, with- 
out reference to the flexion of the verb. — Where the o- is not inserted, we 
can in general in all the endings safely follow the analogy of the Future ; 
thus e. g. SeaTrjs, Seapa, Svpa, have the vowel (a, v) long, like Sedcropai, 
Svcroa ; but with this limitation, that those endings which begin with cr and 
r sometimes shorten the long vowel, especially when the verb itself short- 
ens it in the Aor. 1 Passive; see below, m. 23 and 30, also § 95. n. 4 and 
marg. note. — The endings beginning with p., on the contrary, conform in this 
respect almost without exception to the analogy of the Fut. 1, neglecting 
even that of the Perf. Passive; see below, m. 19. 

18 7. In order to express the action or effect of the verb, the fol- 
lowing endings are principally employed : 

/jlos, fir), fia, cris, cia, rj or a, o? Masc. o? Neut. 

19 a. — /i-o?, /jurj or \ir), \ia, Gr. tos. These endings can indeed be 
compared with the Perf. Passive ; but nouns in pos, when a vowel precedes > 
in the radical form, commonly assume cr; while on the other hand those in 



$ 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. 279 

both the other endings do not commonly take o-, not always indeed even 
when the Perf. Pass, has it. Those which do not take the <r, retain the 
long vowel of the Future, even when the Perf. Pass, shortens it ; but nev- 
ertheless in such a way that some fluctuate between n and e ; e. g. ti'0tj/u 
(re$€ip,ai) — Secrfxos; Qep,a or $7)p.a; 8ea> (SeSe/itu) — Secr/xor, dear fir), 8ep.a, 
diddrj pa; yiyvaxxKoa (eyv(Ocrp.ai) — yviop.r]\ Xva> (XeXu/icu) — Xvp.a. — Inrespect 
to signification, those in p.6s commonly denote the proper abstract ; e. g. 
TraXKco 7raX^or a swinging, ddvpopai oftvpp.6s a lamenting, oiKret'pco ol<ripp.6s 
compassion, Xu£co (kv£a>) \vyp-6s a sobbing, hiccough, aelco a-eiap-os a shaking. 
— The ending pa on the other hand denotes rather the effect of the verb as 
a concrete, and even the object ; so that it mostly coincides with the Neuter 
Part. Perf. Pass. e. g. irpdypa that which is done, deed ; p,lp,r]p.a the imitation, 
i. e. the copy ; o-Treipco airepp,a that which is sown, seed, etc. — The ending prj 
fluctuates between the two ; e. g. p-vr)p.n a calling to mind, recollection ; eVt- 
o-Tr)pr) a knowing, knowledge; tlllt) honour shewn; but also o-nypxi point, 
ypapprj line, which differ only in secondary meanings from ariyp-a puncture, 
thrust, ypdp.p,a a letter, writing. 

Note 3. Some nouns in /xo'y from the more ancient language, have before 20 
p. simply the vowel, without o- ; e. g. 8eip,6? fear, Kpvp.69 a being cold, frost; 
— or they have instead of a- a &; e. g. 6pxr)0p.6s dance from opx^op.ai, p.vicr)- 
6p.6s, K\avdp.6s, p.7)vi6p,o9, etc. /3a0/*o'y (strictly a treacling from (3alva>, hence) 
a step of a stairea«e 3 etc. — So even after p, as aK.ap6p,6s from aKaipoa • with 
which we may compare Wpa a going, step, lardpo? gangway, neck, isthmus 
both from Ii2, etfii, to go ; also aa6p,a asthma from aco. 

Note 4. The above differences of signification it is necessary to mark as 21 
a ."basis ; but at the same time it must not be forgotten, that both in the 
poets and in the common language, the significations especially of the ab- 
stract and concrete, often flowed into one another. Thus e. g. \axp-6s (comp. 
§ 23 note) and xpWH-°* mean, not the act of casting lots and of prophesying, 
but the lot, the oracle; on the other hand, <pp6vr]p,a the understanding, etc. 

b. — vis, crla, mark the proper abstract of the verb, from which 22 
signification they deviate very little ; e. g. p.ip.r]ais imitation, irpd^i? action, 
aKrj\jn?, etc. SoKt/xacrta trial, Qvaia sacrifice, e£o7r\iaia, etc. In certain com- 
pounds the ending via expresses the action more as a permanent quality. 

e. g. o£v(3\eyp-ia, Ka^e^ia; but these forms imperceptibly pass over into the 
similar ones derived from nouns ; comp. below in m. 35. 

Note 5. Some of the forms which belong here deviate in quantity from 23 
the analogy of the Future of their verbs ; viz. alpeais, yeveais, Seai?, r/o-ty, 
Xvo-ty, cpvai?, dvcris, Bvaia; see m. 17. For the short vowel in ricris and 
(pdiais, compare too and (pOla in § 114. 

The following can be less definitely characterized in respect to 24 
signification ; though the idea of the abstract predominates. 

c. — rj and a, mostly oxytones, e. g. ev^r) prayer, from ev%o- 

pai ) acpayr) slaughtering, from aepdrrco J dibaxrj teaching, from SiSacr/Kco ; x a P<* 
rejoicing, from x ai P <a / — an( i with the alternate o for e, (like the Perf. 2, 
§ 97. 4. c,) rop,T] from rep-vco, cpBopd from cpOeipa, doidr) from aet'Sco, etc. — 
Some assume a reduplication, which corresponds to the Attic reduplication 
of the Perfect, and always has an co in the second syllable ; e. g. dyayr) 
from ayco, edcodi] from eSco (ednda), 0x00^77 from e^co. Comp. marg. note on 
p. 239, 240. 

Paroxytones are e. g. fikd(3T) injury, from /3Xa7rrco, /3Xa/3co ; p,dxrj battle, from 
fiaxop-ai ) vikt) victory, from viKaco.— Here too are to be referred those in 

— ela, which are formed solely from verbs in evco by changing 25 
cv into ei; e. g. iraidela from 7rcuoVvcD. These have always the final a long, 
and therefore the acute accent on ei. 



280 FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. § 119. 

26 Note 6. In regard to the tone of all nouns in eia, the following are the 
general rules; compare also § 34. n. IT. 3. 

Properispomena are the feminines of oxytone adjectives in v$, e. g. rjdv?, 

f)de7a. 
Proparoxytone are : 1) Abstract nouns in ns and os, e. g. aXrjdeia (see m. 

35), fio7]6eca from (3on86?. 2) Feminines from masculines in evr, e. g 

Upeia priestess, see m. 47. 3) Feminines from masc. baryt. in v?, e. g. 

Sfkeia from SrjXv?. 
Paroxytone are abstracts from verbs in eva, just adduced. 

27 d. — o? Masc. The far greater part of these have o in the 
principal syllable, either by nature or as alternate for e ; e.g. Kporo? clap- 
ping of hands, from Kporeco ; (pdovos envy, from <fidovea> ; Adyor discourse, from 
Acyco; poo? (poCs) from peco. — But also eAey^oy confutation, from eXeyvca; 
TV7roy from tvtttol> ; tvoXos from 7raAAeo, etc. 

To these may be added substantives in ror, which are commonly oxytone, 
e. g. aixrjTos mowing, k&kvtos howling ; sometimes with slight changes, as 
veros rain, from uco ; nayeros frost, from ir^yvvpL. Some have the tone drawn 
back; e. g. ft'ioro? life; iroros drinking, from mv(o Tseiropai. 

28 e. — 0? Neut. E. g. to /o}8o? care, from fojBco ; Xa^o9 lot, 
from Aayyaz/o) ; Trpayos i. q. irpdypa etc. These verbals never have o in the 
principal syllable; hence r6 yeVov race, genus; but 6 yovos procreation. 

29 8. The subject of the verb, as a person or maw, is marked by 
the following endings : 

a. — T7]<? (Gr. ou), T?7p, to)/). The most common of these is the 
ending rr?r, in Dec. I ; and the words are partly oxytone, partly paroxytone. 
E. g. dffkvTi]? wrestler, from a^Aeco; paOnrj)? scholar, from paddv ; Searrj? 
spectator, from Sedopai ; dLnaarr]? from StKa£a> ; Kpirrjs from /cptVco etc. But 
also KvfiepvrjTns steersman, from Kvftepvda) ; Trkda-rn s (from 7rAarrco, 7re7rAao-pat), 
Sui/dor^r, \lfaXrns; etc. 

— T77p and reap are less frequent forms, which in the dialects and in the 
poets are often in use along with rrjs ; and in many words are usual in the 
common language ; e. g. acor^p saviour, prjroop orator, (from o-adco and 'PEQ,) 
io-Tidrcop host, etc. 

30 Note 7. Some of these shorten the vowel before the ending (see m. 17) ; 
e. g. cvevdvrrp, Svrrjp, Serv?, aipe'r^r; and especially those from rjyeopai com- 
pounded with a substantive, as odnyerw?, Movanyerr)? or Movcrayerns. 

31 b. — ev$. E. g. <ypa<f)ev<; ivriter, cfidopevs corrupter. 

Note 8. The endings in lett. a, b, have in part passed over to things, 
which can be conceived of as the subject of an action; e. g. dr^rns wind, iirev- 
Vvrr}? outer garment, Trpncrrip storm, ^coar^p girdle, ipfiohtv? piston, stamp, 
etc. — The poetic use of such masculine forms in connection with feminines, 
is a license of Syntax; see § 123. n. 1. 

32 c. — o?, mostly in composition ; e. g. faypdfos painter, irarpo- 
ktovos patricide, etc. But (6, rj) rpocpos one who educates, doihos singer, etc. 
and some old words, as dp)(6$ leader Horn. 

d. — 779 and a9, Gr. ov. Only in some compounds, as fjuvpoirca- 
A^r, TpLT)pdpxT]S (and -ov), opvidoBrjpas, irarpaXoias, etc. 

33 9. The names of instruments and other objects connected with 
an action are formed from the foregoing names of subjects ; or at 
least presuppose such in their formation. So especially : 

— rrjpiov, rpov, rpa, from the subject-ending rrjp ; e. g. Xovrrj- 
ptov, bathing-tub, Xovrpov bath, Xovrpov water for bathing, aKpoa-rripiov lecture- 
room, ^vcrrpa curry-comb, opxwr pa place for dancing 



$ 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIV \TION. 2^1 

— elov, from the ending eu? ; e. g. Kovpelov barber's shop, from 
Kovpevs barber, and this from Keipeiv to shear; rpocpeiov "cages of one wliC\ edu- 
cates, from rpocpevf. 

10. Another principal class of substantives is made up of those 34 
derived 

B. From Adjectives and words expressing Attributes. 

These for the most part serve only to express the abstract of the 
adjective, or attributive word. Here belong the following endings : 

a. — la, always with long a (Ion. rj) ; e. g. arotyos wise, o-ccfrlc 5 

wisdom; so mida, betXia, etc. Also /3Xa/au from /3Ad|, evbaipovia from cv8ai- 
/xcoi/, ovos ] dv&pia from ai/^p avbpos (for dvbpe'ia from the adj . ai/Spelor s- a ,e m . 
36, also Ausf Sprachl. and Passow); irevia from 7^77$-, rjTos; dpaOla ftom 
dp.adr)s, €09. But those in rj? more commonly form their substantive in air 
see immediately below. 

Compound adjectives in tos often change in this formation the r into c- ; 
*3. g. dOdvaros ddavao~ia, bvo-TvertTO? bvo-Tve^fla ] comp. rn. 49 and 67. 

From the ending ta have risen by contraction those in 

eta and oca, 
where the a becomes short, and the accent falls upon the antepenult. , The 
former («a) comes from adjectives in 77?, G. eor, e. g. dXrjdeca from dXrjOr}?; 
the latter (oca) from adjectives in ovs, e. g. dvota from avovs. 

Note 9. From some adjectives are formed abstract nouns in rj or a sim- c. 
ply, but always as paroxytones; e. g. from kclko? (Fern. KaKt]) fj KaKrj for 
KcrKia ; from ix^pos (Fem. ex^pd) rj ex^pa enmity. Hence from adjectives in 
10s, e. g. oo-ios, agios, a'vrcos, come the subst. fj oala right, duty, dgia dignity, 
atria fault, guilt; all which forms, by accident, are not distinguished from 
the feminine adjective. 

b. — t?7?, Gr. ttjtos, Fem. E. g. laorr)^ equality from IVo?, ira- 37 
Xvrr)? from iraxvs. All are paroxytones, with a few exceptions, as raxvTrjs, 
drj'iorrjs, G. tjtos. 

c. — avvrj. E. g. ^LKatoavvrj, hovKoavvr), most frequently from 38 
adjectives in toy G. ovos, e. g. auxppoo-vvq from creoepptoz/ G. 01/or. Those 
which have a short vowel in the syllable before the antepenult, take in the 
antepenult to, like comparatives in repor ; but except Upcoavvrj priesthood in 
Demosthenes, there are very few words of this class, and these in the later 
Greek. See Fischer ad Weller. II. p. 40. 

d. — 0? Neut. especially from adjectives in u?, e. g. /3d0os 39 
from fiadvs, rdxos from Tuyur. Hence too from such, whose degrees 

of comparison seem to presuppose an old positive in vs, e. g. to koXXos, tg 
alax 09 ' ro P? K0$, > from mXo? (KaXXitov), alcrxpds (atV^toros), paicpos (prjKcaros). 
Comp. m. 9, above. 

11. Of the substantives which come 

C. From other Substantives, 40 

are first to be remarked some endings, which are formed simply 
after the analogy of verbals. Thus : 

1) Masculines in T17? (of which all in Ittjs have long 1) often 
denote simply a person in some relation to the object expressed by the rad- 
ical word ; e. g. 73-0X1x775 citizen, from ttoXc? city; ottXiti]? an armed man, from 
ottXov ; t7T7roTj/y rider, from cttitos ; yevecrjrr]? a bearded man, from yevecov ; <pv- 
Xrjrrjs member of a class or tribe, from <pvXr}. • AH these pass over occasion- 
ally into the adjective signification, § 63. n. ? 



2^2 FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. $ 119 

41 2) In the same manner those in eu? ; e. g. lepev? priest, from 

lepov Umple (or from rot Upd sacrifice) ; ypmevs and dXievs fisher : from y pivot 
net an d aXs sea ; ypapp.arevs, etc. 

42 12. All other substantives of this kind may be brought under 
the following subdivisions : 

1) Those which denote a place consecrated to a divinity, in cov, 

aiov, eiov) e. g. Aiovvaiov, 'A(ppo8io-toj/, "Hpaiov, Movcrelov, 'HpditXeiov. 

43 2) Those which denote a place where there is a plurality of 
certain objects, in av G. eovos Masc. and <ovid Fern. E. g. dpneXcou vineyard, 
po&avid rose-garden, dvbpcov men's apartment, peXerav hall for exercise. 

3) Female appellatives : 

44 a. — retpa, rpca, and rpfc Gr. rplSos ; strictly from masculines 
in Ttjp and reap, but also from those in ttjs. E. g. aooreipa female deliverer, 
opxwrpia female dancer , avX-qr pis female flute-player, from 6pxr}o-rr}s, avXrjrrjS. 

45 b. — t? G-. tSo? is the most common ending, and comes in the 
place of the Masc. tjs and as of Dec. I. E.g. beanoTrjs master, SecnroTis mis- 
tress j Ik.€tt]s Ik€tls, "2Kvdrjs ~2kv6is, p.vpoTTcc>\r)S pvpon&Xis a female dealer in 
ointment. Comp. iirrerLS etc. § 70. n. 2. 

46 c. • — aiva, chiefly from Masc. in cov, e. g. ^epdircov (ovtos) ^e- 
pdnaiva female servant, Xecov (ovros) Xeaiva lioness, rtKT&v (ovos) reKraiva fe- 
male artisan, Acikcoi/ (covo?) Admiva. Also from some masculines in os, e. g. 
Seos Seaiva. 

47 d. — eta, from two masculines in evs, viz. iepeca priestess, from 

lepevs ) fiacriXeia queen. 

48 e. — craa from several endings of Dec. III. E. g. j3aa-[\ccrcra 
from -evs ', Tvzvqcrcra from -rjs; avacraa from ava£ ', KiXicraa, Qpfjcraa (Attic 
Gperrra), from KiXtg and Qpj}g or Qpag. 

49 4) Gentile nouns, or national appellatives. These are com- 
prised in three classes : A. Masculine ; B. Feminine ; C. Possess- 
ive (adjectives). 

A. Masculine. 

— to?, also — <xto? from Dec. I. E.g. Kopiv6io$, Tpoityjvios, 

'Acravpios, Bv^dvrios (from Bv^dvrwv) ) 'Adrjvcuos, Aapiacralos ; sometimes with 
a change of the radical word, e. g. from MiXijros, MiXtjctios (comp. m. 35), 
and from names in ovs G. ovvros not only 'Ottovvtios, but also from 'Apadovs, 
QXiovs, 'Avayvpovs — 'Apadovcrios, QXidaios, *Avayvpd<rios. 

50 — 7]v6$, dvos, ivos, only from names of cities and countries out 
of Greece* e. g. Kv£ikt)v6s, 2ap8iav6s Ion. 'Eapdirjvos from 'Sdpdeis, 'Aaiavos, 
Tapavrlvos. 

51 — irr)<;, r]r7]^, arr)?,^ iojtt)<;. E. g. ^A/3$7)pLT7]<;, Xeppovrjorlrrj^, 
AlyLvr]Tr)S from A'lyiva; Hiadr-qs, ^TraprLaTijs (Ion. -irjrrjs), ^iKeXi&Trjs. 

52 — eu?. E. g. AloXevs, $cofcevs a Phocian (of Phocis), jdcoptevs, 

Meyapevs from Meyapa, Mavrivevs from Mavriveia, TlXaraievs from HXaraial, 
&<£>KciL€vs or better QuKaevs a Phoccean from <f?G>Kaia, Evfioevs from Evfioia. 

53 B. Feminine. — Besides the usual change of the Masc. ending 
or into 77 and a, e. g. 'Aaiavrj, 'AOrjvaia, these either simply change (by m. 45) 
the t)S of the Masc. endings into is, e. g. 2irapTidTis, 2u/3aptnr, etc. — or they 

* The rule, that gentile nouns in arris have long a, must not be extended to 
♦hose which are not derived from some primitive name, as in "Xapfiarrjs Sarmata. 



$ 119 FORMATION OF AVORDS. DERIVATION. 283 

append the endings is and ay, as euphony may require, to the stem itself; 
e. g. AioAi'y, Acopi'y, Meyapt'y, &a>Kts, &&mts, Arfkias, Ids from "loor, anc. 'leuou. 
All these names are used either of a female or of a country, according as 
the sense may require ywr\ or jr) to he supplied. 

C. Possessive gentile words (kt^tcko), as they are called, are 54 

adjective forms derived immediately from gentile nouns, and express only 
a relation to these, mostly that of possession, like -ish in the words English, 
Spanish, etc. They have almost exclusively the ending kos, see m. 71 ; 
e. g. 2u/3apirtKoy, Kopivdiaicos, Aaice$aip,oviK6s. 

5) Patronymics, or names derived from ancestors. 55 

A. Masculine. The endings here are : 

— /S?7?, a&7?, ta&y?, Gren. ov. These are the most usual end- 
ings ; and indeed the form in idrjs may he considered as the primary one, 
which is derived from names of most terminations ; while on the contrary, 
the form in dhr^s comes only from names in ay and rjs of Dec. I. E. g. 
KeKpoyjr K€Kpo7ri8r]s, Kpovos Kpovidrjs, 'AXkcuos y A\Kat8r)S • Bopeas BopeaS^y, 
'l7j-7ror7/y 'iTnroTadr)?. The ending iddrjs prohahly arose chiefly on account of 
names in toy, where this form was occasioned hy a regard to euphony ; e. g. 
MevoLTios MevotTidSr]?. But the agreeable cadence of this ending (- ~ - -), 
and especially the wants of hexameter verse, occasioned this form to he ap- 
pended also to many names, which presented a long syllable before the 
patronymic- ending; e. g. ^eprjnd^s from <!?epr)s, tjtos, TeAapcoi/idS^y, 'AfiavTid- 
drjs, etc. On the other hand the dramatic Iambic verse favoured the common 
form, which therefore also occurs from similar names, e. g. TLaXKavTidrjs, 
'AA/cpatcoi/i'S^y, neXoTridrjs, 'OprjpidrjS. 

— mdv Gr. taw? (rarely ovo?) is an infrequent form existing along 5Q 
with the other, but only in the poets ; e. g. Kpoz/tW, 'A/cropiW. The quan- 
tity of the i is determined by the metre; e. g. KpcmWoy, Kpovlovos. 

Note 10. Patronymics from names in evs and in ickrj? have originally 57 
etdrjs ; and thence in the common language by contraction ei'S^y; e. g. Urj- 
\eibr]s, Tudeio^y, from IlrjXev?, Tvdevs ', 'Hpa/cXe IdrjS from 'HpaKKrjs ; — and so 
in the ending tcoi/, e. g. IlrjXeicov. — The Dorics retained the uncontracted 
form ; e. g. Kpr)6evs Kpr)6etdas. From the Ionic flexion evs G. ijoy, comes the 
epic form TlTjkrj'idbTjs, etc. 

Note 11. In like manner o is contracted with t, in ILavOoldrjs, A^ro/o^y, 58 
from HdvOoo? (HdvOovs), Ar)T<i> G. (60s) ovs Latona. 

Note 12. Not unfrequently the proper name of a man has in itself the 59 
patronymic form, e. g. MiArido^y, Sipamo^y, AeuKaAiW. Sometimes the 
same name appears in both forms ; e. g. Evpvros and EupunW. This gave 
occasion to the epic writers, in such names as did not commonly end in coi>, 
to presuppose such a form, and thence to derive a patronymic suitable to 
their metre ; e. g. from 'AKpiVioy — 'AKpio-tWtdoV, from 'laireros — 'icureTZovt- 
6>/y. But, for like reasons, they sometimes omitted in the patronymic the 
cop of such words as really had it; e. g. Aeu/raAiW— Aevnakidrjs. 

B. Feminine. These correspond in general to the masculines ; 60 

viz. to those in [drjs, ddrjs, the feminines in is and ay, e. g. TavraXis, 'Arkav- 
n'y, Qeo-Tids; — to those in eldrjs, the feminines in rjts, e. g. N^pqiy; — to those 
in lav, the feminines in tavrj and Ivrj, e. g. 'AKpicriowr], 3 A8pt]aTLurj. 

6) Diminutives, viroKopiaTiKa. Of these there are various 61 
endings : 

a. — lov (to) is the chief ending ; e. g. iraihlov a small child, 
o-oopdYioi> a small body, pdiaov from to pdxos, etc. In order to render the di- 
minutive more emphatic, this ending is often made a syllable longer in the 



284 FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. $ 119. 

following ways : ibiov, dpiov, vXXiov, vbpiov, vcpiov. E. g. mvaKibiov from 7u- 
vag : iraibdpiov from 7rais, peipaKvXKiov from jt*etpa^, peXvdpiov from r6 /xeXo?, 
£u>v<pt,ov from ^"cooz/. 

62 Note 13. Of these words, all which have four or more syllables, are 
proparoxytone, (to which belong also the contracts, as fioldiov for j3oi6W,) 
and likewise most of those which have three short syllables. Those of three 
syllables which form a dactyl, are with few exceptions paroxytone. 

53 Note 14. The ending Xdiov is contracted with several vowels, as /3« 



oioiov, 



yr)hiov, strictly yfifaov. With v and i, the contraction is into v and i; e. g. 
IxBvSlov, vdiov, from tx^> vs ; Iparidiov from ipdnov. Words in tp and v? 
(G. ecoy) contract into eidiov, as prjareidiov from prjcri?, apcpopeibiov from dpcpo- 
ptvs. The form iSioi/ in those in is- G. ecoy is in Attic writers doubtful. — 
The ending dpiov has always short a. 

64 Note 15. Many words in iov have entirely lost their diminutive sense; 
e. g. Srjpiov beast from 6 ^p, /3i/3Aioz> 6oo& from /3i/3Aos. 

b. — /cr/co?, /otc?7. E. g. o-Te<fiai>l<Ttco<; i 7rcuBi<TK7]. 

65 c. — /? (??) Gr. /So? and ZSo?. E. g. ^repairaivfc from ^ep&Traiva ; 
mvaKis from 6 7nVa| ; o~x.oivi?, Idos, from ctyoii/o?, etc. 

d — v\o? Doric. E. g. 'EpcorvXos from "Epcos. 

e. — tSei;?, only of the young of animals; e. g. aerihevs from 
deror. This form to a certain extent passes over to the patronymic signifi- 
cation; e. g. vuhevs son's son Isocr. Ep. 8. init. 

Some peculiar forms, as Trdkixvrj from' 770X1?, inSdKvr] from nido?, are best 
learned from observation. 

III. Adjectives. 

66 13. Of the Adjectives which exhibit evident marks of analo- 
gous derivation, by far the greater part end in o?. Here however 
the next preceding letters must always be taken into the account. 

a. — to? is one of the most usual endings ; of which we can 

only say, that it is immediately derived only from nouns, and mostly from 
primitives ; and that it signifies what belongs or relates to, or is derived from 
. the object denoted by the noun; e. g. ovpdvios, irordpios, i-evio?, (povios, icrire- 
pios, etc. — This ending is also particularly used, when from an adjective in 
or a new adjective is derived; e. g. iXevdepo? free, iXevOepio? liberal; Kada- 
pos clean, Kaddpios cleanly, etc. 

67 Note 16. When the ending 10? is appended to a word which has r, this 
is sometimes changed into 0-; e. g. iviavros year, iviavaios yearling, yearly ; 
e/ccoz/, optos — iKovaios. See also above, m. 49 and 35. 

68 From this to? arise, strictly speaking, by the union of the i with 
a preceding vowel, the particular endings 

ator, etor, oioy, wor. 
E. g. dyopaios from dyopd, 'jL0r]vaios from 'Adrjvai; aldolos, rjtoos; from aldas 
-oos, rjcos -60s) cnrovftelo? from o-novdr) (instead of (nrovdrj'ios). Still, usage 
has sometimes regarded one of these endings (a>os) as more definite and em- 
phatic; e. g. ndrpios generally, 'what relates to one's forefathers, native 
country,' 7rarp&>os- specially, 'what relates to one's father; 7 and so then 
also the forms prjrpaios; irainrwos. — More especially is the ending 

69 — eto? in use, as a derivative from words denoting living be- 
ings ; e. g. dvdpativcLos human, Xvkclos of a wolf, dvdpelos, yvvaiKelos, etc. 
(On the contrary of lifeless objects, olicelos one's own.) This is the most 



$ 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. t£85 

common form of derivation from proper names of persons, the ending of 
which in any way admits it ) e. g. 'Ofirjpeios, ' Err ucovpeios, ILvOayopeios, Ev- 
pm'idtLos, etc. 

b. — eo? denotes chiefly the material from which anything is 70 
made, and is contracted into ovs; see § 60. 6. 

c. — /eo? is to be taken in a sense quite as general as £09, and 1 1 

extends itself also to verbs, (as ypatpiKos belonging to painting, dpxiKo? fit to 
rule, etc.) The most usual form is -ucos, and when ai precedes, there com- 
monly arises the form -a'iKos, e. g. rpoxa'iico? from rpoxaio?. From words in 
v? is formed -vkos, e. g. StjXvkos; and -aicos from endings which have i he- 
fore them, e. g. '0Xiyx7n'a, "l\ios — 'OXupTriaKor, 'iXta/coy p.avia, fiaviaKos • ctttov- 
§elos, (TTrovbeiaKos • Kovpelop, KovpeaKos. Instead of the simpler -ik.6? however, 
he ending -iclk6s is often preferred, on account of its better cadence, although 
ft is strictly a double derivation, e. g. KopivOos, — KopiV0io?, a Corinthian, 
KopivdiaKo? Corinthian. Comp. above the ending -tdo^y. 

d. — vo$ an old Passive ending (like T09, reos:) ; hence Setvos 72 
terrible, aepvos (from o-efiofiai) venerable, orvyvos hateful, etc. 

— Ivos as proparoxytone, denotes almost exclusively the mate- 
rial, e. g. t-vkwos wooden, \L6ivos, etc. A single exception is dvOpSmvos i. q. 
avdpoaneios human, etc. — As oxytone, it forms adjectives of time, e. g. r\\xepi- 
vo?, x#eo-ivo'y of yesterday, from x^e'y ; seldom with long i, as in dnoapivo? in 
Horn. 

The word nc^vo? and those in eivos indicate & fullness or something entire, 
etc. ivehivos entirely level, SptLvos mountainous, evduwo? entirely cheerful, etc. 

— «/o?, aw, rjvos, belong only to gentile words ; see m. 50. 

e. — X09, an old Active ending ; hence 8et\6$ one who fears, 73 
timid; eWayXos one who makes others fear, formidable, see p. 247. marg. 
Most common are the lengthened endings rfkos and coXds 1 , which indicate 
propensity and habit, as d7rarrjX6s deceitful, dpaprcoXdy accustomed to sin, a 
sinner, etc. 

f. — iyu-09 is confined almost wholly to verbals ; it marks fitness 74 
both Active and Passive, and is appended after various analogies ; e. g. 
Xprj(Tip.os useful from xpdop.ai, rpo(pip,o$ nourishing, Savd(np,o? deadly, Trorip-os 
drinkable. This ending is also sometimes lengthened by cuq?, as v7ro/3oXt- 
jxaios. 

g. — po?, epos, ypos, express mostly the idea of fullness, e. g. 75 

oiKrpos full of grief, (pdovepos full of envy, vocrrjpos and vovepos sickly. 

h. — dkeos signifies nearly the same ; e. g. ^rappaXios (from 

Qappo?), pa>p,aXeos, SeijuaXeov, i/z-oopaXeor, etc. 

i. — to? and reos, see $ 102. 

14. Other adjective endings are the following : 76 

a. — • et9, Gr. evTos, with preceding i, r), or o, denoting a fullness ; 

e. g. xapieir full of grace, vXrjei? full of vjoods, ttv poets full of fire. — For the 
contraction of these adjectives, see § 41. n. 5. § 62. n. 3. 

b. — 779, 69, Gr. 0U9, serves for derivation only in composition 77 
(§ 121. 9. a) • still there arises from it the special ending 

^ — cc>8r]9, Sides, G. ovs, with a shifting of the accent, from -oeidrj? (stem 
tlbos form, manner); e. g. crept) Koadrj? wasp-like, yvvaiKcobrjs womanly; but 



286 FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. $ 11^. 

most commonly denoting a fullness, multitude, and especially frequent in a 
sense of censure : e. g. yjrafifi^dqs full of sand, alp-uTcodris full of blood, bloody, 
iXvoo&^r full of mire. 

78 c — - ficov, Gr. oz/o?, belongs to verbals after the analogy of sub- 
stantives in pa, and in part first formed from these. The signification for 
the most part follows the active quality denoted by the verb. E.g. voqpow 
intelligent, from voeiv, irokvnpdypcov busy, busily occupied, from tto\vs and 
irpdypa or Txparreiv', in Ck-qap&v forgetful, etc. 

Finally, a multitude of adjectives arise simply through compo- 
sition, of which we shall treat in the following sections. 



IY. Adverbs. 

79 15. Besides the simple mode of forming adverbs by changing 
the flexible ending of adjectives into a>?, which has already been 
treated of in § 115, there are still to be noted the following ad- 
verbial endings : 

a. — Stjv. These are solely verbals, and express the manner 
of the verbal action. The ending is appended partly in the manner of the 
endings reor, to?; but with the necessary change of the verbal character- 
istic, and never with <r. E. g. o-vXXrjfidrjv talcing all together, i. e. on the 
whole, in general; Kpvfibqv secretly; fiddqv step for step, slowly; dveb-qv un- 
restrained, fearlessly, from dvlqpi, averos. — Partly it is also appended in the 
form -ddrjv to the stem itself, with the alternate vowel o ; e. g. o-nopdS-qv 
scattered, nrporpoTTdbqv (cpevyeiv, to fly) turned forwards, i. e. without looking 
back. 

SO b. — B6v, rjhov. These come mostly from nouns, and relate 

chiefly to external form and nature; e. g. dye\rj86v in droves; fiorpvdov 
grape-like; Tr\iv6rjb6v (from TckivBos) laid like tiles ; Kvvqhov dog-like. — When 
they come from verbs, they coincide with those in hrjv) e. g. dvaqbavhov 
visibly, before the world. 

81 c. — I or ei. These mark some circumstance connected with 

the action expressed in the- sentence. The genuineness of the one or the 
other ending is to be decided by euphony ; in the poets perhaps too by the 
metre, since l can also be short; and by the tradition in the manuscripts. — 
Verbals especially terminate in 

82 — tL or rel, which endings are appended entirely in the man- 
ner of the ending tos) e. g. 6vopao-TL by name ; iyp-qyopri waking. So espe- 
cially in words compounded with a negative ; e.g. dyeXao-ri without laugh- 
ing ; dvihpcoTi without sweating, without difficulty; dfiaj^reL without fighting ; 
dK.-qpvK.Tet or -i without proclamation. — Hence, and from what was said abovo 
(in m. 8) of verbs in /£co, comes the signification of the adverbs in -tcrri, 
after the manner, custom, language, of a nation, class, individual, etc. E. g, 
eKkqvKTTL in the Greek manner, in the Greek language ; yvvaiKio-ri in the man- 
ner of women; so dvdpairodiaTi, (3o'iari, etc. 

83 Those formed from nouns have simply I or el in the place of the 
ending of flexion ; so that in 4kovtl willingly, dvard without injury, from ar.j, 
the r belongs to the radical form. The most are compounds; e. g. iravbri- 
fui as a whole people, with united strength, etc. avrowx't- in the same night 



§ 120. FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. 28? 

this very night (from an old flexion, vv^, -x° s ) ) dpa-^ei without battle; o.vto~ 
X«pi with one's own hand; dfiiadl without wages ; vrjirotvei unpunished, with 
the negation vrj- § 120. n. 12. 

d. — %, an infrequent form, which commonly takes the palatal 84 

already existing in the radical word; the signification is very general. 
E. g. dvafxig mixed together, pell-mell; irapdKkd^ alternately ; okKcl^ (from 
o/cAa^co) cowering, squatting ; d8d% with the teeth, from ddovs: 



Formation by Composition. 
§ 120. First Part of Compound Words. 

1. The first component part of every compound word is either 
a noun, a verb, or an indeclinable word. 

2. When the first word is a Noun, its ending of flexion is com- 
monly changed into o ; which however is regularly elided, when 
the last word begins with a vowel. E. g. 

XoryoiTOLos, TrcuSoTplftTjs, o-(D/xaTO(f)v\a%, l%6vo7ra)\7]<; from t%#u?, 

vo? ; Stfcoypd(j)o<i from Slktj. 
vofiapxys from vo/nos and dp^co ; irai&ayodyos from cijco, aycoyrj ; 

KayeQa from /ca/co? and e^o>. 

In most cases nevertheless, where the ending of the first noun 
has v or t, the o is not assumed. E. g. 

€v6v$lkos, 7ro\v(j>dyos, irokiiTopOos, from evOvs, 7ro\u?, 7ro\t?. 
Fn the same manner after ov and av, e. g." 

{3ov({>opl36s, vavpLayia, from /Sou?, vavs, 

and often after v, e. g. 

fjLe\ay)(o\la, pbeXa/jLTreirXos, from pceXas, avos ; irapLcjxiyos from 
7ra?, ttclvtos. 

Note 1. The o remains sometimes before vowels, especially before those 
Df which it can be assumed (§ 6. n. 3), that in the earlier language they 
had the digamma • e. g. p^i/oeiSqv, pevoeacf)?, dyaOoepyos. But in compounds 
with epyov or EPrQ, the o is commonly contracted with the e ; as drjfuovp- 
yof, Xeirovpyos; mKovpyos. 

Note 2. An co in place of this o, comes either from the Attics, or from 
the contracted forms of declension; e. g. vecoKo'poy from i/e&>? ; opeco/copo? from 
>p€vs G. 6pe(£>s; Kpe&cpdyos from /cpear G. aos, coy. The word yr} earth be- 
comes in all compounds yew-, e. g. yeaypdcpos; instead of yao-, from the old 
'orm TAA; see § 27. n. 10. 

Note 3. Some primitives in pa, G. p,aro?, simply change their a into o, 
»r cast it off; e. g. aijioa-Tayrjs, oropaAyia, from afpa, arop.a. 

Note 4. In some compounds, especially in poetical ones, the form of the 
Dat. Sing, or Dat. Plur. is assumed in composition: e. g. irvp'nrvovs, wkti* 



258 FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. § 120. 

Tropes^ yaarpipapyos^ opeivopo? (from opo?, for), vavcwropos; eyxecripiopo?.^ — A 
shortening of this last (the Dat. Plur.) is the very common form in eo- (from 
or G. eo' - ), e. g. reXeacpopos, aaKearraXos, from to re'Ao?, craKoy. 

Note 5. There are still some peculiar single forms, which must be left 
to observation ; e. g. p.eo~ai7r6Xio? from peao? ) obomopos from ohos ) dpyinovs 
from apyrjs or apyos; irobavmrrip from irovs; 7ro§d?; dicpdxoXo? from aKpo?; 
Qrjftayevrjs; poiprjyevfjs; from Ot](3r], polpa ) eXa(pr)t36Xo?, Xaprrabrjcpopos, from 
eXcxpos; Xapnds ; — and the apparently retained os of the Nominative in $eoo~- 
Sotos, Xaoo-croo?, comp. marg. note. 

3. When the first word is a Verb, its ending is commonly 
changed into e without change of the characteristic, or else intc 
<ji. E. g. 

ap^xa/cos from dp^ecv, Sa/ce0v/io<; from Sd/cvco, eBa/cov. 
Xvaiirovos from Xvco, rpeyjri^pco^ from rpeTray, iyepo-fyopos from 
iyetpco. 

Here too the vowel can be elided ; e. g. 

(jyepacnrLS, pi-^aairi^. 

Note 6. The examples are less frequent where t stands without o-, as in 
TepmKepavvos and in many from apxav, e. g. dp-^idiiopos \ or where the verb 
takes o, as in (paivoprjpls, and in almost all compounds with XeiTra, e. g. Xet- 
Trord^Lov. — The learner will note the forms rapecn'xpcos* from repz/co, erapov ) 
XnrearjvcDp from XetVco, eXnvov] and the form (shortened from the former) 
(pepeo~j3i.o? for (pepeo-lfiios. 

4. Indeclinable words remain unchanged in composition, with 
the exception of such changes as are effected by general rules, 
and, in prepositions, by elision. E. g. dy^idko^ from ctyyi and 
aX? ; iraXaLyevrjs from iraXai ; dva/3alvo), dvip^o/iai, from dvd ; 
e%ep%ofAaL, ifc/Salvco, from e'f ; irpodyw, irepidyw ; see § 30. 2. 
Compare also h 25, and § 70. n. 2. 

Note 7. The preposition nxpo makes sometimes a crasis; e. g. Trpov^, 
npovjTTos, for 7rpoe^o>, Trpooirros ) especially with the augment, see § 86. n. 1. 
- -For the shortened forms K.a(3{2dXet,v, etc. see § 117. n. 2. 

Note 8. That ire pi does not lose the i in composition, follows of course 
from § 30. 2. But dp.(pi likewise often retains it; e. g. in dpcpiaXos, dpcpl- 
erer, from aXr, eror. The other prepositions retain their vowel only in the 
Ionic dialect, especially the old Ionic of the epic writers, in some compounds, 
where the second word originally had the digamma ; in the Attic dialect 
this takes place only in iiriopKeiv, iirieaao-dai ($ 108. Ill), and the adjective 
eiriciKZjS. 

Note 9. In respect to the division into syllables the common rule is, that 
when the preposition by itself ends in a consonant, this consonant remains 
with the first syllable; as eicr-epyopcu, 7rpocr-ayco, ev-vbpos, e^ep^opai. But 
when the consonant regularly begins in the preposition itself the second 
syllable, it continues to do the same in the compound, even when its own 
vowel is elided ; e. g. ira.-pdya>, d-Traireiv. 

* Of course in these compounds real Datives are as little to be sought as real 
Nominatives in d-eJcrSoros, Aeoo-coos, in n. 5. The coincidence with these cases is 
only accidental. 



$ 120. FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. 

5. Of the Inseparable Particles the principal are : 1) rj p, t- ; 
half, e. g. ^fMiirovi half a foot, rjfilecfrOos half-cooked, rj/uLlovos a 
mule ; 2) Sv a-, which signifies difficulty, adversity, etc. e. g. hvcr- 
PaTos difficult of passage, Bvo-Baifiovla adverse fate ; 3) The 
negative a, called 

a privative, 
which marks a direct negative, like the Latin in-, and the En- 
glish in-, un- ; e. g. aftaros impassable, airais childless. Before 
a vowel this a commonly assumes v, e. g. avavrios innocent, avrj- 
koos deaf 

Note 10. Many words beginning with a vowel, especially those cited (in 
§ 6. n. 3) as originally beginning with a digamma, take nevertheless the a 
alone • e. g. drjTTTjTo?, aowos, etc. Hence the a is subject to contraction, as 
in aKoav unvjilling for deicav, dpyos unemployed from aepyos with a change 
of accent, § 121. n. 6. — On the other hand, the v remains even before a con- 
sonant in dvvecpeXo?, dfxcpaa it) from d and cprjp.1. 

Note 1 1 . Wholly different from this a is another, which from its inher- 
ent augmentative power is called by many grammarians, in antithesis to 
the former, 

a intensive. 

With it we here connect also the a which has a copulative or uniting power. 
But the nature of this a in both these senses differs essentially from that of 
the preceding, in that it cannot be put arbitrarily before every word, the 
idea of which is susceptible of amplification ; but is limited rather to a com- 
paratively small number of words, which therefore must be noted each by 
itself. The following examples are among the most decisive : 

1) Intensive : e. g. drevfjs very intent, d^az^y ivide-gaping, dairepxe? and 
do-Keke? very violently t dicfjdeia deep sorrow ; prob. also in agvXo? very woody : 
afipopos very noisy. 

2) Copulative : e. g. aKoLrqs fern, clkoitls and tj akoxos (from koitt) and 
Xe^os) bedfellow ; dydXaicTe? suckled together; dyao-rope? from one womb, kins- 
men, also d8e\(p6s, -77, brother, sister; drakavros of one weight, equal; dico- 
Kovdo? (from Kfkevdo?) a follower, companion; dfioXelv to meet together. In 
all these examples the d probably has its origin from the asperated d in 
cbrAouf, anas, apa. 

There remain still some instances, where the a is superfluous, or is of 
uncertain and difficult origin; e. g. ddax^ros; afiXrjxpos, aj3io?, ann-pos, dVe- 
Sor, etc. 

Note 12. An infrequent form of negation is the inseparable vrj-, e. g. vrj- 
tvolvos unpunished; vrjcms fasting, from vrj- and i'dco; vawpos from vr\- and 
ovopa. 

Note 13. We may further note as inseparable particles, 
dpi, epi, and £a, 
all intensive; e. g. dpnrpeTrr]? very distinguished; ipifipopos loud sounding; 
gapevrjs very bold. 

6. In all compounds, where the secood word begins with p, 
and a short vowel comes to stand before it, the p is regularly 
doubled (§ 21. 2) ; e. g. laoppeirr}?, from titros and peirw ; Trepippe(o, 
a7T0pp7]T0^, app^ro^ from a and pyros. 

T 



290 FORMATION OF WORD?. COMPOSITION. § 121. 



$ 121. Second Part of Compound Words. — -Two kinds of Com- 

position. 

1. The form of the last part of a compound determines the 
character of the whole word ; which accordingly is either a Yerb, 
a Noun, or a Particle. 

2. The most usual method with Verbs is the loose composition 
so called, irap&Oeais ; in which the verb remains unchanged, and 
retains its own peculiar flexion with both augment and endings. 
But, strictly speaking, this occurs only with the eighteen primi- 
tive prepositions (§ 115. 2) ; and is in fact no real composition. 
The prepositions in this case can properly be considered only as 
adverbs closely connected with the verb ; in the sense of up- 
wards, inwards, forwards, away, etc. Every similar connection 
of an unaltered verb with ordinary adverbs and other words, is 
always regarded as a simple juxtaposition, and the two are there- 
fore for the most part separately written ; e. g. ev irpaTreiv, /ca- 

/CCO? 7TOL6LV. 

Note 1. In the earlier poetry it was sometimes customary to write in 
one word certain verbs, especially participles, with a preceding adverb in- 
timately connected with them ; e. g. avepvaav for av epvcrav they bent back, 
i. e. the neck of the victim; 7raAi/z7rAayY0eVrar, etc. So too even with an 
Ac^ governed by the verb ; as haKpvx^v. Such double compounds also, as 
durevnoielvy avrevnda-eTai, (Plato, Demosth.) can well be written only as one 
word. See Wolf. Prsef. ad Iliad. LXI. 

Note 2. For the very reason that the usual composition of verbs with 
prepositions is to be regarded in this same manner, such compounds admit 
in poetry the figure called Tmesis ; see § 147. n. 7. 

3. The proper or close composition (crvvOeais) on the contrary, 
in which the first word unites itself completely with the follow- 
ing, (which is true also of the inseparable particles,) can be ad- 
mitted by verbs only when they undergo some change in their 
forms. That is to say, there thus arise peculiar compound forms 
of verbs with a derivative ending, most commonly in eco ; where, 
for the most part, a noun compounded in the manner shewn be- 
low (4-7) lies at the basis. E. g. from epyov and Xajubftdveo comes 
ipyoXdfios, and hence ipydXafteiv; from ev and epSco (EPFI2) 
comes evepyerr]? benefactor, and hence evepyereiv to do good ; 
from hva- and dpia/cco comes hvadpearo^ displeased, Bvcrapeareiv 
to be displeased, etc. So when instead of falhecrOai to spare, the 
negative idea of not to spare, to neglect, was to be expressed 
with a privative, there arose from the Adj. a</>et$/?? the verb a</>et- 
helv. — In the same manner there exist some instances of closa 
composition even with prepositions ; see § 86. 2. 

Note 3. When in this kind of composition the verb sometimes appears 
unchanged, it arises from an accidental coincidence of the derivative end. 



§ 121. FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. 291 

ing with that of the verbal root; e. g. Troieco make, peXorroios, /ieXo7roieci 
make verses. So pvponioXico comes not from pvpov and 7ra>Aec0, but from 
pvpoircoXrjs ; d<ppovea> not from d- and (ppoveoa, but from acppcov, etc. In like 
manner artyiaG> is not formed from ri/iaco, but is a secondary form from dn- 
p.d£co, which comes from ci.Tip.os. 

4. In compound Nouns, only the close composition can prop- 
erly have place; although the last part is often an unaltered 
noun. But even when both parts remain unchanged, they are 
still regarded as expressing a single compound idea; and are 
consequently never separated by Tmesis. It is here the less 
usual case, that the last noun continues to express the principal 
idea, which then is modified or defined by the preceding part ; 
and the instances which do occur, are for the most part words 
compounded with prepositions ; e. g. 7rp6%€vo$ the public or stale 
guest; cvvobos a coming together; 6 fjiohovkos fellow -servant. 
Only Adjectives usually have their simple signification modified 
by means of this kind of composition ; e. g. ttmttos credible, 
aino-Tos not to be credited ; (/>/Xo? loved, vTrepfyCkos immoderately 
loved. But when e. g. an abstract substantive, as tl/jltj honour, 
is to receive a negative form by means of a privative (dishon- 
our), there is first formed in this manner (no. 5) an adjective 
art/Mis, and thence a new substantive, ciTtfjula. — In such com- 
pounds, adjectives in v? mostly adopt the ending ^? ; e. g. rjSvs, 
pleasant, arjSfc unpleasant ; fSapvs heavy, olvojSaprjs heavy with 
wine, etc. 

5. But in most nouns compounded in this manner, the second 
part does not express the principal idea or subject of the thought 
which lies at the basis of the compound ; but only its object. 
This last part of the compound is very often an unaltered noun ; 
and is indeed always so, whenever the simple noun has an end- 
ing not incompatible with the nature and gender of the compound 
to be formed. Thus : 

(ittoikos, 8eicri8alp,iov, do not denote an olicos, a daipcov, which are then 
rendered determinate by the first part of the compound ; but the former 
means one who is arro tov o'Lkov absent from his house or home; the lat- 
ter, one delcras tovs ha.ip.ovas fearing the gods. So airais is one ivho has 
no child, childless; paKpo^eip one who has a long hand; evdeos inspired 
from God; iiu-)(aip£KaKos one who eVt^at'pet toIs Kanols rejoices in evil t 
malicious. 

When however the original ending of the noun is not compatible 
with the intended compound, the latter assumes the simplest 
kindred ending of declension, i. e. consequently either a simple 
?, or some one of the endings o?, w? G-. co, ??? Gr. ou?, t? Gr. So?, 
or of those which arise from the alternation of vowels mentioned 
$ 63. 2, viz. cov and cop ; e. g. 

abaupvs (from baKpv) tearless ; rpexehenrvos (from rpe^co and deinvov) one 
who runs after suppers; evdvdiKos one who exercises exact right (dUrj) 



292 FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. $ 121. 

arifxos deprived of honour (np,rf), dishonoured; (pikoxprjp-aros one who 
loves money (xprjpara) ) evyeas (from ev and yrj) of a good soil (yrj, yea-), 
fertile; Xnropeio? leaving his ship; KaKor)6rjs of evil disposition (rjdos) ; 
aVaA/cty G. i$o9 without courage (d\Kr)) ; o-acppcov one who has sound sense 
(eras and (pprjv), sensible; evrrdroop noble. 

Compare for all these forms § 63. In this way arise a great part 
of all compound adjectives, as also of substantives which imply 
an attribute. 

6. Most frequently, however, when a compound noun is to bt 
formed by the help of a verb, the verb stands last and takes thfe 
ending of a noun. In this case the preceding word or first part 
contains either the limitation or the object of the verbal action ; 
e. g. ipyo\dj3os one who undertakes a work, lirirorpo^os one ivho 
raises horses, etc. The simple ending o? is the most common in 
this sort of composition. Besides this there are, for substantives, 
the endings 77? and as of Dec. I, see the examples § 119. m. 32 ; 
and for adjectives the endings 779 of Dec. Ill ; e. g. ev/juaO^ Neut. 
e?, one who learns well. There are further the other noun-end- 
ings mentioned § 119. 8 ; e.g. vopuoOerrjs from vo/jlos and TiOrj/jLi, etc. 

7. From all such primary compounds, there are found again 
other derivative compounds, like SecatSaifiovLa, vopuoOeala, vo/jlo- 
Oerucos, etc. So likewise the compound verbs mentioned in no. 
3 above ; as i7r7rorpo(f)e(o from lirTroTpocpos, eviraOeco from evira- 
Orjs, etc. 

8. Among the changes which sometimes occur in composition 
in the second word or last part, it is to be particularly noted, that 
words beginning with short a or with e and 0, very commonly 
assume tj or co. This is never the case with verbs compounded 
with prepositions in the manner exhibited in no. 2 above ; but it 
can have place in attributive words derived from such verbs, and 
consequently in compound verbs of the second class (no. 3 above) ; 
e. g.^ 

\mr]KQos obedient, from vrraKova) ; crrpaT-qyos leader, commander, from o-rpa- 
tos and ayco, (but see p. 14 for those with d derived from ayu> and ayw- 
fxi) ', Karrjyopos accuser, Karrjyopea), from Kara, and dyopd, dyopevoa • evr)- 
vepos with fair wind, from avepos ', dvcrf]\aTo? from iXavvco ) dvJopoTos un- 
sworn, from opwpi, etc. 

In the compounds from ovofxa, the second o is also changed into 
v, as avojvvfjLos, evoivvpuos, etc. 

9. In respect to the Accent, the general rule is, that in com- 
position the accent of the simple word (according to the analogy 
laid down in § 12. 2. a) is drawn back as far as the nature of the 
accent permits. Thus, e. g. from re/cvov, S-eo?, come (piXorefcvos, 
cpiXoOeos ; from 686s avvo8os ', from irals, ircuhos, comes airais, 
a7rai8os ; from ripbrj artpios ; from ercupos, irapOevos, come <fa\e- 
ratpos, evirdpOevos ; from alo\os changeable, iravaiokos wholly 



$ 121. FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. 293 

changeable ; from iraiZevTo^ come diralhevro^y hvairalhevTo^, etc. 
Here however the following exceptions to the general rule are to 
be noted : 

a) The adjective-ending 779, e?, has more commonly in compo- 
sition the accent upon the ending ; e. g. faXoftecBrjs, irpoa^Ck^, 
airadrjs. Still, many of these compounds, as those with ^609, 
firj/cos, rel^o^, ap/ceco, draw back the accent, e. g. eu^Orj^, evrjOes, 
avrdpfCT]?, etc. So too those in -wS?7? § 119. 14 ; comp. the Ausf. 
Sprachl. 

b) Yerbals in rj, d, 779, rjp, ev?, and eo?, which in their simple 
form have the tone on the ending, retain it there in composition ; 
e. g. eirLTopbrj, av/jbcpopd, pnaOo<popd, crvvSucao-Trjs, avyy patyevs, iiri- 
TijuL7]Teos. So substantives in /-to?, as hiaavpiios, 7rapo%vcrii6s, etc. 
with the exception of those in -heo-puos, as avvSecrfjLos, etc. — Com- 
pound adjectives in T09 (comp. § 60) have commonly T09, top, with 
the accent drawn back ; less frequently T09, ttj, top, where how- 
ever no certain rule can be given ; e. g. d7r6/3\r)To<;, igalperos, etc. 
or /cade/cros, rrj, top. 

c) Words, which are not themselves first compounded, but are 
derived from other compounds (irapacrvvOeTa) , follow in respect 
to accent the general analogy of their endings ; e. g. abstract 
verbals in ?? and d, as avWoytf, irpocrtyopd, from avWeyco, irpoa- 
<f>epco. Also aSucrjTifcos from dhaceiv, irapo^vajLos from irapo^vvw, 
TrpocrSofcrjTos from irpoaZoKav. But see note 7. So soon however 
as such words are again compounded, they draw back the accent, 
e. g. aTrpocrBoKrjTOs. 

d) Those compounds, whose first part is formed from a noun 
or adverb, and the last part from a transitive verb, with the sim- 
ple ending 0?, (not T09, w?, etc.) take the accent in the active 
signification regularly on the penult, if that syllable be short ; 
but in the passive sense, on the antepenult ; e. g. 

\l0o/36\os throwing stones 
\l66j3o\os thrown at with stones. 

Orestes is a fJL7]rpoKr6vo<;, but the children of Medea are pa]Tpo- 
ktovol. So St/coypacpos one ivho writes accusations, Xeirroypa- 
00? written neatly ; and thus throughout, even where only the 
Active signification can have place, as in olkovojulos, olvo^oo^, roi- 
%wpv^(p9 from opvaaco, dSrjcpdyo^, etc. — When however the penult 
is long, the accent goes to the final syllable ; e. g. ^v^oiropbiro^, 
GKvrohetyos, t7T7ro/3oo-/co9, XiOovKkos from €Xkw, /xeXo7roto9, Seivco- 
T09 from OUTfl, 6877709, 7raiSaya)y6<;, apyvpap,oi(36s. 

Note 4. Compounds of this kind, which contrary to the rule here given 
are proparoxytone, are few, with the exception of some epic adjectives (wr- 
7rdSa/ior, craKto-irako?, TVTok'nropOo?) ; and are found only from some few verbs 
beginning with a vowel, as fjvloxos (from fjvlov e'xoo), vavap^o^ etc. This 



294 FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. § 121 

accentuation lies also at the basis in the properispomena, as dadovxo? (from 
5a8a ex™)' KaKovpyos, navovpyos, from EPrQ. The other compounds of the 
same verb, which fall under this head, follow the rule ; as dyadoepyoss 
\160vpy6s, etc. 

Note 5. When the verb is intransitive, the compound remains subject to 
the general rule. Thus we find indeed clvtoktovos (from ipLavrbv /cretvco), 
but avrofxdXo? (from avrb? ep-oXov) ] and likewise laoppoivos, (Sapvftpofio?, etc. 
So too aip.6ppovs, irvpLrrvovS) etc. because in these the verbs peiv, 7rve7v, are 
aitransitive, and the nouns are to be taken only as Datives. 

Note 6. Some compounds became oxytone contrary to the general rule, 
because their derivation was less obvious ; e. g. arptmos, a8e\(p6s; fiovXvros. 
See also apyos § 120. n. 10. 

Note 7. The few single instances, where words compounded with prepo- 
sitions do not draw back the accent, e. g. avTios, ivavrlos, or where a word 
derived from a compound nevertheless draws back the accent, as especially 
many in to?, e. g. i^alperos^ iirikqiTToS) vno7tTos, itepippvTos, may be best 
learned from observation. 



PART III. 



SYNTAX. 



§ 122. Definition. 

1. Syntax teaches the proper use of those forms, the origin and 
derivation of which have been shewn in the preceding parts of 
the grammar. For this purpose it follows the same general di- 
vision of the Parts of Speech, which we have given in h 31. 

2. We therefore here treat of the several parts of discourse as 
follows : 1) The Noun by itself, or as connected with other nouns 
and like words ; 2) The Noun in construction, or as dependent on 
verbs and other words ; 3) The Verb ; 4) The Particles ; 5) 
Various compound Phrases and Figures of Construction. 

THE NOUN. 
§ 123. Substantives and Adjectives. 

1. A substantive is rendered more definite by attributive ad- 
juncts in apposition with it. These again may be : 1) A Sub- 
stantive, or apposition in the strict sense ; 2) Adjectives, to which 
are also reckoned the Article, Pronouns, and Participles. 

2. When one substantive is put in Apposition with another, it 
must always stand in the same case, and usually in the same 
number ; e. g. TlXdrcov, 6 (pikoo-ocjyosy etc. 

Note 1. When the subst. added has special endings for the Masc. and 
Fem. e. g. ftaaikev? and ^aaiXia-aa, (as in Lat. victor and victrix,) then of 
course it conforms to the first subst. in gender also. Hence derived sub- 
stantives with a special ending of gender are not put in apposition with a 
subst. of different gender. Still the poets sometimes take the liberty of con- 
necting with feminine words, nouns expressing attributes, which as to form 
are only masculine (§ 119. 8) J e. g. Movaat laropes <p$rjs, 'Epivves Xco^rjjpey, 
iraiLpcdTopa yaiav, (pikcov diacpOopev addressed to a woman, Eurip. Hipp. 682; 
see Valck. 

Note 2. More on this subject see among the rules for the Article, § 124. 
3 ; also in § 129. n. 15 ; and for adjuncts in the Accusative, see § 131. n. 13. 

3. Every word joined to a substantive in the nature or quality 
of an Adjective (no. 1 above), must agree with the same in gen- 
der, number, and case. 



296 SYNTAX. i 123 

Note 3. A deviation from the general rule is the const ructio ad sensitm. 
'kcito. avveaiv), so common in Greek. This is found already in the Homeric 
tckvov (piXe (§ 32. n. 1); and is more fully treated of in § 129. 11. 

4. It is an apparent exception to the above rule, and one very 
common among the Attics, when with the Feminine Dual are- 
joined adjectives and the like with a masculine ending ; e. g. with 
the art. to> ^eco and tolv ^reolv (Ceres and Persephone) from rj 
S-eo? ; to) %et/oe Xen. As now we have seen above (s s 60. 3, 4, 
comp. § 79. n. 4), that adjectives in o?, especially among the At- 
tics, are often of common gender ; so here we need only to make 
the supposition, that in the Dual this is commonly the case with 
all adjectives and other like words. 

Examples: Xen. Cyr. 1.2. 11 \iiav apcpco % ovtw ra> rjpepa Xoyi^ovrai they 
regard them as one. Plat. Phsedr. p. 237. d, rjfiwv iv eKdara 8vo rive iarov 
Idea ap^ovTe Ka\ ayoi/Tf, oiv enop-eOa. So too tovtolv tolv Kivrjo-eoiv Plat. etc. 

Note 4. The mixing of Dual and Plural forms occurs for the. most part 
only in the construction of the subject and predicate; see § 129. 6. But 
when Homer often connects oaae (paeivd, alparoevra, akicipa dovpe, this is 
quite analogous to the construction ocrae daierai Od. £. 131, see § 129. 3; 
from which it is evident that he takes ocrcre and dovpe as Plurals of the 
neuter gender. 

5. An Adjective can stand without a substantive, not only in 
reference to a substantive expressed in the same connection or 
sentence, but also very often without any such reference. In this 
latter case a substantive is either actually omitted where it might 
stand, or at least the idea of such a substantive is always im- 
plied ; as man, woman, thing', etc. Such an adjective then ac- 
quires entirely the nature of a substantive ; e. g. 6 aocpos the 
wise man, ol 7ro\\ol the many, the people, ra ifid my things. 

Note 5. Such omissions of substantives, by which the adjective and its 
appropriate article come to stand alone, (with which is to be compared 
the usage in § 125. 5, 7,) have in many instances become established by 
usage. Thus, besides the above, we may note the following : 

fjpepa, e. g. rj eiriovcra, r) varepala, r) Trporepaia. 
yrj, ^co pa, e. g. r) ciwdpo? the desert, fj r)perepa, etc. 
X*' L Pi e - §• V de^ia, r) dpiarepd. 
yva>IAT), e. g. Kara rrjv ipr)v Plato. 

From this obvious tendency, for the sake of brevity, merely to indicate those 
substantives which may easily be supplied from the connection, has arisen 
the very frequent usage, that in a sentence the substantive implied in the 
idea of the verb is omitted, and the adjective alone remains; e. g. rr)v avrr)v 
levai sc. odov a>9 {5a6vv eKoiprjdrjs sc. vttvov ■ e'r fiiav fiovkeveiv sc. fiovXrjv * 
tovtov oXlyas eTraicre sc. rrXrjyds. 

Note 6. Vice versa, the Greeks often connect with those personal appella- 
tions, which denote an occupation or character, (as herdsman, judge, etc.) 
the words dvr)p and avOpumos in the manner of adjectives, whenever those 
terms are to be taken as referring to personal individuals, and not as mere 
appellatives. Thus e. g. Troiprjv herdsman stands alone only in actual reference 
to his herd ; but dvr)p 7roipr)u stands, where we indeed commonly say a herds- 
man, but where the more exact idea is, a man who is a herdsman. So Horn, 
. \v emfiovKoXou avdpa, Plato dvbpl o~TparT]y<p. Lys. p. 186 'Adrjvaloi vopo- 



5 123. SUBSTANTIVES AND ADJECTIVES. 297 

Beras rjyovvTO Ticrapevov kcu erepovs, avSpanovs vrroypappaTeas. When directed 
to more than one it is a form of respectful address ; e. g. avbpes biKao-Tai, 
nvbpes crrparLcoTai. 

Note 7. It is a poetic usage worthy of notice, when an adjective, instead 
of being referred to a Genitive, is referred to the noun on which that Geni- 
tive depends; e. g. Soph. OT. 1400 Tovpbv alpa 7rarpor. Ant. 793 Tobe 
veiKos dvbpcov t-vva.ip.ov. Eurip. Here. F. 445 ov bvvapai Kare^eij/ ypaias 
oo~cra>v Tvqyds. 

6. An adjective not unfrequently (oftener than in Latin) stands 
m the place of the English Adverb ; that is, certain adjuncts, 
especially of time, instead of being referred as adverbs to the pred- 
icate, are referred as adjectives to the subject of the sentence, 
and agree with the same in gender, number, and case ; e. g. 6 Be 
i6e\ovT7]$ diryet he went away voluntarily, of his own accord. 
We find many adjectives construed in this way, especially those 
ending in alos ; e. g. acrpievos glad, Spo/iaio? fleet ; also Tjav^o^, 
av^vo^, aOpoos, cnravios, vTrocrTTovhos, etc. So too those marking 
time, as rpiTcuos, e/erato?, after three or six days ; a/coralo? in the 
dark ; also /Mjvicuos, yQCCps, fieo-ovvKTios, irav7)jjLepios, oy\rios, eapivos, 
and many others. Further, those of place, but more in the po- 
ets ; e. g. icpearios on the hearth, ^vpatos at the door ; also dyo- 
palos, ^aXdcrcrios, pLerewpos, ifkar^io^, virepirovTLOS. 

EXAMPLES: ol "EXXrjve? elbov ao-pevoi toi>? yrjXocpovs' — rjXdov be i/cratoi 
eh Xpvo-dTroXiv Xen. An. 6. 4. 38. — ecpecrriot e^opeOa Soph. OT. 32. — to be 
p-fj (pevyeiv tov? irovovs, dXXa e OeXovTrjv vTropeveiv, r<5 ap^eiv rraibevopevco av 
7rpoo-6ei.r}pev Xen. Mem. 2. 1. 3. 

7. The Comparative degree, when the idea with which com- 
parison is made is omitted, has as in Latin the force of our Posi- 
tive with too, quite too, very. 

Examples: Hdot. 6. 108 repels eKao-Tepa> otKeopev. 1. 116 eboKee f] aTvoKpi- 
o~i? eXev6epa>repr] eivai. Thuc. 8. 84 6 be avdabeaTepov ti aTreK.piva.TO. 

Note 8. The comparative is strengthened by ert, ttoXv, and even (pleonas- 
tically) by pdXXov) e. g. II. <o. 243 prj'iTepoi paXXov. Hdot. 1. 32 paXXov 
6Xj3ia>Tepo9. Plat. Legg. p. 781 to drjXv yevosXaOpaioTepov paXXov ko\ eVt/cAo- 
TraTepov e(pv bia. to derOeves. Comp. also with the Dat. § 134. 4. d. For the 
comparative in construction with the Genitive, and also before rj, fj Kara, 
with whole clauses, see § 132. 11, and n. 22, 23. 

Note 9. The Superlative is strengthened in a corresponding manner by 
7roXv, ttoXXw, /xdAiora, (epic o%a } ego^a,) and especially by the relative par- 
ticles obr, 77, and the pron. olos, oaos, followed (or not) by bvvaaOai or bvva- 
tov eivai, or the like. E. g. j/ av bvvoopai ra^icrra, a>s evi pdXicrTa Xen. TvXitt- 
ttos rJKe, ciycov dno Ttov noXecov aTpaTiav oarjv TrXeiarrjv ebvvaro Thuc. 7. 21. 
For oTi see § 149. m. 3. 

8. When a comparative refers to another quality of the same 
object, this latter stands, as in Latin, not in the positive, but also 
in the comparative. 

Examples: Aristoph. Ach. 1078 ia> o-TpaTrjyol rrXe Loves r) ft cXt Loves. 
Hdot. 3. 65 beLcras pr) drraipedeco tt)v dpxr)v, eTroirjcra Ta%vTe pa r) (ro(pa>re« 
pa. Eur. Med. 490 iKoprjv npodvpo? paXXov r) cro<pa>T*pa. 



298 SYNTAX. 9 124 



§ i24. The Prepositive Article. 

1. The Prepositive Article, 6, r), to, being in itself originally a 
demonstrative Pronoun, possesses a demonstrative power ; since 
it brings an object, whether abstract or concrete, distinctly before 
the mind of the hearer, as one well known or already definitely 
mentioned. It serves therefore, first, to individualize, or point 
out one object as a definite individual from among the rest ; and, 
secondly, to mark also a class or genus, where the speaker takes 
for granted, that he may refer to a generic idea as one familiar 
to all. E. g. ol ^eot eKokacrav rr)V rod avSpbs v/3ptv. — at r/Boval 
7T6i6ovorc tt]v ^vyrjv pur) acotypoveiv. — o e'/Ve</>a? tov hpcuKOvra oppoohel. 

2. The indefinite article of modern languages is in Greek never 
expressed ; and it is only when that which is indefinite, is at the 
same time to be clearly marked as an individual, that the pronoun 
rh, rl, in some measure takes its place. E. g. yvvrj rt? opviv el- 
yev. Hdot. 7. 57 Xttttos ere/ce \aycov. Eur. Or. 716 7u<jto? iv 
tca/cols avrjp Kpelaacov <ya\rjV7}<; vavrikoicriv elcropav. 

3. Proper names, from their very nature, do not need the arti- 
cle. It is however inserted, when the name has been already 
mentioned, or is well known ; so that the article then implies : 
' the one before spoken of,' or ' whom we all know.' It is, how- 
ever, regularly omitted, when a name is first introduced in the 
narrative ; and also often when the name is followed by a more 
definite attribute with the article ; e. g. % core parr)? 6 (fiiXoaofos, 
Upo^evos 6 Bolcqtlos the Boeotian ; but @ovfa8i&7]<; Adrjvatos Th. 
an Athenian. Compare Kr tiger on Xen. An. 6. 2. 13. — The 
names of rivers are often put between the article and the subst. 
7TOTa/xo?, as 6 Ev(f>pdT7]<; 7rorajj,6<; ; but, on the other hand, %e\i- 
vovs irorafxos a river named Selinus. 

Note 1. The Greek article corresponds in many respects to the English 
the; but more nearly to the German der, die, das. It may indeed be as- 
sumed in general, that where in En'glish or German the article is or may 
be omitted, there the Greek usually omits it. But the learner should re- 
member, that, both in Greek and in modern languages, it often depends on 
the taste and choice of the writer, whether to conceive of an object as 
definite or indefinite ) comp. n. 7. — We have therefore now to point out par- 
ticularly those cases, in which the Greek usage really differs from our own. 

Note 2. The Greek language employs the article in connection with 
many Pronouns, where the English omits it; especially with the demon- 
stratives, which with us include the definite article in themselves ; e. g. 
ovroe v. eKehos 6 dvfjp; see more in § 127. — With demonstratives which in- 
clude the idea so, such, (as toiovto?, tchtovtos,) where we use sometimes the 
indefinite article [such a man) and sometimes none at all, there is also in 
Greek a twofold usage, with and without the article, according as it is either 
the object so qualified or the quality as such, that is to be made prominent. 
E. g. after a general description, it is said, 6 toiovtos dvrjp ovk av jxol dpeaKoi, 
lit. the such man, Engl, such a man. On the other hand, Dem. 01. p. 35 
ol 'Adijvaioi olKobrjfiara Kai KaXkr) roiavra Kal roaavra KareaKevaaav such 
and so beautiful, etc. 



5 124 THE ARTICLE. 299 

Note 3 The article is found also in Greek, but not in English, before 
interrogative Pronouns; that is, when they refer to something before men- 
tioned. So in scenic dialogue: Eur. Pham. 718 to iroiov) to. iroia ravra: 
So in familiar discourse : Aristoph. Pac. 696 navx^ he SavpaaTov. To t'l; 
also in Plato, as Gorg. p. 521 em irorepav ovv pe 7rapaicaXeh ttjv Qepaneiav, re- 
ferring to the Sepcnreia before mentioned. 

Note 4. Before Possessives the article is essential in Greek; because 
these in general are used of definite objects. E. g. 6 oo? doiiXo? thy slave; 
but <rbs dovXo? a slave of thine; comp. § 127. 7. If the phrase with the 
possessive stands as a predicate, it takes no article; § 129. 2. 

Note 5. The article usually stands with cardinal numerals, when of a 
whole only certain parts are named, or when the number mentioned is one 
generally known. E. g. tg>v 'Adrjyaiav ai pev e£ <fivXai Kara tov? Aane8aipo- 
viovs eyevovTO, ai he Terrapes Kara Teyedras: Hdot. 4. 28 ev6a tov 9 o<ra> 
tg>v privav dcpoprjTos otor yiverai Kpvpos. Comp. Plato Rep. p. 460. e. Xen. 
An. 2. 6. 15 rjv he, ore ereXevra, dpcpl ra TrevTr]Kovra err), as a round number. 

Note 6. The learner must however guard himself against the impression, 
that in certain cases the Greek article could stand directly like our indefinite 
one. The true view depends rather on a right estimate of the manner of 
conception, which lies at the basis (n. 1) ; as is manifest from the following 
examples. Xen. GEc. 15. 7 e't pot alrim ho£eie yempyelv, opoios av pot hoKco 
etvai Tea rrepuovn larpS, elhori he ovhev o,tl avpcpepei rois Kapvovaiv, where 
we commonly say, to a physician; here the object is in itself indeed indefin- 
ite, but it appears in this connection and because of the epithets nepuovTt 
and eldon as distinctly marked and almost individualized. Plato Lach. p. 
184 ko\ yap en tov hianpivovvTos hoKel poi helv rjplv rj (SovXr), Engl, there is 
need of a man, of some one ; but also : of the man to decide, etc. This usage 
of the article is common with Participles, see § 144. 1, and n. 1, 2. Plato 
Rep. p. 329 to tov Qepio-TOnXeov? ev e%ei, 6s ro> Septupled Xothopovpevco . . . 
aTvenpivaTo, where we commonly translate, but inexactly : to a certain Seri- 
phion; so too Cic. de Sen. 3, Seriphio cuidam. But in Plat. Charm. 7 is 
now read : 6s eVi mXov Xeycov naihos ktX. 

Note 7. On the other hand, it is far more common, that the Greeks, even 
when speaking of entirely definite relations or things, could omit the arti- 
cle; where we either must or at least do usually insert it. But this must 
not be understood, as if sometimes an indefinite mode of expression might 
stand instead of a definite one. It appears rather as a license, which in 
the earlier language, and especially in the poets, was without much lim. 
itation ; while in common usage it was gradually contracted to some par- 
ticular instances. Thus the article is omitted : 1) Before words implying 
a general idea in sententious expressions; e. g. Plato Legg. p. 727 Seiovyap 
dyadov ttov Tiprj. Charm. 18 ovk apa o~<£>(ppoo~vvr] av e'lrj alhais ; Theset. 13 
aXaOrjo-is, <pys t emo-T^pr] ; Xen. Mem. 4. 3. 14 dvdpanrov 'v/n'X'7 (SaaiXevei ev r]piv. 
But also in more concrete instances : Xen. An. 6. 3. 14 ov yap ho^rjs Spa 
heopevovs vpds els dvhpeioTr}Ta, dXXa o-cor^piar. 2) In certain adverbial ad- 
juncts, where we also often omit it, as levai enl Srjpav, eVi Xeiav, eh 7rpo/3o- 
Xr]v, hpopco. Of time, as xeipavo? dp^opevov, apa fjpepa, pexP L heiXrjs, eVei 
rjpepa rjv nepnTr] Thuc. Of place, as ev alyiaXco, ev Xipevi, npos ttoXiv q. d. city- 
ward. 3) With such words as are usually sufficiently individualized by 
the connection or context; e. g. noXis, Mrrjp, naTrjp, yoveh, nah, Seos, and 
the like ; especially when they stand in an oblique case. 4) With such ap- 
pellatives as approach the nature of a proper name, e. g. rjXios, aeXrjvr], yrj, 
SdXaaro-a, ovpavos ; also fiaaiXev? said of the king of Persia, see Heindorf on 
Plat. Euthyd 8. — But observation will soon teach, that all these precepts 
are not settled, and that in most instances the article may also be employed. 
E. g. we find in Xen. An. 6. 3. 2 Sveiv eVi e|d6\», and in the like phrase ib. 
4, 35 Sveiv en\ 777 iropeiq.. 6. 4. 20 eh npicnv, 26 7rpo? ttjv KptvLv. So too 



300 syntax. § 125 

inl SaXaTTav, iv yrj, are continually interchanged with eVt ttjv SaXaTrav, ev 
T fl jflf e - S- 6. 4. 13 AaxeSai/xoVtot apxovaiv iv rfj yrj kcu iv SakdrTr], by land and 
by water. Very often however the insertion of the article in such cases has 
its specific ground, which the learner ought early to accustom himself to 
attend to in reading. 

Note 8. In Homer there is strictly no example of the genuine article ; 
see § 126. n. 7. His example was followed more or less by other poets ; 
least of all by Attic poets. 

§ 125. Further Usage of the Article. 

1. Between the article and its substantive there are often in- 
serted, not only Adjectives (6 /eaXo? irah, ol virdp^ovTe^ vofjuoi the 
existing laws) and Genitives depending on the substantive (rj 
rod fiacrCkecos arparcd), but also adverbial adjuncts belonging tc 
the substantive; e. g. ifii/jivrjTo t?)? iv fiavla hiaTpifirjs he rec- 
ollected the time passed in madness. In such instances a parti- 
ciple (<yevofj,ev7) or the like) may often be supplied ; as i) 7rpo? Ta- 
XaTa? f^d^Tj, 6 erreiTa ^pwo? ; and this too even when this ad- 
junct is a phrase, as rj irplv ap.%ai avrbv dperr), the virtue 
shown by him before he reigned, Xen. Ages. 1. 5. See more in 
no. 6 below. 

Note 1. The pronoun rh is inserted by the Ionics even between the 
Genitive which depends on it and the article belonging to that Genitive ; 
e. g. tcov tis iepecov for ra>v lepeiov ris. 

2. When the adjunct thus inserted has also the article, it can 
happen, that two or even three articles may come to stand one 
after another ; but only when they differ from each other in form. 
E. g. to Trjs aperr}? K&Xkos the beauty of virtue; 6 ra t?}? ttoXco)? 
TrpcuyfxcLTa irpaTrcov he who manages the affairs of the state ; 
/Eschin. Tim. 2. 36 evo%o<; eo~Tco tco t^? tcov ikevOepcov cpOopds vo/ulco. 

3. But the adjuncts of the substantive can also, for the sake of 
emphasis or perspicuity, be placed after it ; and then the article 
must ahvays be repeated before adjective expressions ; e.g. 6 dvyp 
6 dyados, tov nralha tov crov, 6 ^iXlap^o<; 6 t«? dyyeXia? elaKOfjul- 
t,cov. "With other (adverbial) adjuncts belonging to the substan- 
tive the same holds good, at least as the rule ; e. g. rj f^d^rj rj irpbs 
TaXdras. The position of the Genitive is the freest ; since it may 
stand either after the substantive with or without the article re- 
peated, or also before it ; hence not only t) io-ftoXrj rj tcov IleXo- 
irovvr\cricov, but also rj eajBoXr] tcov H. and tcov II. rj eV/3oA,7/, or 
finally by no. 1 above, rj tcov II. iaftoXr). — But in every instance, 
where the adjunct with the article repeated follows the substan- 
tive, and the substantive is one of those which are sufficiently in- 
dividualized without the article, or in general can stand without 
the article by § 124. n. 7, then the article before the substantive 
can be omitted ; e. g. o-vvetfic dvOpcoirois tols dyadots • {3ao-i\ev<; 6 
fieyas Plato Eryx. p. 393, comp. PL Soph. p. 230; 7^0? 6 ik 
fiettyvcov Xen. Hier. 1. 27; kcltci e%^o? to 'Prjylvcov Thur. 4. 1., 



1 125. THE ARTICLE. 301 

Note 2. The partitive Genitive can never be inserted between the article 
and its substantive; nor, when it stands after the governing noun, can the 
article be repeated before it ; e. g. to 7rXr)8os twv vewv, ol apiaToi avT&v. Es- 
pecially is this the case with participles, in phrases like t<ov £iv(cv ol /3ouAo- 
uevoi, ol KaracfivyovTes avT&v. This rule admits of exception only when the 
article is followed by other adjuncts, as Thuc. 6. 102 ol npos tt)v tvoXlv av- 
Toov to irpwTov KdTCKpvyovTe?, where avTwv depends on KarcupvyovTes. Analo- 
gous are the not infrequent passages, where the demonstrative (for its posi- 
tion see § 127. 6) is thus inserted ; as Xen. An. 6. 2. 6 77 crrevr) avTTj 686s, 
but never r) avTrj 686s. 

Note 3. With the attributive participle the repetition of the article is 
particularly necessary ; because otherwise there arises the participial con- 
struction so common in Greek; for which see § 144, and Index. 

Note 3 a. When to a substantive with the article two adjectives are 
joined without /cat, they commonly stand without the article repeated be- 
tween them; e. g. Xen. Cyr. 2. 2. 9 6 aXXos nds Xoxos. Plat. Phsedr. p. 255 
ol ^vfXTvavTes akXoi (piXot, 6 naXos 81a tg>v op-fiaTcov Ids. Comp. r) o~Tevr) avTrj 
686s in n. 2. Stilly the article is sometimes repeated with the second ad- 
jective, both before and after the substantive, in this manner : iv ttj dpxaiq. 
rfj Tj/xeTepa <pu>vfj Plat. Cratyl. p. 398; iv tjj tov Aios 777 fxeyio-Tj} iopTjj Thuc. 
1. 126; to. Teix>] to. iavToov to. fxaicpa eVereXecraz' ib. 1. 108. Adjuncts other 
than adjectives, when put after the substantive, can also stand without the 
article repeated, by no. 3 above; e. g. 1) p.eydXr] o~Tpa.Teia ' A.6nvai<£>v kcu tg>v 
gvnp.dx<0v Thuc. 1. 110. 

Note 4. When an adjective without the article stands either before ©r 
after a substantive which has the article, but not between the two, the ad 
jective takes the place of a minor clause, of which it would be the predicate, 
E. g. rj8eTO eVt 7rXovo-iois tois 7ro\tratr does not mean, 'he rejoiced on ac- 
count of the wealthy citizens,' but, ' he rejoiced on account of the citizens, 
that they were wealthy;' Luc. D. Deor. 8. 1 e^ei tov iviXeKvv ogvTciTov, 'he 
has an axe, that is very sharp.' Eurip.rEA. 305 icaXov ye /xot rovveibot 
i^(Hv€t8io-as. Isocr. p. 212 'HpaK.Xr)s kcu Qrjaevs i£ d8ek(p<ov yeyovoTes, d8eX- 
(pas kcu rds i7ri6vp,ias ea^ov. 

Note 5. Several adjectives, like oXos, /xeVor, ecrxoros, aKpos, fjpurvs, stand 
by rule in the position just mentioned (n. 4) ; although they also admit the 
other, but with a difference of meaning. Thus icrxdT-q i) vrjoros is the island 
where it is uttermost, the end of the island ; but r) iaxdrq vr)o~os the uttermost 
island, the last of several ; also iv fJ-iaj] ttj dyopd in the midst of the forum, 
but to p-iaov aTicpos the middle column Xen. An. 1. 8. 13 ; oXtjv tt)v vvktcl all 
the night, to. oka npdyp.aTa the public matters Dem. Ol. 1. p. 10; eV anpois 
rols opeaiv on the mountains where highest, on the summit of the mountains. 

4. "Where the substantive is readily understood from the con- 
nection, it is very commonly omitted ; and then the article stands 
alone before the adjunct ; e. g. 6 e/xo? irar^p Kal 6 tov (filXov my 
father and the (father) of my friend. 

5. There are here also certain omissions established by usage ; 
as in the case of adjectives, § 123. 5, and n. 5. E. g. 

vlos, irals, SvyaTrjp, e. g. 'AXe£av8pos 6 <&iAtWov. Or also alone, c 
SaxppoviaKov the son of Sophroniscus, i. e. Socrates. 

X&pa, yrj, e. g. els tt)v QiXimrov into the country of Philip; iv ttj TroXefiLq 
in the enemy'' 's land. 

oIkos or oiKt'a, but oftener also with the omission of the article, e. g 
tls liXaTwos, els a8ov, see § 132. n. 30. 

(iv 6 pan oi, e. g. ol iv aoret the inhabitants; ol tear i/xe my cotemporaries. 



302 SYNTAX. § 125. 

So it is said of friends, associates, ol irepl v. dpqbi nva, § 150. m. 25; ol avv 
tivi, etc. 

Xpr) fiara or 7rpa.yfj.aTa, e. g. ra ttjs ttoXc&s the affairs of the city. to. (or to) 
ttjs dpeTrjs, i. e. virtue itself; see n. 6. 

Note 6. "AvOpcoTroi and xPVf xaTa - These two omissions are so com- 
mon, that we may treat of them together as a special idiom of the language. 
That is to say, all those ideas which are sufficiently clear from the con- 
nection, or from the subsequent mode of expression, the Greek is very fond 
of simply indicating by means of the article alone. These omitted ideas are 
of two kinds, persons or things. For the first, the article naturally stands 
in the masc. or feminine; for the second, in the neuter. 1) When the 
omitted idea refers to persons, the article usually takes an adverbial adjunct ; 
e. g. ol iv aWex, ol e< ttjs TroXe&s, ol per avTov companions, allies, oi pe#' r)pds 
successors, 6 enl r£>v lirixe&v leader, ol irapa tov /3ao-iAecoy envoys; comp. 6 navv, 
ol rore, in n. 7 below. 2) When the omitted idea is a thing or things, the 
neut. to or to. takes with it : a) A Genitive, in order to express in a general 
way something which refers or belongs to an object, which proceeds or is 
derived from it ; or it may serve as a periphrase for the simple substantive 
itself; e. g. ra ttjs 7r6Xecos. Dem. p. 772 tt)v Alktjv 'Opcpevs cprjai ttavTa to. 
tg>v dvdpanrcov ecpopav. — to 8e tcov xpypaTiov irodeiTe aKOvaai, Tv66ev ecrrat, luhat 
concerns the money, Dem. — to. tcov 3e£>v cpepeiv Set. Dem. 01. 1. p. 15 ra tcov 
Beo-o-aXcov drno-Ta io~Ti cpvo-ei, as if ol QeaaaXoi. Plat. Menex. p. 245 to ttjs 
noXeoos (as if t) ttoXis) yevvaxov Ka\ iXeiidepov eVrt. Phaedr. init. TrdvT&v he 
Kopyj/oraTov to ttjs Tvoas, i. e. the grass, b) Or some kind of adverbial ex- 
pression ; the great variety of which will best appear from a number of ex- 
amples ; e. g. tcl rrpos eco, i. e. lands, regions ; ra KaTa yrjs the under-world ; 
Ta els tov noXepov do-Keiv Xen. — tcl irpb tcov rrodcov things present, the present. 
So Plato Phsed. p. 75 to. eic tcov aia6r)creoov the perceptions of the senses. Thuc. 
8. 48 ra aVro tov 'AA/«/3iaSoi; the promises of Alcibiades. Hdot. 1. 51 to. dno 
ttjs deLpys the neck- ornaments. 8. 15 to dnb Sep^eco the punishment of Xerxes. 
Thuc. 1. 110 to. Kara ttjv o-Tparelav eTeXevrrjo-av, i. q. r) o~TpaTeia. Xen. Cyr. 
3. 1. 30 ra ivddbe ev e^et the affairs here; to. Tore Plat. etc. 

6. Every adjunct in itself indeclinable, can be declined by the 
aid of the article, that is, can take the appearance of a noun. 
Hence adverbs are without further change converted into ad- 
jectives by simply prefixing the article ; especially those of place, 
time, and measure. E. g. from fxera^v between, 6 fiera^i) tottos 
the intervening place. Or the adverb follows with the article 
repeated, as above in no. 3. 

Examples : al rreXas v. al ttXttjo-lov utopat the neighbouring villages; ol tot€, 
vvv, ivOdbe avdpcoTroi ; ol ndXat, ao<fio\ dvdpes • rj aVco 7roAiy the upper city; els 
tov dvcDTaTco tottov (see § 115. 6) ; f] i^ai(pvrjs peTacrTaais the sudden removal, 
etc.* Here belong also t) ov SiaXvaLs, and the like; see § 148. n. 3. — Also 
OTav eyelprjade eic ttjs dpeXelas TaiiTrjs ttjs ayav, ' when ye awake out of this 
excessive carelessness,' Dem. 

7. If the substantive is here omitted, the adverb then has the 
appearance of a substantive. 

Examples : From avpiov to-morrow comes, by omitting rjpepa day, t) avpiov 
•.he next day; 6 Trdvv the famous man; rj Av8lo-tl the Lydian measure (appovia 
being omitted) ; ol rdre the men then living ; is tovitio-co (for to orriaco what 
is behind) bachioards. So Anacr. to arjpepov peXei poi, to-day only troubles 
mc, i. e. what is or occurs to-day. 



* The Latins, who have no article, can imitate this only in some comic expres- 
sions by a sort of composition, as heri semper lenitas in Terence. 



§ 125. THE ARTICLE. 303 

8. Further, by the addition of the article in this manner, the 
following take the appearance of substantives : 

1) Infinitives ; e. g. to irpaTTeiv the doing, to kclko)? Xeyetv the 
speaking evil, riBofxav tu> irepnraTelv I delight in walking about. 
But the learner must be on his guard against the impression, as 
if in this way the verb assumed also the nature of a substantive, 
so as to change the subject or object into a genitive, or adverbs 
into adjectives ; as is the case with the English participle, e. g. 
1 the loud crying of the children,' ' the falling of the trees.' In- 
stead of this the Infinitive retains its full verbal power ; as is 
shown below in ^ 140. 

2) Every word and every phrase, which is to be regarded as 
an independent object ; e. g. to Xeyo) i. e. the ivord \eyco. Plat. 
Prot. p. 345. e, irepl eavTov Xeyeo tovto to ifccov. Phsedr. p. 273, 
KaTa^p7]aaa6aL Bel avTOV t£> IT<y? 8' av iyob TOtoaBe TOL&Be eVe^e/- 
prjcra, ' he must make use of this language : How could I, such 
as I am, have laid hands on such an one !' See n. 9. 

Note 7. In ordinary cases every word thus regarded as an independent 
object, is made neuter. In grammatical language, however, it is customary 
to give to every such word the gender which belongs to the name of that 
part of speech ; e. g. because we have r) dprcovv/iLa the pronoun, we therefore 
find also r) eye* i. e. the pronoun eyd> ; and so 6 eVet, the conjunction eVa, 
because of 6 avv$eo-p.bs the conjunction. 

Note 8. Ey another peculiarity the article to (to) with its accompaniment 
stands adverbially ; so with adjectives of the neuter gender, e. g. to reXeu- 
Talov at last, to np&Tov or to. Txp^Ta at first, to \olttov for the rest, henceforth, 
already ; which is to be explained by § 128. n. 4, 5. Also before wholly 
indeclinable adverbial ideas, so that then to and to, are quite redundant : 
e. g. to /car ap^as at the beginning, to rrapdnav altogether, to irplv formerly, 
Tavvv (prop, ret vvv) for the present, to curb roGSe from now on, henceforth. All 
this again is sometimes made dependent on prepositions ; e. g. is to. /xaXiaTa 
chiefly, maxime, Hdot. «e tov Trapaxprjp-a immediately Bern. In general, too, 
adverbial expressions are often formed with prepositions; see § 147. 

Note 9. The article stands sometimes in an elliptical manner even before 
relative clauses, which is to be explained from no. 8. 2, above. E. g. Plat. 
Rep. p. 510. a, to 6p.ono6ev ivpbs to a apoicodrj, that which is compared, against 
that with which it is compared, where for to the Pron. e/celi/o could also stand. 
Hdot. 3. 133 ovdev tG>v ocra alayyvr\v eVri (pepovra. Plat. Phsedr. p. 329 tyjs 
(avvovo-ia?) b6ev av (fipovip,a>Ta,Tos e'lrj. Pollux 7. 75 to coanep Kapvov that nut- 
like thing ; hence, by attraction, toTs olois rjp.lv, etc. § 143. 16. — It sometimes 
stands in like manner before other words which govern a clause ; e. g. r6 
Trore del \eyeiv Si'oW/ce p.e, literally, teach me the i when it is necessary to 
speak;' ev eri AaWrat, to r)v Treicnopev vpds, i. e. one thing still remains, viz. 
this, ' if we could persuade you,' Plat. Rep. 1. p. 327. e. 

9. The smaller particles, Be, re, ye, B?j, yap, [juev, fjbev Br}, toIvvv, 
are usually put between the article and the substantive or word 
standing for it ; e. g. 6 yap avOponros, rj fiev yap Teyyr), etc. 

10. When several substantives are connected by conjunctions, 
if they are of different gender or number, the article must be re- 
peated before each ; as 6 iraTrjp teal rj fir]T7]p. If they are alike 
in these respects, the article sometimes stands but once with 



:J04 SYNTAX. § 126. 

copulative conjunctions ; but with ad\ ersatives and disjunctives, 
and even very commonly with teal, the article is repeated ; espe- 
cially when the clauses are in a certain degree antithetic or inde- 
pendent ; e. g. ol Aa/ceScu/jLovioi, teal ol avy^ia^oi, etc. 

Note 10. The poets of course can omit the article at their pleasure in 
the first or second place; e. g. Soph. Aj. 1250 ov yap ol 7rXardr, ovd* evpv- 
vmTOL epeores 1 dcrcpaXeaTaroi. Eur. Phoen. 506 elnov kcu o-ocpol? ml roitrt 
(pavXoLs evbiica. 

§ 126. The Articles 6, 7), to, and o?, r\, 6, as Demonstratives. 

1. Both the Prepositive Article 6, rj, to, and the Postpositive o?. 
rj, 6, were in the earliest language demonstrative pronouns for 
ovtos or iteeivos. As the language became more copious and cul- 
tivated, these words gradually assumed their later and more lim- 
ited usage ; but still, in many particular cases, they both retain- 
ed, even in common prose, the power of real demonstratives. 

2. The most frequent case is in the distinction and distribution 
of objects ; where 6 fiev commonly stands first, and then 6 Se fol- 
lows, either once or oftener, as the case may require. This takes 
place properly only in respect to definite objects, where in English 
we employ this . . . that. Still, it occurs also with indefinite ob- 
jects, the one . . . the other . . . another ; and so through all the 
genders and numbers. 

Examples : tov pev eripa, tov 8e ov, the one he honoured, the other not ; to 
aev yap dvovrov, to 8e paviKov) tu>v TroXepioav (or also ol Trohepioi § 132. n. 4) 
ol pev eBavpa^ov to. yiyvopeva, ol S' efiocov, ol 8e o-vveo-Kevd^ovTO, Xen. KotXeoy 
Treveadac Kpelaaov rj K.aKa>? irkovTelv • to pev yap e\eov, to 6° euLTLprjo-iv cpepei, 
Stob. III. p. 259 ; tg>v £d>a>v to. pev e^ei 7r68a?, to. S' iariv anoba. — So also ol 
pev avTcov . . . ol 8e, some of them . . . others. For 6 p,ev, 6 §' ov, see § 149. 
m. 14. 

3. The postpositive article stands in the same manner, o? pev, 
o? Se, etc. a fxev, a he, etc. but less frequently among the genuine 
Attics. It occurs very often however in the later writers, as 
Plutarch. 

Note 1. An example from Demosthenes is in pro Corona p. 248 Reisk. 
nokeis 'EXX^i/i'day, as pep dvaipeov, eh ay 8e tov? (pvydda? /cara-ycoz/. But ray is 
also read in both places. 

4. In the narrative style 6, rj, to often stands only once and 
with Se alone, in reference to an object already named ; e. g. 
Xen. An. 5. 6. 21 'ZuvameZs Se irkyjirovai 73750? Ti^aaiwva- 6 8e 
Xeyet TaZe. 

5. When this demonstrative article is the subject of a clause 
and stands for persons, it can stand also in a clause connected by 
icai with what precedes, and then its place is next to the conjunc- 
tion. In such instances, for the Nominative, the forms of the 
postpositive 6'?, r\, ol, at, are used ; for the Accus. (with Infin.) 
those of the prepositive, tov, etc. E. g. Xen. An. 3. 4. 48 teal 6'?, 
aieova-as ravTa, ohOelrru avrov ite tt}<? Ta^ew? and lie (that one) hav- 



§ 126. THE ARTICLES AS DEMONSTRATIVES. 305 

ing heard this, thrust him out of the ranks. Hdot. 8. 56 /cal 01, 
hiaXvQkvjes i/c rod crvveSplov, icre(3aivov e? ra? vrjas. Xen. Cyr. 1. 
3. 9. /cal tov KeKevcrai Bovvac. 

Note 2. Here belong also the usual formulas in relating a conversation 
r] §' os, said he (§ 109. 1. 4) ; and the elliptic kou os (sc. e<prj) then he replied. 
— For the connection of a demonstrative clause by means of the relative, a 
construction so common in Latin, see § 143. 6. 

Note 3. When a preposition belongs to the clause, fiev and fie often stand 
immediately after it j e.g. iv pev toIs avpcpiovovpev, iv fie toIs ov, ' in some 
things we agree, in others not.' Isocr. Paneg. 41 els pev tovs vfipi^ovTts, rols 
fie SovXevovres. See Reiz de Accent, p. 13. 69. 

Note 4. The forms in distributive propositions of this kind, do not al 
ways so regularly correspond to each other, as they are above exhibited. 
Very often e. g. ol piv is followed in the succeeding clause by rives fie', evioi 
fie', or by a name or some other mode of distinction. 

Note 5. From the old signification of the article come also the phrases tov 
kou tov, to. koI to., etc. which correspond precisely to our this and this, that 
and that, etc. This occurs only in the forms beginning with r, and is par- 
ticularly frequent in Demosthenes. 

Note 6. Finally, in the same manner is to be explained the adverbial 
use of the poetic Dative tS, on that account, therefore. II. e. 816 TiyvcoaKco 
ire, #ea, . . . Ta> tol npocppovicos epe'co tiros, l therefore will I frankly tell thee.' 
The same can also be expressed by the Accus. (§ 128. n. 5,) II. y. 176 'AAAa 
ray' ovk eyevovTo • to kcu Kkaiovaa TerqKa, c therefore am I dissolved in tears.' 

Note 7. In poetry, and especially epic poetry, the use of both articles as 
demonstratives is far more general ; and in Homer 6, 17, to, is almost every- 
where to be so taken ; those cases excepted where to, tov, etc. stand for 0, 
oi>, etc. by § 75. n. 2. In order to make this perfectly clear, one needs only 
to consider the following passages in Homer- II. a. 340. 6\ 399. e. 715. £. 
407. Od. e. 106. These at first view seem to present only the ordinary ar- 
ticle of prose ; while to the attentive observer, to whom such an article in 
Homer is unknown, the context easily shews, that in all these and many 
similar passages the article is really demonstrative ; but that the demon- 
strative force is there not absolutely essential, and is for this reason appar- 
ently weakened. The passages are few, where this word expresses an ob- 
ject merely as well known and distinguished, or as particularly present to 
the mind of the poet 5 or where the demonstrative force is really so much 
weakened, that the transition into the true Attic article becomes apparent ; 
e. g. II. a. 167. 7]. 412. /x. 289. — Especially must we be upon our guard, not 
to take this form as an article, where it is separated from the substantive 
by the verb or a whole clause, as H pev ap &>s elTrovo-' cuKe^T) vivas a>K.ea 
*Ipis. Here the f), as demonstr. Pron. is to be taken for our she , for the 
article cannot be separated in this manner from its substantive : • She then 
thus speaking departed, the swift-footed Iris.' This is rendered evident 
by those passages, where the substantive is in like manner placed after the 
real pronoun ol (to him), e. g. Od. v. 106. — From this substantive nature of 
6, rj, to, arises also in Homer the case, that an adjective is thereby appar- 
ently converted into a substantive; e. g. II. p. 80 tov apio-Tov the bravest ; 
a. 33 6 yepiov the old man, elder; and often ol aXXoi, TaXXa. In all these in- 
stances 6, tj, to, as Subst. has its adjective ; and the shape of the thought is 
strictly this : ' him the bravest,' ' he the elder,' l they the others ' etc. 

U 



C06 SYNTAX. S 127. 

§ 127. Pronouns. 

1. The Demonstratives, a) Of these ovtos and 68e sometimes 
stand instead of adverbs of place ; e. g. Plat. Rep. 1 init. rjpo/jLrjv 
o7rov €L7] ' ovtos, €(j)7j, oiriaOev irpoakpyeTai, ' I asked where he 
might be ? Here he comes, said he, behind thee.' The demonstr. 
o8e occurs in this manner chiefly in the poets, (e. g. Od. a. 185. 
%. 367,) and particularly often in the tragic poets ; see Schsef. 
Meletem. p. 77. 

b) As between themselves, ovtos and oBe are in so far differ- 
ent, that ovtos refers mainly (not always) to what precedes, and 
88e to what follows. So too with tolovto? and toloctBe, the ad- 
verbs oi>to>? and a)$e, etc. A relative clause is by rule preceded 
by ovtos, unless where a special emphasis requires oSe. 

Examples: Xen. An. 2. 1. 21 6 be elnev ravra p.ev Si) dnayyeXovpev • 
dXXa Kal rdbe eKeXevaev elnelv j3aaiXevs. Isse. ad Nic. p. 18 rav 7ro\iT€icc>v 
avrai irXelarov ^povov biap.evovaiv, alrives av cipiara to nXrjdos Sepairevojaiv. 
Or with a relative clause preceding ; Id. Demon, p. 5 a noielv alaxpdv, ravra 
vopu£e p.rjbe Xeyeiv eivai KaXov. Contra: Soph. OT. 645 niarevov rdbe, rovb' 
opKov aldeadel? Secov, eireira Kap,e, rovtrSe S-\ ot ndpeiai croi. Plat. Lach. p. 
191 dvbpelos ttov ovto? bv Kal av XeyeiS' dXXa ri av 6 be, bs av (pevycov p-d^j] 
rat rois TvoXep.ioi$. — Poetic is avros before the relative; e. g. Eur. Tro. 684 
aiseTrrva avrrjv, rjris avbpa . . . d7roj3a\ov(T ciXXov (piXel. Or it stands for 
the strengthened avro? ovro? (lett. c) ; e. g. Plat. Rep. p. 362 avrb ovk elp-q- 
rai, b pdXiara ebei prjdrjvai. 

c) Several demonstratives strengthen each other ; thus avrb 
tovto this very thing, id ipsum ; tovt eicelvo, oS' eicelvos, etc. 
E. g. tovt 6K6iv ovycoXeyov Aristoph. and still stronger : tovt €ctti 
tovto to tcaicbv civO* ovycoKeyov ib. 

d) The demonstratives are often omitted, as in Latin, before 
relatives ; whether in the same or in a different case, and whether 
the relative precedes or follows. 

Examples: Plato Gorg. p. 485 dp.eXels hv del o~e imp-eXe'iaOac. Soph. Ant. 
582 evbaipoves, oiai KaK&v ayevaros ald>v. Od. tv. 383 oiKia Ke'ivov p-qrepi boi- 
pev e\eiv, rpV oaris dirvioi. Xen. Symp. 4. 42 oh p-aXiara ra napovra dpKcl. 
r]Kio~ra rcov dXXorpicov opeyovrai. 

In this way the two clauses often flow together into one ; es- 
pecially when the demonstrative was governed by a preposition, 
and this now comes to stand before the relative ; but also with- 
out a preposition. The relative clause then stands as a substan- 
tive ; the relation of which to the whole clause (its case) appears 
from the connection. Comp. also the attraction in § 143. 8. 

Examples : Xen. Mem. 2. 6. 35 iyylyverai p.oi eiivoia npbs ov? av v7roXd(3a 
evvo'iK&s %X eLV "^P 05 6 V e '* Pi a t- Prot. p. 359 enl a ye Sappovai irdvres ep^ovrai 
Kal beiXol Kal avbpeloi. Phsed. p. 116 emov evtoi (sc. the cup of poison), gvy- 
yevop.evoi (sc. rovroi?) cov av rv\ci>o~iv eiriOvpovvres. Cyr. 7. 5. 72 vvv e^opev 
Kal yrjv 7roXXr]v kuI dyadr/v Kal olirive? ravrrjv epya^opevoi Qpeyjsovaiv rjpd?. — For 
ear iv ot see § 150. m. 21 ) and for. the elliptical phrases arjpelov be, reKp,y]piov 
be, see § 151. IV. 10. 

e) On the other hand, the demonstratives are often in a meas- 



} 127. PRONOUNS. 307 

ure redundant, when they merely introduce a following Infini- 
tive, or a whole clause ; comp. h 132. n. 22. 

Examples : Plat. Phssd. p. 75 to eldevat tovt eari, \afiovTa tov encarrjfirjv 
e)(€iv. Eur. Suppl. 310 to avve)(ov dvdpamiov 7ToXety tovt eo~d\ OTav tis tovs 
vofxovs a-co^T] Kakws. So with a. relative : Time. 5. 6 onep npoae^e^ero 7roirjo~eiv 
uvtov, . . . eVi tyjv 'A/x^)t7ToXtv duaj3r]a€o-6ai. 

2. The three principal significations of the Pron. clvtos (k 74. 
2) must be carefully distinguished, as follows : 

I. It means self, viz. 

a. "When joined to another noun so as to stand as if in appo- 
sition with it, i. e. either after the noun, or before both the 
noun and its article. E. g. fiaWov tovto (fiofiov/LLai rj tov 
^avarov clvtov, i than death itself /' clvtov tov fiaaikea airo- 
KTelvai efiovXeTo, ' the king himself' Also separated : Xen. 
An. 7. 7. 19 6 Be eicekevcrev cli/too eXdelv tw Ad/ccove irapd 
Z/c€v0r)v, themselves, the Lacedemonians. 

b. "When it stands alone, the personal pronoun being omitted 
or implied, for I myself, he himself, etc. In such case the 
Nominative is chiefly employed; e. g. Plat. Phaed. init. av- 
to<$, o) <&aihcov, rrrapayevov %WK.paTei . . . i) aXKov tov tjkov- 
aas; . . . irapeyevojirjv clvtos, I was myself present. — The 
oblique cases are so employed only when for special empha- 
sis they begin the construction ; e. g. clvtov yap elBov, c for 
himself have I seen.' Or also when they stand in manifest 
antithesis to other objects ; e. g. Xapfidvovcnv clvtov kcli jv- 
val/ca. Comp. Xen. CEc. 12. 17. etc. 

II. It stands instead of the personal pronoun of the third 
person in its simple form, but only in the oblique cases ; con- 
sequently like the English him, her, it, etc. Lat. eum, earn, id, 
etc. In this signification it can only stand after other words 
in a clause. E. g. eSco/cev clvtols to irvp he gave them the fire ; 
ov% icopa/ca? clvtov ; hast thou not seen him ? Plat. Charm, p. 
161 KpLTiov diafjicocLs clvto rj oXkov tov Twv aoepcov. See also 
in no. 7. 2, below. 

III. It means : the same, when it has the article immedi- 
ately before it ; e. g. 6 <zuto? dvrjp the same man. Dem. p. 
1132 6 vopLos ovtoctI tols avToi<? vojjlols iroXiTeveaOai r)jjias tce- 
Xevec. — Or when it is prefixed to a demonstrative pronoun (no. 
1. c) ; as Xen. Cyr. 2. 3. 4 vvv ovv XeyeTco tis dvaaTas irepl clv- 
tov tovtov, this same thing; the topic of discourse ; comp. An. 
1. 9. 20. 

Note 1. It follows from the above statement that the Nom. uvtos; etc. 
can never mean simply he, she, it. To no. II, however, belong the instances, 
where according to the Greek construction the subject appears as an oblique 
case, viz. as Genitive absolute, or as Accus. with an Infinitive ; in which 
instances therefore the oblique cases of avTo? may be translated by he, she, 
it. E. g. eTTiK€ifJLevi£>v S' avTwv l but they pressing on; ? pera tcivto. a7reX- 
6elv clvtov 'that upon this he went away.' Soph. Phil. 777 (pray) p.rj aoi 
yeveo-Bai 7roXi)7rova civ to. SC. to. t6£cl, the bow. 



308 SYNTAX. $ 127. 

Note 2. Epic writers use aires without the article tor 6 avios-, so Od. 
$. 107 rjpxz 8e tg> avrrjv 6SoV, rjvivep ol aXkoi. — It stands sometimes also ; 
even in prose, for povos alone; e. g. Plat. Legg. p. 836 airol yap eapev for 
we are alone. Xen. Lac. 3. 4 AvKovpyos iirtra^e rots veavlais iv rals 68ois 
7repi(3\€7T€iv prjdapol, aXX' air a. ra rrpb rcov nodcov opav. — Also with ordinal 
numbers, self; e. g. avros nipirros himself the fifth, himself and four others. 

3. In the Reflexive pronouns i/iavTov, aeavrov, etc. (§ 74. 3,) 
the pronoun avros loses its emphasis ; avrov ere signifies thee thy- 
self, but aeavrov only thyself, as reflexive, e. g. eOc^e aavrov ac- 
custom thyself. So also the reflexive of the 3 pers. eavrov or av- 
rov corresponds to the Engl, himself But this latter is likewise 
used, like the Latin se, not only where it refers to the subject of 
the same clause, but often also where it refers to the first subject 
of two connected clauses, and where we consequently employ only 
him, etc. E. g. vo/jbi^eu rovs irdXiras viryperelv eavrS, 'he sup- 
poses that his fellow-citizens serve him? see other examples in 
n. 3. Still in this last instance the Greek usage is in so far freer, 
that it can employ either the reflexive eavrov, etc. or also the sim- 
ple avrov, etc. according as the writer would make the chief or 
the secondary subject prominent ; see examples in n. 3. In like 
manner also, the simple e, a<fia<>, etc. can be thus used, though 
rarely ; see n. 4. 

Note 3. Examples of the reflexive form eavrov, etc. used in the above 
manner are: Xen. Hell. 5. 1. 31 'Apra^ip^s vopifci hUaiov, rds iv rfj 'Acrta 
nokeis iavrov elvai, 'should belong to him? — Isocr. Paneg. p. 49 iicarepoi 
e'xovaiv i(p* ols (pikoripiqBcbcnv, ol pev (sc. ol Qearal) orav iScocrt rovs ddXrjrds av- 
ra>v evem (sc. rcov Searoov) irovovvras, ol S' (sc. ol dOXijral) orav iv6vpT)6a>G~iv, 
on rrdvres eiu rrjv crcberepav (sc. rcov affkrjrcov) Qeooptav rjicovcnv. Further, 
Mem. 1. 2. 52. Phsedr. p. 259. a. Eur. Hipp. 977. — Examples of the other 
form avrov are : Dem. 01. 2. p. 20 oldels ecrriv ovnv ov necpevdiaKev 6 ^lKittttos 
ra>v avrco xPV°' a l JL ^ va)V ' Xen. Ages. 6. 4 'AyrjcrCkaos rovs arpariaras dpa nei- 
Gopevovs K.a\ (pikovvras avrov 7rapft^e. Further. Dem. Phil. I. p. 42 vnep 
avrov, and others in Exc. X. ad Dem. Mid. 

Note 4. As to the use of the simple forms of the third personal Pron. ov, 
ol, e, and especially the Plur. acpels, acpas, etc. it may be noted, that Homer 
first, and after him other poets, employed them not. only as reflexives, but 
also in a transitive sense instead of the oblique cases of avros; e. g. II. ^3. 
197 (pikel Se i (j3aaiX.r]a) perUra Zeus. a. 104 oaae Se ol irvp\ Xapnero&vri 
Iiktt]v. In Attic writers they are employed principally as follows : 1) When 
no emphasis is to be laid upon them, and where in the 1 pers. the enclitic 
fie would be used: e. g. Plat. Rep. 1. init. Karih&v rjpas 6 UoXepapxps eW- 
Xevae dpapovra rov iralda nep i/xe Iva l k KeXevaai, 'he commanded the slavt 
to tell us, that we should wait for him? so espec. Dat. ol, Xen. An. 3. 1. 5 
Plat. Phsedo p. 117. c. Protag. p. 316. c ; and acpio-iv, Xen. Hell. 5. 4. 11. 
etc. 2) But when in quoting the words of a person in indirect discourse, 
the speaker himself is introduced, this pronoun is often employed in an an- 
tithesis etc. precisely like ifie. See e. g. Plat. Rep. 10. p. 617. d. e, where 
o-epds, ov, e, thus occur. — Further, the Singular of this form (ov and e) is on 
me whole everywhere rare in Attic writers ; and the Plural was more fre- 
quent in both the cases above stated. Even the Nominative thus occurs, 
when in a discourse or opinion so quoted in sermone obliquo the speakers or 
thinkers are themselves the subject, but only in a direct antithesis to oth- 
ers; e. g. Xen. An. 7. 5. 5 'Hpa/cAeiS^r Xeyeiv exeAeue rovs j-rparrjyovs irpbi 



* 127. PRONOUNS. o09 

2ev8rjv, on ovdev av rjrrov acpels dydyoiev rrjv arpanav rj Eevocpfov, ' he direct- 
ed to say, that they might just as well lead the host as Xenophon.' In such 
a case avroi could indeed be used, hut would mean rather they themselves , 
and so Sing, avros. Without a reference to others, no pronoun would he 
expressed. See too the example, Thuc. 8. 76, in § 142. n. 3. 

Note 5. The reflexive of the third person acquires sometimes the power 
of a general reflexive, which may stand also for the first and second persons ; 
consequently iavrov or avrov also for ep,avrov and aavrov. This remark 
is certain; is recognised by the ancient Grammarians (vid. Tim. c. not. 
Ruhnk. p. 92); and extends itself also to prose. But the prosaic passa- 
ges by which it is supported, still require for the most part some critical 
investigation. As an example for the first person: Soph. GEd. T. 138 ovx 
vnep rcov cplXoav, aXX' avros avr.ov, rovr dnoo-Keda) p.vaos, c on account of my- 
self.' For the second person: Trach. 451 el §' avros avrov hbe 7rai8eveis 7 
. . . dcpdrjcrei naicos, thyself. — In other poets this usage goes much further, so 
that e. g. acperepos stands without distinction of person or number for the 
general idea of own; and also e, of, ids, serve e. g. in Apollonius, partly 
(like the Lat. se) even for the Plural, and partly as reflexives for the first 
and second persons. Some of the more common passages of this kind in 
epic writers, though in part still assailed or otherwise explained, are the 
following: Od. v. 320 aXX' del (ppealv fjonv e^coi/ 8e8a'iyp,evov rjrop rjXa>p.rjv, 
instead of epais. a. 402 Krrjp.ara 6° avros eyotf kou 8a>p.ao~iv ola-iv dvaaaois, 
instead of vols. Hes. e. 58 anavres repnovrai ebv kukov dpicpayanavres, in- 
stead of acperepov. Scut. 90 os TrpoXnvoav o~<fiere pov re 86p.ov acperepovs re 
roicrjas «x ero ' instead of eov. See Wolf Proleg. ad Horn. p. 247. Nitzsch on 
Od. a. 402. 

Note 6. As avros in the reflexives has lost all its emphasis (no. 3 above), 
in order to make the idea self more prominent, the same pronoun avros is 
further joined with the subject ; e. g. eavrbv eicreive he killed himself; but 
stronger, avrbs eavrbv eicreive, l se ipse interfecit.' At the same time may 
be noted the peculiar position of avros, between unlike cases, or even be- 
tween a preposition and its case; iEschyl. Agam. 845 ro7s avrbs avrov 
7rr)p,acnv fiapvverai. Plat. Ale. II. p. 144 ov rrjv orovovv p.r)repa dLevoelro dno- 
Kreivai, dXXa rrjv avrbs avrov. .ZEschyl. Prom. 920 roiov Tia\aicrrr\v vvv 
rrapaaKevd^erat eV avrbs avrS. — For Gen. avrcov after Possessives, see n. 
.13, below. 

4. The Indefinite pronoun rh stands also for our indefinite one, 
some one, Fr. on, Grerm. man; e. g. avOpcoirov avathecrrepov ou/c 
av -m evpot, i a more shameless person one cannot find.' So even 
when a whole assembly is understood ; e. g. rfii] tx? eTrtBecfcvvro) 
iavrov, l now one must shew himself,' i. e. each one of you.* — 
Other modes of expressing the indef. idea one, some one, see in 
§ 129. 19. 

Note 7. After adjectives and adjective pronouns, this pronoun has com- 
monly the signif. of somewhat, in some degree; Plat. Rep. p. 432 dvo-fiaros 
ris 6 ronos (patverai Ka\ en'iaKios. p. 358 eyd> ris, a>s eoiKe, 8vap.a6rjS. So too 
ttoIos ris, ivocrov n, roiavr' arra dieXe^drjaav, etc. 

5. The Interrogative pronoun rfc as also all direct interroga- 
tives, whether pronouns or adverbs, (ttov ; 7tg£o?; irore ; etc.) in 
the lively tone of free conversation, are written not only at the be- 
ginning of an interrogative clause, but also in the middle of othei 

* Hence it may often be translated many a one, II. (p. 126. Hence too the ap- 
parently inconsistent junction ncis ris, Scph. Phil. 174. Aristoph. Av. 526; see too 
Eurip. Rhes. 683, in § 129. n. 13. 



olO SYNTAX. V 127. 

clauses, whether relative, participial, or even interrogative ; in 
which last case more than one question may be included in one 
clause. 

Examples : Plat. Gorg. p. 448. c, vvv ineidr] rlvos Te^vr/s imo-T^pcov io-ri, 
rlva av KaXovvres avrov opdas KaXolpev ; Rep. p. 322. C, r) he rial tl cltto- 
didovaa rex VT l laTpiKr) KaXe^rai ; Theag. p. 125 ra>u tl cro(f)a>v XeyeLS avrov?; 

Note 8. So too in indirect interrogative clauses : Plat. Rep. p. 569 yva>- 
orercLL tot 6 drjpos, oios olov Speppa yevvq. Soph. Ant. 940 XevacreTe, ola 
npbs ot<£>v dv8pa>v 7racr^co. Such sentences are often for us very hard to 
translate; e. g. Xen. Cyr. 4. 5. 29 o-ntyai, o'lco outi poi nepl ae olos cov nepl 
e/xe en-eiTa pot pep<prj. — That however in indirect questions the direct inter 
rogatives are also employed, see in § 139. m. 63. 

6. The Relative pronoun o?, rj, 6, stands in such a relation to 
the compound octtls, that the former refers to an object already 
mentioned or definite, while the latter is general. The same is 
true of olos, oaos, and adv. &>?, as compared with oiroios, oirocros, 
ottgos, etc. Hence the compound forms are used also in indirect 
interrogative clauses ; § 139. m. 63. But the simple relative with 
av becomes also general ; § 139. m. 32. 

Note 9. Homer commonly lets the relative be followed by the particle 
re, see § 149. m. 8. The relative is also strengthened by nep, e. g. ITeAXa, 
TJTre p pey[crTT] tcov ev MaKeboviq noXeoov Xen. — For relative clauses in general, 
which in Greek are of such manifold application, see § 143 and § 139. B. 

Note 10. The passages in which 8o~tl? refers to a definite noun, are for 
the most part susceptible of special explanation: e. g. Eur. Hipp. 1063 w 
Seoi, tl 8rjTa Tovpbv ov ~kv<s> aTopa, octtls y 5 vcji vpcov dcoWvpai, peril, instead 
of os dpi tolovt&v olrives atrSXkvvTai. Comp. Soph. Aj. 1055 o&tls orparoj 
^vpiravTi ktX. 1299 eic iraTpbs ooms dpio-Tevo-a? kt\. In Homer alone it 
sometimes seems to stand directly for os) as II. •*//•. 43 Ou pa Zr}v, out is -re 
Secov vnaTOS ical ciptaTos. 

Note 1 1 . The idea of generalness in oo-tls is still further strengthened by 
appending to it the particles ovv, br), br)irore ; which moreover very com- 
monly impart to the relative the force of a general Indefinite, so that these 
forms then stand without a verb; e. g. Plat. Rep. p. 335 earcv apa ducalov 
dvdpbs IBXaTTTeLu otlvovv av^pconcov ; So too r) otovovv pr)rrjp ktX. Some- 
times this occurs even with outi? alone; Plat. Hipp. Maj. p. 282 nXeov dpyv- 
piov e'lpyaaTai rj oAXor Sr/piovpyb? dcj) r)cmvos Te^vr/v, and often. 

7. The place of the Possessives is often supplied by the Geni- 
tive of the personal and reflexive pronouns. The following is the 
general usage : 

1) Instead of the possessives of the first and second persons 
Sing-, are used : a) The enclitic forms fjuov and aov ; but so 
that they either precede the article or follow the noun ; thus 
/jlov (aov) 6 (f)L\os, or o 0/Xo? jiov, aov. b) The reflexives 
i^avrov, aeavrov, ?}?, when the possessive word refers to the 
subject of the clause ; and then these are put either between 
the article and noun, or after the noun with the article re- 
peated. Thus, ijjbavrov (aeavrov) <pi\o$, or 6 (f>l\os 6 ijjuav- 
rov, aeavrov. 

2) Instead of the possessives of the third person, which are 



§ 127, PRONOUNS. 311 

scarcely used in prose, we nngl : a) The Grenitives avrov, r)<;, 
avrcov ; but so again (as in 1. a) that they either precede the 
article or follow the noun, when the possessive word does 
not refer to the subject of the clause ; thus avrov 6 <£/Xo? or 
o </>/Ao? avrov. b) The reflexives eavrov, rjs, eavrwv, in the 
same position as above (1. b), when the possessive word re- 
fers to the subject of the clause ; thus 6 eavrov </u\o? and 6 
(piXds 6 eavrov. — Here of course the same holds good in re- 
spect to the freer use of the pronouns eavrov and avrov, 
which was said above in no. 3 and note 3. 
3) The possessives of the 1 and 2 pers. Plural are far more 
usual than the periphrase with rjficov and vjicqv. For their 
connection with the article, see $ 124. n. 4. 
Examples are found abundantly in reading. A few may here suffice. 
Xen. Cyr. 5. 1. 24 opeop-ev rovs (piXovs <rov Tvdvras edeXovo-lovs eTropevovs . 1. 
6. 10 dvainos ean uapd reus aavrov o-rpariu>rai$. Hell. 2. 4. 17 ol Imrei? 
Kal Xyara? e^eipovvro kol tt)v (pdXayya avrcov eicaKovpyovv •nepiervyov 8e icai 
Tiaiv €9 rovs avrtov dypovs nopevopevois. Sometimes also words may inter- 
vene: Cyr. 2. 1. 21 evOvr avrcov 7rapeo-icevacre rds yvcopas, etc. 

Note 12. Other examples for this usage, which in general is closely ob- 
served by the Attics, may be seen in Kriiger on Rost's Grammar § 99. The 
non-enclitic form of the 1 pers. epov stands in this connection, by rule, only 
when the substantive is omitted; as fji<er ovv eh epov Aristoph. Lys. 1065, 
1211. — The place of the possessives epos, aos, r)perepos, etc. is that of adjec- 
tives ] thus 6 epos cpiXos or 6 (piXos 6 ep,6s. 

Note 13. In a manner corresponding to the Latin idiom, the two modes 
of expression, with the adjective and with the substantive, may be combined 
together ; when, for instance, for the sake of emphasis (Engl, my own), to 
the possessive adjective there is joined the subst. pron. avros, and each re- 
mains in its appropriate case, avros of course in the Gen. Thus 

Horn. Od. a. 7 avrwv yap o-(pereprjo-tv draaOaXirjatv oXovro, Lat. sua 
ipsorum temeritate perierunt : 
for which stands in v. 33, avrol aqbfjcnv ar. etc. — In prose this usage is not 
frequent in the Singular, because there the possessives are mostly expressed 
by the personal pronouns ; but so much the oftener in the Plural possessives 
of the 1 and 2 person. Thus, ra vperep avrcov dvrjXio-Kere, also Genit. rcov 
hperepuov avrtov icrrjpdrcov, Dem. 01. p. 25. Hdot. 6. 97. Instead of avrov a 
Subst. in the Gen. can be joined with the possessives ; e. g. 8iaprrd£ovo-i rd 
ipd, rov <aico8aipovos ) or a Participle, Xen. Cyr. 8. 7. 26 e'i ns oppa 
rovpbv (covros en 7vpoo-ihelv edeXei, Trpoairco.^ 

8. But more commonly, in the expression of such ideas as al- 
ways stand in some necessary relation, as son, father, friend, 
master, hand, foot, etc. the possessive is not inserted, and its 
place is supplied by the article alone. 

9. In regard to position ivith the article, the demonstrative 
pronouns, viz. ovros, SSe, etcelvos, (and so avros, see above no. 2,) 
also the kindred adjectives e/caaros and etcarepos, afjL<fxo and a/MJ)6- 

* Herewith may be compared the (poetic) construction, where to a subst. im- 
plied in an adjective there is joined another subst. in the Genitive, as if in apposi- 
tion; e. g. II. e. 741 iv Se re Topyeii) KecpaXrj, 5eivo?o irehdipov (ac. Topyovs) ; com 
paro B. 54. 



312 SYNTAX « 128 

repot, 7ra? and clttcls, all stand in good prose either before the ar- 
ticle, or after the substantive ; e. g. tovtcdv tcov dvBpcov of these 
men, 6 dvrjp ovros this man, dfiobo) too irokee both cities, iravres oi 
"EWrjve? all the Greeks, tcq Bij^cp diravri to the ivhole people. 
Less frequently and with emphasis 7r<x? stands between the arti- 
cle and substantive ; as ol irdvre^ /9oe? re /cal Ittttoi Plato ; tovs, 
iravTCLs 'Apyetovs the Ar gives all together. — "Without article 7r<x<> 
in the Sing, commonly stands for ettao-ros ; e. g. 7ra? dvqp every 
man. 

Note 14. The same position is assigned to several adjectives, as oXos, 
fieao?, etc. for which see § 125. n. 5. 

Note 15. The article is by rule omitted with the pronouns specified in 
no. 9, when the latter are not connected with their substantives as adjec- 
tives, but the noun as predicate refers back to them. Thus alrlai p.ev avrai 
rjcrav these were the causes (but avrai ai atrial these causes) ; rovra 7rapa§ei- 
yjxan xp&vrai this they use as an example. But the article can also again 
stand, when the substantive is the subject, to which the pronoun as predicate 
refers ) e. g. Plat. Rep. p. 338. b, avrv rj Sco/cparotir ao(pia 1 avrbv p.ev p.rj ide- 
Ae«/ diddo-iceiv, Tvapa 8e roov aAAcoi/ ivepuovra fiavOaveiv, i. e. not 'this is the 
wisdom,' but ' the wisdom of Socrates consists in this, that,' etc. This is 
different e. g. from Dem. 01. I. p. 10 eari rovro 6Voy, fxrj 6 navovpyos rpty-q- 
rai n rwv 7rpayp.dr(x)v, i. e. not 'the fear is this, 7 but 'there is this fear. 7 
metuendum est. Comp. Dawes' Miscell. p. 300. Reisig. Conj. p. 177. 

Note 16. Real exceptions to the rule in no. 9 above, are only those ex- 
amples, where ideas are connected with the words in question, which strictly 
taken do not require the article • e. g. ode 'Apio-rapxos, airb? (3acri\ev?, ttclv- 
res avdpanroi i. e. ' all who are men? ivdvras Seov? del iiraiveiv Plato • Traam 
Tro'Xecoy , A0rjvai p.aki<jra ire(pvKa<jiv iv elprjvn av^ecrOai Xen. Vect. 5.2. Comp 
§ 124. n. 7. 3. 

10. "AWos without the article is the Lat. alius, another; ere- 
po? without the article has the same meaning with a stronger ex- 
pression of difference ; 6 erepos on the other hand is only used 
with reference to tivo, and is the Lat. alter, the other ; see s s 78. 
4. — In the Plural, aWoi is others, and ol aXkoi the others, ceteri ; 
ol erepoi presupposes a more distinct separation into two parts, 
the other party. — The Sing. 6 aWos expresses a whole, exclusive 
of and opposed to a definite part of the same, e. g. t) oXXtj yoopa 
the whole remaining land. 

h 128. Neuter Adjectives. 

1. The Neuter of all adjective words stands without a substan 
tive, or itself as a substantive, in various relations. In accord- 
ance with its nature, the Neuter serves appropriately to express ; 
1) General ideas, or those including a plurality of objects. 2) 
Abstract ideas. In the first of these cases the Neuter Plural is 
very commonly employed, as in Latin, when in English we from 
necessity use the Singular ; e. g. elire ravra he said this ; rd fcaXd 
the beautiful, i. e. all that is beautiful ; rd i/id my affairs, all 
that concerns me (n». 2) ; iroWd teal dyadd many and good things, 
multa bona. Xen. (Ec. 20. 1 ovhe rd dvaytcala ovvavrai iroplKecrOaL. 



) 123 XEUTER ADJECTIVES. 313 

2. The Neuter Singular on the contrary expresses more the 
abstract idea of the object ; e. g. to kcCKov the beautiful ; rb ^relov 
the divinity ; to t»}s yvvcufcb? SovXov koX ^epairevTacov the sub- 
missive and obliging nature of woman ; epav tov aXrjOovs to love 
the truth, Plato. Hence consequently the neuter of the Participle 
can also stand as an abstract, e. g. rb avjKe^coprjKo^ that which 
yields, i. e. pliability of mind ; rb Xvttovv, to avficpipov. To be 
distinguished are : to irapov, to /jueWov, and to, irapovra, ra /jbiX- 
\ovra. 

Note 1. In the language of philosophy, in order to mark an ahstract idea 
still more definitely, the pronoun avro is further prefixed to the neuter ad- 
jective ; e. g. avro rb kcl\6v the beautiful itself, considered in itself alone. 
Plato Rep. p. 479 ol 8e noWa Kaka Becopevoi, avro rb koXov ovx opanri. 

3. Further, the Neuter Singular of Adjectives, and especially 
of those in t/co?, commonly as taken substantively with the art. 
to, serves also to express a plurality of concrete objects in their 
union and mutual coherence ; or, it shews, that the possible mul- 
titude of particulars are taken together as a complete whole ; e. g. 
ol Acopieh the Dorians, but to Acopucov the whole Doric tribe. 
Further, to vTrrjtcoov, not the abstract ' what is subject,' but the 
mass of individual subjects taken together ; hence e. g. Thucydi- 
des puts the corresponding predicate in the Plural, comp. § 129. 
11. So too to 'ittttlxov, to ottKltlkov, to (3apj3aptKov. Participles 
also can be thus used. 

Examples: Thuc. 6. 69 rb vttt)koov tg>v ^vppd^v rb npoOvpov elxov, 
shewed a readiness. Hdot. 7. 209 el rovrovs re kclI rb vnopevov (instead of 
rovs vrropevovras) ev "ETrdprv Karaarpe^/eat. ovdev aXXo e6vos <je viropeveei. 
Xen. Mem. 1. 2. 43 rb Kparovv rrjs TroKeco?. Without article: Xen. Ages. 
1. 15. 23 iiriTLKov ovv eivei> ' Ay rjcrtkao 9, comp. Thuc. 1. 4. etc. 

Note 2. The periphrase of substantive ideas by means of the Neut. of 
the article (to or ra) before a Genitive, etc. has already been treated of, 
§ 125. n. 6. Analogous to this is the case, where substantive ideas are ex- 
pressed by the Neuter Plur. of Adjectives, commonly also with the article ; 
e. g. ra UeXoTrovvrjo-iaKa the Peloponnesian war; eVi r£>v HeXoTrovvwcnaKcov at 
the time of the Peloponnesian war; ra iroXepiKa the same as ra eh v. nep\ rbv 
Tiokepov in § 125. n. 6. b. It is further to be remarked, that also the Neut. 
of the possessive with the art. to serves as a periphrase for the personal pro- 
noun; e. g. rb epov for e'yco, strictly that which concerns me, my person. 
Plato Rep. p. 533 to y ipbv ovhev av irpoOvpias airoXiTroi. Hdot. 8. 140 ro 
v per epov. 

Note 3. The Greeks use the Plur. navra, as we use the word all, to ex- 
press the idea of every one; e. g. Eurip. Hel. 276 rwv [3ap(3dpcov yap 8ovKa 
ndvra n\f]v eras', l among the barbarians all is slave, save one ;' in full, ra 
ra>v fiapftdpodv -navra, i. e. ol (3dp(3apot rrdvres. 

Note 4. The Neuter of the adjective used instead of the adverb (§ 115. 
4) is rare in prose; but in the poets it is very frequent; e. g. beivbv (3oav, 
eKirayXa (piXelv, i to cry out fearfully, to love immoderately.' In prose this 
usage is chiefly limited to the comparative and superlative; see § 115. 4. 
Examples of the positive in prose writers may for the most part be other- 
wise explained; as e. g. Xen. An. 5. 9. 5 rjXkovro v\lrrp\d re nal ncixfioas, i. e. 
j^/rfKa Trrjtypara, according to § 131. 4; so too Soph. OT. 1300 6 Tr-rjhrjo-as 
peitova. For no\v, etc. see § 133. 4. d. 



31 1 SYNTAX. * 129. 

Note 5. On the other hand, the Neuter of the Pronouns, both Sing, and 
Plur. is very often used adverbially both in poetry and prose. E. g. Horn. 
II. e. 185 ovx oy' avevQe Sewv rdde /xaiverai, 'in such a way,' instead of 
ryvde fiaviav see § 131. 4. Thus too o, tovto, ravra, often express the rela- 
tion of cause, wherefore, therefore; e. g. Eur. Her. 13 6 Kai p.e yrjg ot^ 
Trefiyj/ev. Plato Prot. p. 310 aXX' avra ravra vvv 77/cco napa ae. — In prose we 
may further note : to irav wholly ; to. noXXd much, mostly ; tovto pev . . . tov- 
to 8e, also to. \xlv . . . to. 8e, on the one hand . . . on the other hand, partly . . . 
partly; e. g. Demosth. Lept. p. 474. 25 tovto fiev tolvvv, Qaaiovs ttws ovk 
d8iKr)o~€T€, iav acpeXrjade ttjv drekeiav ; tovto S'e, 'Ap^e/3tov ko\ 'HpaKkeidrjv] 
Xen. Mem. 1. 3. 1 ScoKpar^y axfieXe'iv donel p.01 tov? ^wovTas, tcl p.ev epyco 
deiKvixav eavrov oio? r)v, to. de kol 8ia\ey6p,evos. 

Note 6. The Neuter Sing, of the ordinal numerals, with or without the 
article (comp. § 125. n. 8), stands in like manner adverbially, as in Lat. 
tertium, quartum; e. g. rpi'roz/, TeTapTov, to rpiTov, thirdly, fourthly, etc. 



THE NOUN IN CONSTRUCTION. 
§ 129. Subject and Predicate. 

1. The Subject of a clause or sentence is that of which some- 
thing is affirmed ; the Predicate expresses that which is af- 
firmed of the subject ; the Copula shows that the subject and 
predicate stand thus in relation to each other. The subject is al- 
ways a substantive or some word standing in the place of a sub- 
stantive ; the predicate, when independent, is usually an adjective 
or some equivalent word ; and the simple copula is the verb to 
be, in Greek elvai, etc. More commonly, however, the idea of the 
predicate and that of the copula are united in one word, viz. the 
verb. — The general rules for the correspondence of the subject and 
predicate, which are common to all languages, hold good also in 
the Grreek. The following remarks therefore are limited to the 
peculiarities of the Grreek idiom. 

2. "When the Predicate is a substantive, it commonly expresses 
a general affirmation, and therefore omits the article. If the 
subject has no article, the predicate usually stands first. 

Examples : vv£ f) f)p.epa iyevero Hdot. Xen. An. 2. 5. 41 )lp6gevo? *ca x 
Mevav elalu vperepot p-ev evepylrat, rjp,erepoL 8e arpaTrjyoi, comp. § 124. 11. 4. 
Plato Theset. p. 152. a, the saying of Protagoras : rrdvTOiv xPVf JL "- Ta)v perpov 
avdpcd7ro?. See other examples in § 124. n. 7. — Contra, Isocr. Nic. p. 28 
Aoyo? dXrjdrj? -v^ir^y dyadrjs e'ldcoXov io~Ti. 

Note 1. The predicate however can affirm, and yet at the same time re- 
fer to something well known or already mentioned ; in which case the pred- 
icate also takes the article; e. g. Luc. D. Mort. 18. 1 tovti to upaviov 77 
'EXevrj iari. Such examples, however, must always be taken in connec- 
tion with the context on which they depend ; and it may therefore suffice 
to cite here a few: Xen. An. 6. 4. 7. Cyr. 3. 3. 4 dvaieaXovvTe? avrov tov 
evepyerrjv, tov TrpoboT-qv. Plato Phffid. p. 64. C, f]yovp.eda tov Sdvarov elvai ttjv 
dnaXXayriv, etc. So too with adjectives as substantives : Plato Phaed. p. 78 
Tavr ecrri rd d£vv8era. Hipp. Maj. p. 296 r6 u>cps\ip.6v eari to KaXov ko.1 to 
ttolovv dyadov. We must distinguish between elprjvr) eariv dyaOov and rdyaBov. 

3. The predicate agrees with the subject in number and per - 



\ 129. Sin. EOT AND PREDICATE. U15 

son. But, when the subject is a Neuter Plural, the verb by 
rule, whether predicate or copula, is put in the Singular. 

Examples: ra {'wa rp£x ei animals run; rwv ovt&v rd fj.lv iariv £<p y rjplv, 
to. 6° ovk ecf r]fuv } in our 'power. Xen. Conv. 1. 15 eVei ye'Aco? e'£ aV#pa>7rcoy 
d7roA.c0A.ez', eppei ra epd 7rpdypara. — ra rcov ' 'Adrjvaicav earl KaXd. 

Note 2. Yet "both in poetry and prose the Plural is sometimes found in 
such constructions, when the subjects denote rational heings : Thuc. 7. 57 
Tocrdbe pera 3 A0r)VQi<dv Wvr\ ecrrpdrevov. Isocr. p. 280 ra peipdicia, ttjv av- 
rrjv i(w\ yvcopr}v eV^oi'. Or where the idea of individuality and plurality is 
to be made specially prominent : Xen. An. 1. 7. 17 (pavepd rjcrav avBpom&v kol 
vrnr<s>v "x vr l ^oKKd t comp. 4. 1. 13. Thuc. eyevovro e'tKocrt kcu inarov rdXavra'. 
In like manner also Participles connected with a Neuter Plural prefer the 
constructio ad sensum (Kara avvecnv) : in which case too the predicate fol- 
lows the same ; see examples in no. 11, below. — The poets sometimes write 
the Plural without any such grounds; Horn. II. j3. 135. Od. /3. 156. 

4. Where there is more than one subject, the predicate by rule 
must be in the Plural. Here too, as in Latin, the first person is 
preferred before the second, and the second before the third. 

Note 3. Here, of course, if all the subjects are in the Neuter Plural, tho 
predicate remains in the Singular. The same takes place, though rarely, 
when the subjects are merely abstract or impersonal objects; e. g. II. p. 386 
yovvard re Kvrjpai re nodes' re . . . X eL P^ s re ' ocpdaXpoi re TraAdtr <r ero. Plato 
Symp. p. 188 irdxvai kcu xdXagcu kcu epvaifiai. (mildew) ylyverai. Comp. 
n. 4, below. 

5. Where there are several subjects, it is often the case, that 
the predicate agrees both in person and number with only one of 
them, and that the nearest ; and consequently is in the Singular 
if this is in the Singular. This takes place especially when the 
predicate stands first ; see in no. 10, below. 

Examples: Instead of 1 pers. Plural: Eur. Med. 1010 ravra yap Seol 
K.dya> KaK&s eppovova e pr/xcivr] a dp,r)v. — Instead of 2 Plural : Xen. Mem. 4. 
4. 7 oure av ovr av aXXos ov§e)s bvvair avreinelv. — Instead of 3 Plural: 
Eur. Supp. 155 TuSeus j Ltc *X 7 7 I/ £ vv * : i y l / ' € UoXvveiKrjs- 3* apa. Thuc. 1. 29 e'errpa- 
rrjyei 8e tcov vecov 'Apicriev? kcu KaWiKpurrjs kol TtpdVcop. II. 77. 844. etc. 
Comp. also § 143. 3, on the relative. 

Note 4. When the predicate (or copula) stands first, it is not unusual, 
that even when the nearest substantive is a Plural, or only Plurals follow, 
the verb nevertheless stands in the Singular ; e. g. ecrri kcu £v reus aWcus 
iTokeaiv apxovres re kol brjpos, where if apxovres stood alone the verb must 
have been el&i. 

Examples: Xen. An. 5. 10. 10 rjv t)e vnep rjpicrv rod crTparevparos i Apicd~ 
bes ical 'Axjouoi. Plato Rep. p. 363 rrapaKeXevovrai ol irarepes vlecriv, cos xph 
biKaiov elvai, Iva ylyvrjrat. avrols dp^at re kol ydpoi Kal aAAa rouivra. 

Note 5. Wholly poetic is the usage called, after the poet Alcman, the 
Schema Alcmanicum; in which the predicate stands in the Plural (or Dual) 
when it belongs in sense to several subjects, but by its position refers express- 
ly to one, and that in the Singular. 

Examples: Od. k. 513 evda pev els 'A^e'poz/ra HvpicpXeyedcov re peovatv 
Kcokvtos re. II. e. 774 r}x L pods 2ipoeis crv pfidWerov r]8e 2<dpav8pos. v. 
138 et 8e K^Aprjs ap^cocri pa^y rj Qolfios 'A7rdAAtoi>. 

Note 6. Some dialects connect also a verb Singular in particular in- 
stances with masculine and feminine Plurals which relate to things, This 
peculiarity is called from the usage of Pindar, Schema Pindaricum ; e. g. 
01. 10. 5 peXiydpves vpvoi . . . re'XAerai. The construction is somewhat more 



316 SYNTAX. § 129. 

natural, though still always rare, when the verb -precedes; as in ttjs 6° tjv 
rpel? Ke<paXai mentioned in the second marg. note to § 108. IV. 4 ; also Hdot. 

I. 26 f'crrt 8e p.era£v tt}$ Tvokios kai rod vtjov inra arddioi. In this form of the 
construction even proper names occur. See on this subject Herm. ad Pind. 
01. 8. 10, and 11. 5, Valck. ad Hdot. 5. 12. Here then belongs too the 
common phrase co-tip ot, etc. see § 150. m. 21. 

6. As to the Grreek Dual, every clause which speaks of two 
can be put either wholly in the Plural, or it may have the sub- 
ject in the Dual and the verb in the Plural ; comp. $ 33. 2. 
When there are several predicates, these can vary between the 
two forms as euphony may require. 

Examples: Horn. II. e. 275 tg> 8e ra^' eyyvOev rj\dov, ekavvovr areas' 
17T7TOV9. Xen. Mem. 1. 2. 18 IZcp/cpdrei crvvrjarrjv, ov (po(3ovp,evco, p.rj £r)p.iolv- 
to vtt* avrov. Horn. II. n. 279 p-rjKen, 7raiSe (pCKco, no\ep,i (er e, prjde fid- 
Xecr8ov. Soph. OC. 1435 ov fioi ^covtI y* avdis et-erov. p-edeade §' rjtrj, %aipe- 
tov r. ov yap /a en eoo^read* kt\. 

Note 7. Those forms of nouns, adjectives, etc. which belong immediately 
together, observe here the conformity required by § 123; except: 1) The 
numerals dvo and ap.qboa sometimes have Plural forms connected with 
them, e. g. bvelv jjp.epSiv, fjp,as ap-cpos. 2) The construction of the Participle 
shares the license of the verb; e. g. Eurip. Ale. 903 8vo S' dvrl puds "Aidrjs 
^ipy o-vveax^v 6p.ov, x^ovtav \Lp,vav biafidvre (§ 123. 4) ; comp.Od.o-. 65. 
— Examples in which a Plural subject denoting objects really Plural has a 
predicate in the Dual, are very rare, and occur only in the earliest poets. 
They arise probably from the circumstance, that in the earliest times the 
Dual forms of the verb had still a Plural signification. As this topic 
therefore belongs rather to the subject of forms, we refer the student to 
the Ausf. Sprachl. § 87. n. 1, and to § 33. n. 4 above, for such passages as 
Horn. II. o\ 452 x e ^H- a PP 0L o~vp.fi dXkerov. Hymn. Ap. 456 rjadov renrjOTes. 
Pind. 01. 2. 87 yapverov. 

7. "When the predicate is an Adjective, it of course agrees also 
In gender with the subject ; e. g. 6 it ah ecrri /ca\6$. 

8. From this rule it is a very common exception, that when 
the subject, whether it be masc. or fern, whether Sing, or Plural, 
is conceived of as a thing', or when the idea thing fyprj/jLa, kttj- 
/jlo) or something (rl) can be subjoined to it, the adjective is put 
in the Neuter Singular. 

Examples : rj aperr} eanv eiraiveTov virtue is (something) praiseworthy. — 

II. /3. 204 ovk ayaQbv rroXvicoipavLr) • eis Koipavos eara. Eur. Med. 1083 ol y 
areKvoi, ei#' rj 8v (3poTo7s; e'lr aviapbv 7ral8e? reXedova {aireipoi). — xa^- €7rov 
aKpoarrjS aavveros. Arist. Eccl. 236 xPW ara iropi^eiv evir o pcorarov yvvrj. 

Note 8. In a manner wholly similar the Neuters ovbev and p.r)8ev are 
often connected with masc. or fern, subjects; e. g. Eur. Androm. 1066 ovdev 
elpu, i. e. diT(Si\6p.rjV. Plato Rep. p. 556 avhpes oi rjp.erepoL t-\ovo-lo'l elaiv ovdev, 
are of no use/& So too the Neuters ir\eov, irXelv, p.eiov, etc. are employed 
in attributive relations as wholly indeclinable; e. g. Xen. Hell. 7. 1. 20 
rpiypeis rrXeov rj e'Uoaiv. Cyr. 2. 1. 6 irnveas [dyet?) p.elov rj to Tplrov pe- 
oos tov t£)v 7ro\ep.ia>v Itttukov. Thuc. 6. 95 eirpdQrj TaXdvroov ovk eXarrov 
nevre na\ e'Uoo-i. Contra, regular in Xen. Cyr. 2. 1. 5. etc. 

Note 9. When the subject to which an adjective refers as predicate, is 
a v)hole clause or a thought, the adjective is put in the Neuter Singular; as, 

* Even in connections which required a different case, the Neuter remained 
anehanged, as if indeclinable: Eur. Heracl. 1GS yepouros ovvekcl, rb jj.7)8ev Zvtos. 






? 129. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 817 

koXov earn Savelv vnep rrjs irarplbos. But the usage is not rare, that the ad- 
jective stands in the Neut. Plural. Comp. the Verbal Adj. § 134. 

Examples: Hdot. 1. 91 rrjv Tren p^pevrjv polpav dbvvard earc dirocpvyeeiv. 
Thuc. 1. 125 dhvvara rjv emxeipe'iv dnapaaKevois ovaiv. Eur. Hec. 1222 
ux6 e iv a pev poi, rdXXorpia Kpiveiv icaicd. 

9. The rule, that an adjective-pronoun as subject must agree 
in gender with the noun-predicate, (Lat. hie est pater mens,) 
holds also in Grreek : ovtos icrriv e'yao? iraTiqp. Yet it follows 
from Text 8, that, in speaking of things and abstract objects, 
expressions like the following may also have place : tout 6 ian 
Trrjyr] teal apyj) ryevecrea)?, though still in Lat. hie fons est, etc. 

Examples : Plat. Crat. p. 428 ovoparos 6p66rrjs earlv avrr], fjri? evhel^erai 
olov eari to Trpdypa. Euthyphr. init. ovroi de 'Adrjvcuoc 8lktjv avrrjv koXov- 
aiv, dXka ypacprjv. Rep. 1. p. 336 rovro ecpdvrj rj SiKaiocrvvr] ov. 

Note 10. On the other hand, the Neut. Plural of a demonstrative some- 
times refers to persons, yet not without a certain ethic shade; e. g. Eur. 
Andr. 168 ov yap eV0' "Exrcop rdhe. Tro. 99 ovKeri Tpola rdde. Thuc. 6. 
77 ovk "laves rdde elalv ovd' 'EXkrjairovTioi Kal vrjcricorai, dXKd Acopirj?. 

10. "When there are several subjects, and the predicate is an 
adjective, the same rules hold good in respect to the gender of 
the latter, as in Latin. Here too, as above (no. 5) in respect to 
number, the adjective may inform refer to only one of the sub- 
jects. 

Examples: Cyr. 3. 1. 7 as ei$e top narepa re Kal prjrepa al^paXarovs yt 
yevrj pevov s, eddKpvae. So in the Gen. absol. Hdot. 3. 119 irarpbs Kal prj- 
rpbs ovKert pev ^coovrav. II. e. 891 alel yap rot epis re (piXrj trokepol re 
paxai re. Sometimes the reference is to the remoter subject, when the 
sense accords better with this : Thuc. 8. 63 envdero 2rpo/z/3t^i(57?i/ ml rds 
vavs drre\r}\v66ra. 

Note 11. After several subjects singly enumerated, which are all or in 
part things, the predicate commonly stands in the Neuter Plural. E. g. 
Hdot. 2. 132. rbv av^va Kal rrjv KecpaXrjv cpaivei Kexpvcra peva. Xen. Mem. 
3. 1. 7 \l6ol re Kal ttKlvOol Kal £v\a Kal Kepapos draKras e p pipeva ovdei 
Xprjo- ipd ecrriv. 

11. The grammatical accord between the subject and predicate 
is further disturbed : a) When with a collective noun in the 
Sing, the predicate is pat in the Plural, b) When the predicate 
follows, not the grammatical, but the natural gender of the sub- 
ject. — These instances form what is called 

constructio ad sensum v. Kara avvecriv, 
an important feature of the Greek Syntax; which applies also 
to other portions of it, and especially to relative and participial 
clauses. 

Examples : a) Horn. as <pdo~av rj 7rhr}6vs, thus spake the multitude. Xen. 
An. 1. 7. 4 rb 7tKt]6o9 eniacriv. Thuc. 5. 60 rb o-rparoirebov drrexapovp 
Kal 8ie\v6rjo-av err o'lkov.^ So too with pronouns; see examples in § 143. 5. 
b. b) ro peipaKiov ecm KaXos. Plato Phffidr. p. 240 ayapov, cioikov 
to. 7rai8iKa epaarrjs evgair dv yeveuBai. Hence too in like manner with an 
attributive: cpiXe reKvov, § 123. n. 3. This occurs most frequently in the 

* So even as Gen. absol. rod ar6\ov . . . irXe6vra>v, Demosth. Mid. § 45. 



318 SYNTAX. § 129. 

participial construction: Od. £. 156 o-cpio-i Svpbs lalperai, Xevao-ovrcov (Gen. 
absol. instead of Xevacrovai) roiovbe SdXos (Navo-ucdav) yopoy elcroix V€ vo~ai>. 
Time. 4. 15 ebo^ev, to. reXrj KarafiavTas es to o~TpaTorre8ov j3ovXeveiv napa- 
Xprjpa. Plato Lach. p. 180 ra peipaKia rrpbs dXXr)Xovs 8iaXeyopevoi Qapa 
iinpepvrjjrai 2(HKpdrovs kol acpodpa eiraivovo-iv. Also in periphrases with the 
Genitive, where then the predicate takes the gender of the main idea as 
contained in the Genitive : Plato Rep. p. 563 to t&v Srjpioov (i. e. tcl Srjpia) 
eXevOe pa>Te pa io~Tiv. II. j3. 459 opvLOiov edvea 7ToXXd...dyaXX6pevai 
nrepvyeo-aiv. — So too with the relative : (3lr) 'HpaKXrjelrj, 6V ktX. § 143. 

Note 12. Out of a Plural subject there is often evolved a collective pro 
nominal idea, like e/cacrror, SXXodev aXXo?, etc. which then, where the subject 
is not further expressed, stands without change along with the Plural pred- 
icate* e.g. Od. a. 424 8r) Tore KaKKeiovres efiav olnovde enacrros. II. i. 311 
cos pf} pot Tpv£r]Te ivapr)pevoi aXXodev aXkos. Plato Charm, p. 153 r)p6iT(av 
be aXXo? aXXo. 

Note 13. In addressing several, it is often the case that only the chief 
person is named, and yet the verb is in the Plural : Soph. Phil. 466 77877, 
rewov, aTeWeo-de. Vice versa, when several are actually named and 
addressed, the Sing, of an Imperat. is often used, as ei7re, aye, (pepe, 18 e, 
$ 115. n. 7 ; so Arist. Pac. 383 elite poi, ti irdarx^T, &v8pes. Dem. Phil. 1. 
p. 43. — Further, according to the analogy of the preceding note, there may 
be joined to this Imperative a pronoun, like rh, nds; irds nf, without any 
change of person^ especially in scenic dialogue ; e. g. Arist. Av. 1186 x<°P el 
devpo irds vTrrjpeTt]S - cidpei 8e 7tds kvkXco o-/co7jw. Eur. Rhes. 683 iV^e nds 
tis. Comp. Eur. Bacch. 327, where the two persons alternate. 

Note 14. As in Latin, so in Greek sometimes, and in tragedy often, a 
single person speaks of himself in the Plural. Here it is to be noted, that, 
even in the case of a female person, the predicate or other declinable ad- 
junct is then put in the masculine Plural. Thus Electra says in Soph. El. 
391 ireo-ovped', el xpriyTrciTpl Tipicapov p.evoi. Clytemnestra in Ear. IA. 818 
ov Savpd o-' f]pds dyvoelv, ovs pr) ivdpos Karel8es: On the other hand, when 
these adjuncts stand in the Singular ', they take the natural gender : Eur. 
Here. F. 858 fjXiov paprvpopeaOa 8pa>o-\ d 8pav ov (3ovXopai. IA. 980 ot/crpa 
nenovdapev, r) . . . 01 77 6 el era . . . Kevr)v Karea^ov eX7ri8a. 

12. When the copula (ehac, ylvecrdcu, etc.) stands nearer to the 
predicate than to the subject, it takes also the number of the lat- 
ter ; comp. § 143. 4. 

Examples : Hdot. 6. 112 rj o-av 8e oraSioi ovk eXdo-o-oves 1 to peraixpiov avrav 
rj oktco. Thuc. 4. 102 ol 'Adr/valoi eKTicrav to ^copioy, onep irporepov 'Ewea 
oSoi e kuXovvto. Hdot. 2. 15 to ndXai at Qr]j3ai KtyviTTOs eKaXeero. 

13. The predicate can also be expressed by an Adverb ; either 
when no adjective belonging to the adverbial idea exists in the 
language (comp. \ 125. 7) ; or when the adverb combines with 
the copula into one idea ; or when elvai has the more emphatic 
sense of being, existence. Such adverbs are : aXt?, alya, aiu)v 
Horn, e/ca?, iyyvs or iyyvOev, irXrja [ov, Bi^a, % cop /?, irapa- 
irokv Plato Apol. p. 36 ; and others. 

Examples: ol rroXepioL eyyv?, x M P^ W av i eyyvrepov eyiyvovro Xen. ai 
yvcopai eylvovro St'^a Helot. Eur. Hec. 527 alya nds terra) Xecos. Further, 
the predicate ideas K.aXa>s, micco?, xaXerrcos elvai; e. g. ib. 716 etrtrcovo' torlv 
Ka\a>c: 

14. The subject corresponding to our substantive pronouns i, 
thou, he, she, it, etc. whenever it is sufiicientlv obvious from thd 



9 129. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 319 

verbal ending or from the context, and when no emphasis rests 
upon it, is commonly (as in Latin) not expressed. 

Note 15. Yet, with the omitted pronoun thus implied in the ending of 
the verb, an adjunct may be connected by apposition; e. g. 6 8e Maias tt)$ 
"ArkavTos: BiaKovovfiai avTols, i. e. and I, the son of Maia, etc. Lucian. Here 
it is to be noted, that when to a personal pronoun, even though only im- 
plied in the verb, there is subjoined the noun or idea for which it stands, 
the Greeks put the latter with the article; e. g. Xen. An. 4. 4. 16 eya) vp.as 
aKovco tovs '&6rjvaLovs beivovs elvai kK(7it€Lv to. 8t]p,6aia. Comp. Kriiger on 
An. 1. 7. 7. 

15. When the subject of a minor clause (whether co-ordinate 
or subordinate) is the same with that of the main sentence, it is 
commonly not again expressed in the minor clause. If however it 
stood in the main sentence in an oblique case, there must be, in 
the minor clause, at least a corresponding pronoun as subject. 
But even this is sometimes neglected, where no want of clearness 
can arise, in order to avoid the verbosity of such constructions ; 
e. g. Plato Rep. p. 533 tclvtcls ra? re^va^ eirLcrrrjiJia^ fiev irdXXaias 
7rpo(TeL7rofi€v, Siovrcu Se ovofiaros oXkov. So too in several con- 
nected relative clauses ; see § 143. 7, 8. — Comp. the special syn- 
tactical usage in dependent clauses, the subject of which is con- 
tained in the main sentence as the object, either near or remote, 
in k 151. I. 6. 

Note 16. Sometimes the subject of the minor clause must first be sup. 
plied out of some other word in the main sentence; e. g. Hdot. 9. 8 top 
y Ia6p.6v irei^eov kcll acpt rjv ivpbs reXe'i, sc. to ret^os. 

16. The subject- word is also omitted, when the verb itself ex- 
presses the customary action of that subject. Such verbs are : 
G-a\7TL^€t, or (TTjfjLalvei sc. 6 o-ahnri<yicTr)s ; ^vei sc. 6 OvTrjp ; i/crjpvtje 
sc. 6 icr}pv% ; olvo^oevet sc. 6 olvo^oo^ ; also avayvcoaerac vpZv sc. o 
avayvaxTTtjs Dem. In Herodotus this occurs likewise of other or- 
dinary actions connected with sacrifice, hunting, etc. 

Examples : Xen. An. 3. 4. 36. ib. 1. 2. 17. Dem. Lept. p. 465. Horn. 
Od, cp. 142. Hdot. 2. 47, 70; see also n. 17, below. 

17. The same takes place where in English we use it, and 
thus indicate an operation of nature or of circumstances ; e. g. 
vet it rains, where we are not to suppose an omission of Zevs, 
although the Greeks often said Zevs vei. 

Examples : irpoo~qp.ai.veL it announces itself e. g. in the air; avo-Kord^i sc. 
rjpepa it grows dark Xen. 7rpoo-co rrjs vvxto? TrpoikrjXaro Hdot. 9. 44 ; e8t]\aiae 
8e and so it showed itself, Xen. Mem. 1. 2. 32. 

18. Impersonal Verbs, as they are usually called, i. e. such as 
never have a person or even a noun as subject, are of another 
land. In them the subject is not left in doubt, as in those just 
mentioned, but the action to which they refer, whether ex- 
pressed by an Infinitive or by another dependent clause, is the 
real subject. E. g. e^ecrrl /jlol aiukvai, it is permitted to me to 
depart, i. q. to anrikvai e^earl jjlol, lit. ' to depart is permitted to 



320 syntax. i 129 a. 

me. j Of this kind are Set, XPV> cmoxprj, SokgI, irpiirei it becomes, 
is proper, ii/Bexercu it is possible ; or also whole phrases, as lyei 
Xoycv, consent aneum est, and the like. These verbs admit in 
part also the personal construction; as opOorara vvv fxoi 8otce2s 
elpyfcevai Plato ; see further on this point in § 151. 1. 7. 

19. The English indefinite subject one, some one, (Fr. on, 
Grerm. man,) is very commonly expressed in Greek by the indef. 
pron. tU, § 127. 4. It is also made, as in Latin and English, 
either by the 3 Plur. Act. as cpacrl they say, fcaXovcrt, ovofid^ovcrc ; 
or by the 3 Sing. Pass, as Xeyercu it is said, and so other verbs ; 
or also by the 2 pers. Sing, as 0a/??? av you might say. 

Examples: Soph. Trach. 2 ovk av al£>v eKp,d6ois ftpoTobv, np\v av Qdvy 
ti?, ovt el xprjaTos, ovr e'i no KaKos sc. 6 alcov. Xen. Mem. 2. 2. 1 tovs ev 
Tradovras, orav x ( *P LV PV airob&ariv, d^apicrTovs KaA overt. Is. Demon, p. 10 
y.rjh)ev\ ^pco 7rov7}pa>' hv yap av iicelvos dpdprjj, cro\ rd? alrlas dvaOf] crov criv. 
Pint. Apopllth. p. 185 'Adeip,dvTov elirovTos • 'Q, QepLcrTOKkeis, tov? ev rols dycocri 
/rpoe^avLcrrap.evovs /xacrr lyovcr i • Nat, eirrev 6 Qep,., tovs de \emou.evovs ov 
jrefpavovcriv. 

Note 17. The word rig can be omitted, and consequently the verb stand 
alone in the 3 pers. Sing, when under the idea of one, some one, we under- 
stand either: 1) The person on whom the action is incumbent (comp. no. 
16 above), e. g. tov \ap.TTTrjpa 7rpoaeveyKaTco, ' let some one bring hither the 
lantern,' Xen. Symp. 5. 2; or 2) The indefinite subject of a preceding verb, 
e. g. ovk ecrriv opdas fjyelcrdai edv p.f) <fipovip,os fj, i it is not possible to be a 
good leader, unless one has capacity,' Plat. Meno. 37. p. 97 ; comp. Theset. 
p. 176. 

20. The Copula can also be omitted; most frequently when 
it would stand in the Pres. Indicative, and in the third pers. Sing. 
or Plural. This occurs in clauses of a general nature ; and else- 
where when no want of clearness can arise. 

Examples: "~E\\r]v eyd> Jam a Greek. Plato Rep. 331 2i[iti>vidrj ov padtov 
amo-relv • crocpos yap K.a\ Selo? 6 dvrjp. Eur. Or. 724 Koiva rd tcov <pi\(ov. ib. 
780 crtyav au.eivov. — An example of the omission of the Imperat. is Soph. OC. 
1480 Tkaos, a> 8a[u.(£>v. For that of the Subjunct. in relative clauses, see 
§ 143. 9. 

Note 18. Some words are scarcely found construed otherwise than in 
tnis elliptical manner. So e. g. the substantives dvdyicr), XP € ^ Qepus, Kai- 
o6s, &>pa] the adjectives eroip.os, (ppovdos; oUtlos, paBio?, ^aAeTror, etc. So 
too the phrases, Savfiaarov ocrov, du.r)x avov ocrov, § 150. m. 8 : also the Verb. 
Adj. in reov or Plur. re a. 

Examples : rots 1 dp^ovai neiOecrOai dvdyKrj Xen. ov to prj \a(3e7v Ta dya- 
6a outcd \a\eTTov, coenrep to XafiovTa crTeprj6r)vai Xvnrjpov Xen. Cyr. 7. 5. 82. 
Kayo) Trdcrx. €LV otlovv eToip.os Demosth. and so even without eyd> Plato 
Parm. p. 137. Luc. Cat. 10. Verb. Adj. tovto iroirjreov', also in relative 
and other like clauses : Plato Rep. p. 392 tovto vvv crKenTeov, ko.1 fip.lv a re 
XeKTeov Ka\ obr XeKTeov eaKe^reTai. See Heind. ad Parm. 1 c. Valck ad 
Pham. 976. 

THE CASES. 

k 129 a. Nominative and Vocative. 

1. The Nominative names the persons or things spoken of; and 
is therefore naturally th ; case of the subject in ordinary discourse. 



§ 130. THE OBJECT. OBLIQUE CASES. 321 

— The Vocative differs from the Nominative only in that it serves 
to call to or address any one ; hence likewise in respect to form 
it varies very little from the Nominative, and often not at all. It 
commonly takes before it the interjection <w ; but not necessarily. 
Note 1. Sometimes in the poets, when a subst. in the Voc. is connected 
with an adjective, the g> is put between the two, or is even put twice ; e. g. 
II. p. 716 ayaAcXeey a> Mevehae. Eur. Or. 1245 MvKrjvldes & (pikat. Soph. 
Phil. 799 & reicvov a> yevvaiov. 

2. Adjuncts in apposition with the Vocative, whether expressed 
by a noun, or by an adjective or participle as a noun, take the 
article. The same rule holds good, when in like manner an ad- 
junct is put in apposition with the person addressed with av or 
tyxet?, or also with the person implied in the verb, but not directly 
expressed. 

Examples: Plato Hipp. maj. init. "linnas; 6 tcaXos re /cat a o epos, cos 
did xpovov rjfxiv KaOrjpas els ^Adrjvas. Xen. Cyr. 6. 3. 33 av 8e, 6 apYCOi> tcov 
dvbpcov, oTTicrOev eKrarrov • rjp.els Se, ol rjye proves ktX. Mem. 3. 14. 4 Ttaparr] 
pelre tovtov, ol 7r\r)(TLov. Plato Symp. p. 172 6 ^aXrjpevs ovtos 'AttoXXoSco- 
pof, ov irapap.eveis . So too even with adjuncts connected by kui, as Cyr. 3. 3. 
20 & Kvpe Kal ol aXXot TLepcrai, e-yco d^Bop^ai ktK. — On the other hand ex- 
amples like the following are not apposition, but a repetition of the Voca- 
tive ; Soph. OC. 1700 co ndrep, co cpCXos, a> rbv del Kara yds o~k6tov elp.£vos. Id. 
Aj. 977 co (piXraT A tar, co f~vvai\xov o/z/a ifioi. 

Note 2. By a very peculiar attraction there is sometimes found in the 
poets, in the clause immediately following the Vocative, a predicate-adjunct 
in the Vocative instead of the Nominative ; so that this clause and the Voca- 
tive entirely coalesce. E. g. Soph. Philoct. 760 tcb dvcrTrjve o~v, dva-rrjve 
^rjra did ttovodv Trdvrav (Ravels. Aj. 695 co ILdv dXinXayiCTe KvXXavias drro 
Seipdbos cpdvrjdi. Comp. Eur. Tro. 1229. Horat. Serm. 2. 6. 20. 

Note 3. Vice versa, that after a Vocative the following clause is often 
apparently separated by de and other adversative particles, see in § 149. 

$ 130. Tft Object. — Oblique Cases. Omission of the Object. 

1. That en which an action is exerted, or to which it refers, is 
called the Object ; and always stands in one of the three cases, 
Grenitive, Dative, or Accusative. These are hence called depend- 
ent or oblique cases, Casus obliqui. 

2. The immediate object, upon which the action of a transitive 
verb is directed, and without which we cannot conceive of such 
a verb, commonly stands in the Accusative ; e. g. Xajjufiava) rrjv 
aanrlha I take the shield. The remote object, which may stand 
along with tha Accusative, or with an intransitive verb, often 
has with it a preposition ; e. g. XafifidvcD ttjv aairiha airo rod 
TraaaaXov l I take the shield from the nail f earrj/ca iv r<p 
iSd(pei ' I stand upon the ground.'' 

3. But of the relations and adjuncts which may thus constitute 
a remote object, those which occur most frequently are for the 
most part expressed by a case alone, i. e. without a preposition. 
For this purpose, two cases are specially employed in those Eu- 
ropean languages which do this, viz. the Grenitive and Dative 

X 



322 SYNTAX. « 130. 

E. g. in Grerman; 'Ich gebe das Greld dem Manned I give the 
money to the man, or I give the man the money. ' Er versich- 
erte micli seines Wohhvollens,' he assured me o/his good-will* 

4. But when we come to particulars, we find that languages 
differ much in this respect ; and what is expressed in one lan- 
guage by one case, is given in another by a different one. Yery 
often one language employs a preposition, where another needs 
merely the simple case ; and not unfrequently both modes are 
usual in a language at the same time ; e. g. he told it me or to 
me ; I will write him a letter or a letter to him. When there- 
fore in Greek a simple case stands where other languages employ 
a preposition, we must take care not to explain the case in Greek 
by means of a preposition perhaps omitted ; but must rather as- 
sume, that the relation which we endeavour to make clear in 
such examples by the help of a preposition, is in G-reek already 
included in the case itself. 

5. We may assume it as a principle in the ancient languages, 
than which nothing is more common in respect to the object, 
whether immediate or remote, that, so soon as a person or thing 
has been once mentioned, and the reference to the same is suffi- 
ciently clear from the verb itself, the object is not expressed; 
just as in the case of the subject and the possessive pronouns, 
\ 129. 14. In this way the multiplication of pronouns so com- 
mon in modern languages is avoided. We wish here only to call 
the learner's attention to this characteristic of the ancient lan- 
guages ; subjoining a few examples. 

Examples : Xen. Cyr. 1. 2. 12 ev fj b' av rwv cpvXa>u 7rAeio"roi oxtiv dvbpix.d>- 
tcltoIj enaivovcriv ol noXirai, here supply in mind ravrvv before enaivovo-iv. 
Hell. 3. 4. 3 ervayyeiXapevov rov 'A.yr]cnXdov ttjv (TTpareiav Agesilaus offering 
himself as leader of the expedition, biboaaiv ol AaKebcupovioi (sc. avrcp) oG-cnrep 
fjTrjaev. A then. 8. p. 399 bv rju Idv, rd? -^eipas ovk dcpe^erai sc. avrov. Plato 
Rep. p. 465 npea^vrepco vearepoov tvclvt&v ap^iv re Kal KoXd£eiv (sc. avrovs) 
■npoo-Terdi-erai. Soph. Antig. 901 Qavovras eya> eXovera, KaKoo-prjcra, Kamrvp.- 
fiiovs xod.9 ebana. Corap. ib. 537. Dem. de fals. Legat. p. 426 ol be 7roXXo\ 
ov% O7rcoy a>pyi£ovTO rj KoXd^etv rj^iovv rov? ravra noiovvra?, dX)C enefiXeTrov, 
e£r]XoW) erlpcov, tivbpas i)yovvTO. 

Note 1. When two connected verbs, and especially a participle with its 
finite verb, have an object in common, the Greek inserts the latter only 
once, even when the two verbs govern different cases ; and then it is com- 
monly put in the case required by the nearest verb. 

Examples: II. a. 356 iXcou yap e^ei yepas, avrbs aTrovpas. <n. 406 eX<e be 
bovpu? eXcov. Xen. Mem. 3. 4. 1 6 be ras ovha? rwv rpavparcov dnoyvpvovpevos 
eTrebeiKrvev. Hes. e. 166 rotr be (fjpideoi?) bix dvOpccnr&v (3lotov kcu rj&e o7ra(rcrar, 
Zevs lipovlbr]? Karevaao-e irar^p is ireipara yair]s (sc. avrovs). Cyr. 2. 3. 17 
Krpos 1 elne rol? irepois, on fBaXXew berjaoi avaipovpevovs reus /SwXot?, where 
raif /3. belongs to fidXXeiv, Plato Crat. p. 404 Xeyerai 6 Zevs r^r r/ Hpar ipa- 
a6e\s e'xeiv. See still other examples in Kriiger on Dionys. Hist. p. 119. 

Note 2. There is further quite a number of verbs, in which the omission 

* It is hardly necessary to remark, that the English language can in general 
mark these relations only by the help of prepositior*. — Tit. 



$ 130. THE OBJECT. OBLIQUE CASES. 325 

of the object has become almost established by custom. This remark holds 
true in all languages (comp. $ 113. 2, and marg. note) ; and therefore the 
origin of the usage may indeed be explained by the frequent omission of the 
object-noun or of the reflexive pronouns iavrov, ep.avrov, etc. E. g. ayeiv 
sc. to crrpdrevp.a - irpoo-dyeiv sc. iavrov. But, as this occurs in many verbs, 
and in others not, it is better to assume, that the verbs themselves have by 
degrees come to include as it were the objective relation in themselves. 
Hence it comes that so many Active verbs have both a transitive and in- 
transitive signification ; and the number of these was constantly increased 
in consequence of the peculiar treatment of the language in the case of in- 
dividual writers, whether in prose or poetry.* We give here examples of 
some of the verbs most commonly so used. 

Examples : ayeiv and its compounds, e. g. e^e^aprjcre rrjs 68ov, irpocrayov- 
tos rov rvpdvvov. Xen. An. 4. 2. 15 eyyvs rjyov oi "EXkrjve?. — a'lpeiv and 
its compounds dnaipeLv, dvraipeiv, etc. Thuc. 4. 103 6 Bpacrt'Sa? apa? e£ 
'Apvu>v, enopevero. — /3aAAeii>, e. g. in the phrase (3d\X els Kopanas, and in 
compounds like elcrftdXkeiv spoken of a river (comp. II. A. 722 els a\a j3d\- 
Acoy), 7rpoo-fidXXeiv of an attack. — iXavveiv, veho and vehor, Cyr. 1. 4. 20 
eyii 8e iiri rovcrde e\a> • ourco dr] 6 Kva^dprjs irpocre\avvei. — e^eii/ in the signif. 
to hold, e. g. e^e df], koXcos e'xeiv, and so in many compounds, e. g. dveyeiv to 
rise up, to jut out. — Also many other verbs, as oppav, reXevrav, olKelv, 8rj\ovv, 
app.6£eiv, Xe'nreiv, Kkiveiv, KaOi^eiv, KaropOovv, and in the poets \r]yeiv, navea; 
etc. The principle holds good also, as appears from the marginal note, in 
a great number of compounds, even when the simple verb is not so found ; 
e.g. aTraXXdo-areiv, as oi 'Adr]valoi evOvs a7rr]XXa^av Thuc. 1. 90 ) irpoo-p.'i- 
cryeiv, as ol 'Adrjvaioi npoaep-icryov rc5 ^euypan id. 7. 70 ] also those from 8i- 
hovaL and levai, e. g. eKdidovat and e^tevai, spoken of rivers, eniSido- 
vai to increase, etc. 

Note 3. The case governed by any verb, can properly be further governed 
in the same manner only by the participle of that verb. The substantives 
and adjectives derived from the same verb, usually change the case into 
the Genitive, or render a periphrase necessary. We find however not un- 
frequently in Attic writers, not only the Accusative but also the Dative of 
a verb, joined with a peculiar force and conciseness to the verbal noun or 
adjective. E. g. dicoXovSrjriKos rivi addicted to something ; rj iKacrrco Sia- 

* When we farther consider, that intransitive verbs just as often become transi 
tive by taking an object (§ 131), we perceive that a strict line of separation between 
verbs transitive and intransitive is impossible. This is one of the cases in which 
we see how language unfolds itself continually more and more; and hence the 
topic in its full extent is fitted rather for discussion in another form; and the mass 
of particulars must be left to the Lexicons. We note here only the general princi- 
ple. We may conceive, in the multitude of words expressing action (verbs), that 
a portion of them would be employed absolutely, i. e. without reference to any ob- 
ject, e. g. to go; these would be intransitives, and become fixed in this character; 
while another portion would be used chiefly ivith an object, e. g. to take; and these 
would be transitives. But a large number would still remain, which couid every 
where be employed in both relations, e. g. to move ; or in which, although general 
usage might already have decided for one or the other signification, yet the further 
development of the language, or the peculiarity of an individual writer, had seen fit 
to depart again from the common usage. This would show itself on the one hand, 
in transitive verbs, by omitting the object, as being already sufficiently implied in 
the verb (e. g. to ride) ; and on the other hand, in intransitives, by subjoining an 
objective adjunct, so as to mark the person or thing to which the action of the verb 
so extends as to bring it into the relation of an object; see § 131. 1, and the ex- 
amples in § 131. 3. It may also be noted, that, in all languages, by means of com-' 
position, transitive verbs often become intransitive, e. g. to take, to partake , and vice 
versa intransitives become transitive, e. g. to come, to overcome; see the examples 
under note 2, above. 



324 SYNTAX. $ 131 

rtfirjo-is the distributing to each; vrpos errldeigiv rolr tjtvoi? in order to shell 
to strangers. — ra perecopa (Ppovrio-Trjs one who meditates on things above tht 
earth (Plat. Apol. 2) from (ppovTi£eiv ti meditate on any thing. — Plat. Alcib. 
[I. 7. p. 141, dvrjKoov eivai evid ye X^ L C^ T€ Kai 7rpcoi£a yeyevnpeva not hav- 
ing heard of some . . . occurrences (elsewhere dvrjKoov eivat tivos). So too 
€7riarr]pa)v, and in the poets cpv^ipos, ^vvio-rcop, from eViVra/xat, cpevya, 
£vvoidd ti. — The adjective e^apvos is always so construed, and in connec- 
tion with the substantive verb (elvai) signifies therefore to deny, disown, and 
governs (precisely like dpvelaOai) not only the Infinitive (e^apvos dpi nocrj- 
aat), hut also the Accus. e.g. onus pi) e^apvos ecret a vvv Aeyeiy, Plat. Euthyd. 
p. 283. c; also id. Charm, p. 158 e^apvos elpi ra epaTcopem. 

Note 4. Many verbs can have not only a proper object of their own, but 
by means of a conjunction can likewise have with them another dependent 
clause. We sometimes find both modes of construction at the same time in 
one verb* e. g. kcu -^pripara Trapao-Kevd^ovrai kcu cpiKovs, kcu on cos av hcriv 
cos mQavcoTaroi Xeyeiv, Plat. Gorg. 77. p. 479. — tcov ttoXXcov LKavcbs Idovres rip 
paviav, kcl\ on ovbeis avrcov ovdev vyus 77-parrei, id. Rep. 6. p. 496. c. 



§ 131. The Accusative Case. 

1. The Accusative is the case of the passive (suffering) rela- 
tion ; that is, it marks the object, upon which the action of the 
operating subject is directed, and which therefore appears as sub- 
jected to that action, or suffering from it. Hence in all languages 
it is the case of the (immediate) object with transitive verbs : 
tvtttcd ere, aya7rco rov iralha. But in Greek, we often find that as 
the immediate object, which in other languages is expressed by 
a case (Gren. or Dat.) of the remoter object; and, just as often, 
ideas are expressed transitively, which in other languages can 
take no object. We also see clearly, in what way many ideas 
originally intransitive have become transitive, by connecting with 
them an accusative of object (see the last marg. note, and no. 3 
below) ; that is, by conceiving the action of the verb as so extend- 
ing to some person or thing, as to bring it into the relation of an 
object. Hence, whenever the language connects with any verb, 
be its signification and form whatever they may, the idea of effi- 
cient action, it can govern the Accusative. 

Note 1. Hence it is already obvious, that many verbs might be variously- 
construed; since the choice of the case so often depended on the mode In 
which an individual writer conceived the action of the verb. In many 
verbs usage had settled down upon a particular case ; in many others not ; 
see marg. note to § 133. 4. c. A complete specification of syntactical usage 
under particular verbs is not to be expected here. This belongs to the 
Lexicons ; to which, once for all, the student is referred, for the construc- 
tion of every individual verb. The Grammar, especially in this department, 
can only follow out the more general principles ; and avails itself of par- 
ticular examples mainly in order to set forth clearly the nature and true con- 
ception of the case, or when other practical reasons require it ; which here, 
as every where, must prescribe the limits. 

2. Thus in GS-reek the following verbs especially all take the 
object in the Accusative ; unlike the English and Grerman usage. 



$ 131. ACCUSATIVE CASE. 325 

in which they are often translated by verbs requiring a different 
case or a preposition, viz. 

'Ovivdvai, axpeXelv to be useful, /3Aa7rreiz/ do injury, ddiKelv do ivrong, elepye- 
Telv, Kanovpyelv, v(3pi£eiv, Xvp-alveadai, \<£>(3dcr8at, also kcik£>? V. ev rroielv, /ca- 
kg>s v. ev Xeyeiv, to do or speak ill or well; — Xarpeveiv (oftener c. dat.), Sepa- 
jreveiv ivait on; — SconTeiv, Scdneveiv, KoXaKeuetv to fawn upon, flatter; — pip.el- 
a6ai, (jjkovv, copy after; — (pddveiv come before, XavOdveiv be hid, cpevyeiv, eKCpei- 
yetv, to flee away, dnodidpaaKeiv run away, Xeiireiv, eniXeineiv to be in leant; — 
op-vvvai. to swear, e. g. toils' Seovs by the gods, emopKelv, daej3elv, dXirelv to sin 
against. — Also the Impers. del and xpv with Ace. of pers. see note 4. 

Examples: Mem. 2. 1. 28 ei're tovs Seovs TXecos chat col fiovXei, Separrev- 
t±ov tovs Qeovs • e'vre vtto (piXmv edeXeis dyando-Bai, tovs cplXovs eve pyeTi]- 
reov ' e'lre vivo tlvos noXeas eiriOvpLels rifiacrdai, rrjv ttoXlv a>(peXr]Teov ' eire 
V7rb rrjs 'EXXdoos Trdo-rjS d^iols eV aperr} Qavp,d£eo-6ai, ttjv '~EXXdda ireipareov e v 
noielv. Cyr. 1. 4. 13 (3ovXevop.ai ottcos ere aTrodpSi. Eur. Hel. 940 p.Lp.ov 
Tpoirovs narpo? diKaiov. II. r. 265 Seol aXyea didovaiv, oris o~(f) dXiryrai 
ofxoo-cras. — Passive, Xen. Hell. 7. 4. 4 eKrjpv^av ol Koplvdioi, e'lTis ddiKolro 
'A6rjvai(£>v, a7roypd(pea6ai, that he should bring an action, sc. against tov ddi- 
Kovvra, by § 130. 5. 

Note 2. In order to bring to view some of the variations of usage (see 
note 1), we further note, that many verbs belonging to the ideas of profit or 
detriment are construed only with the Dative (Dat. commodi) ; espec. Xvo~i- 
reXelv, dpr)yeiv, fiorjdelv, eniKovpelv. Further, among those above cited, these 
are construed also with the Dative: axpeXelv Eur. Or. 658 ; ^Xdnreiv iEschyl. 
Eum. 658; Xvfiaivecrdai Hdot. 9. 79; Xcofidcrdai, as a to abiKov A<a/3arcu Plat. 
Crit. p. 47. e ; Xarpeveiv Xen. Ag. 7. 2 ; others with a preposition, as vfipl^ew 
e'ls Tiva Isocr. etc. see the Lexicons. Others can take at the same time the 
Dative (of person) and an Accusative (of thing), as dprjyeiv; and here belong 
dfxvveiv, dXe^eiv, and others. — Soo too encpevyeiv is construed in Homer 
with the Genitive, because of its composition ; e. g. j3eXos eiccpvye x^i-pds. 

Note 3. Verbs signifying an emotion of the mind, as pain, joy, indigna- 
tion, etc. (a^^ecr^at, dyavaicrelv, dvaavacrx^Telv, dvo~)(epalveiv, x aL P eLv i eVt^at- 
peiv, rjdeadai, and in the poets dXyelv, aidlveiv, yqOelv, Tepneadai,) take indeed 
the object towards which this emotion is directed, in the Accusative ; but 
yet only when the object is either a neuter or a thing ; as dyava.KTG> avTo 
tovto Dem. irpd^Lv rjv fjXyrja iyco Soph. Some also, by the rule in no. 3, 
both of persons and things ; as dvcrx^paiveiv ^ovs, tov eva p.6vapxov Plat. 
eppiya /xa^z/ Horn. Or in connection with the participial construction, § 144. 
6. b ; e. g. ^at'pco ere ev exovra. — More commonly these verbs are construed 
either with the Dative (§ 133) ; or, especially as to things, with eW and the 
Dative; see eVi, § 147. 

Note 4. The Impersonals del and xpl are construed so variously, and 
occur so often, that it is worth while here to bring together the whole usage 
into one view. When the person or thing is expressed by a noun, del com- 
monly takes the Dat. of pers. and Gen. of thing, as Set pol tivos ; far less 
often the Ace. of person, as del p.e tivos. But if the thing be represented by 
an Infinitive (del u-dxeadai.), the person appears in the Accusative (Ace. c. 
Inf.) del ere p.dxecr6ai) or the Dat. can remain, although seldom: del aoi 
p.dxeo-dai. — On the other hand, XPV> when both the adjuncts are nouns, is 
connected only with the Ace. of pers. and Gen. of thing : XPVH-* tivos; but 
it prefers in most instances the verbal construction, Ace. c. Inf. xPl °~ € ^ e '- 
yeiv. The person is very rarely found in the Dative, and rather gives to 
Xpr) the signification it is fit, proper. 

Examples : Xen. Cyr. 7. 5. 9 del rjp.lv tcov (fivXaiceov. — Eur. Rhes. 834 fia- 
icpov del ere koI aocpov Xoyov. — Cyr. 1. 4. 5 ri del ere Srjpia ijjTovvTa irpd.yp.aTa 
'4xeiv } — An. 3. 4. 35 edv tis $6pv(3os yevrjTai, del emo-d^ai tov Itvttov tleporj 



32G SYNTAX. $ 131 

dvbpi. — Od. (p. 110 ri /xe vprj firjrepos a'Lvov ; SO too XP €< ^- XP €ia > sc - ^°" r h !'• 
A. 650. — Hell. .5. 3. 7 ou§ ot/ceVa? ^P 7 ? ere /coAa^^ opy^. — Soph. Antig. 730 
aAA<p yap r) 'jLtol ^p?y ye r^aS' ap^tv ^#oi/o?. 

3. But although a strict line of division between transitive and 
intransitive verbs is impossible, (§ 130. n. 2, marg.) yet it is easy 
to perceive, that the Grreek language, more than most others, has 
the power of imparting to Neuter, Middle, and even Passive ideas 
a transitive signification by referring them to an object; ai„d 
this without any change of form in the verb, as is usual in other 
languages, e.g. Engl, fall, befall; go, forego ; Grerm. folgen, 
befolgen; streben, er streben. This is a very prevalent idiom, as 
the following instances clearly shew. 

Examples: Thus Sappelv pr. take courage; hut m Sappelv Twa this act- 
ive idea reaches to a definite object, and thus means . to take courage as to 
any one, to trust him; e. g. Dem. 01. p. 30 ovre QiknTno? iddppec rov? 
'OXvvOlovs; ov8* ovtoi QiXiirirov. So too dopvcpopelv to be a body- 
guard. Tivd to attend anyone as a guard; 7rpoo~Kvvelv to fall prostrate, nvd 
to do homage to any one hy prostration. Further, dpecriceiv nvd to win over, 
iiTLTpoi7€V€iv Tivd to be guardian over, avrtd^eiv to go against, to attack, cmev- 
Seti/ to hasten, quicken, vnoaTrjvai to promise. The same holds also in respect 
to many Middle and Passive verbs, as will be shewn in §§ 134. 135; as 
ripanpeladac, alaxvvecrdai, KOTrrecrdai, nepaiovadat, eWAr}rrecr#at, etc. In the 
same manner may be explained all such constructions as these: irXelv 
Qakao-crav, as in Engl, to sail the sea, Dryden; at TrqyaX peovcri ydXa ml 
fxiXi. To these may be added many other like examples, espec. from the 
poets, who by means of this idiom could introduce new turns without num- 
ber; e. g. i^ava^eiv xpkov, (povov /SAeVrcov looking slaughter, p.evea Tn/etoirer, 
etc. Soph. Aj. 845 crv d\ & rbv dmvv ovpavbv SKppijKarcov, r/ HAie. Pind. 
Isthm. 1. init. tov aKeipeK.6p.av Qoifiov ^opeuco. 

Note 5. On the very same principle the poets put the Accus. after verbs 
of motion, in order to mark the direction ; since the object of direction may 
be strictly regarded as the object of the verbal action. E. g. II. a. 317 kvlctoi] 
ovpavbv lk€v went up to heaven, reached the heavens. Soph. El. 893 rj\6ov 
narpb? rd(pov. — Soo too with verbs of rest {KaBl^etv, Sdaareiv, Keto-dai) in order 
to- mark the place: Eur. Or. 943 ovbev cr iiraxpeXno-ev 6 UvOio? Tpirrobn 
nadifav. Soph. Phil. 145 vvv yap rrpocrib^v edeXeis, ovriva tottov Kelrai. 

4. With the preceding usage is connected another, not wholly 
unknown in English, by which an intransitive verb takes the 
Ace. of the kindred abstract noun ; that is, kindred in etymology 
or signification. But this is never done, except to give more 
definileness to the idea of the verb. So in Eng. to sleep a 
deep sleep, to die a glorious death, to go the same way. 

Examples: KLvbwevaa) tovtov tov Kivhwov I will expose myself to this dan- 
ger ; £fj fiiov rj bio tov he lives a very pleasant life; (pavep&s rbv rrdXepov 7roAe- 
p.7]aop,ev. — fj dbiKia fjv rjbtKovv ere (comp. 5) ; ykvKvv vrrvov Koipdadai. — oiop 
TrdOos irtTTOvBas. — ftaaiheiav Traacov bLKaioTarrju j3acrikevop,ai. — i^rjkdov (iXXas 
e^obovs. — impeXovvTai nao-av eVi/xe'Aetaj/. So v(3pl£eiv v(3piv, p.d%r)v p.d^o-0ai, 
dyowl^adai dycova, Sedcrdai Seav, also Uvai, (3aiveiv, rpe'^etz/, nopeveadai obov-, 
and many others. In this way the Greek language avoids the feeble ac- 
cumulation of such words as our make, do, have, lead, etc. — For the like 
construction with the Passive, see § 134. n. 2. 

Note 6. Sometimes even an adjective with the verb elvai has such a 
kindred Accus. connected with it; e. g. bov\6s eVrt tu? p.ey terra? bovXelas, 






$ 131. ACCUSATIVE CASE. 327 

'he is the slave of a very great slavery,' dbiKo? eKaarrjv dftiKlav, crocus 
rrjv eKCLvcov aocplav, kchco? irda-av KctKiav. The advantage of this mode of 
expression will he apparent, from the vain attempt to give it with equal 
force in English. 

Note 7. When a verb is already connected with an object, but so that 
the two ideas have comhined into one new simple idea, this simple idea 
may take a new ohject in the Accus. without further change. Thus \eiav 
noie'io-dcu to make booty, to plunder; hence Thuc. 8. 41 rrjv -^d>pav Karabpo- 
fxai? Xeiav eVoteiro. Other examples are: Thuc. 4. 15 ebo^ev airotr, (nrovbds 
Troirjaapevovs ra TvepX UvXov, a7J-ocrreiXai rtpeo-fiei?. Hdot. 1. 68 Tvyxdveis 3d>v- 
fxa TToievpievos rrjv epyacriav rov o-tbripov. The poets often make use of 
this freedom to introduce new turns : Soph. Aj. 1107 aXX' hvirep ap^eis apx e i 
Kal rd aepv eTrrj KoXa^ eiceivovs; where ra o-ep.v en-q ko\. unite as it were 
into one idea, and there is no need of supplying Xeycov etc. comp. OT. 339. 
II. 3. 171 KTime Zeis, arjpa ridels (i. e. arjpaivcav) Tpcoecrcri p-dx?]? erepaXnea 
viktjv. iEsch. Ag. 824 #eoi dvbpodvrjras'ikiov (pdopas tyr)<povs edevro. Eur. 
Or. 1075 ev croi p.op,<fir)V '^X 03 ' 

5. The construction with the double Accusative, so called, is 
where the idea of action in the verb extends at the same time to 
two objects, of which one is usually a person and the other a 
thing ; in such a way that both may be regarded as the imme- 
diate objects of the action ; e. g. evhvos tov iralha, and ivhvco tov 
%CTa>va. This construction occurs often in Greek ; is less fre- 
quent in Latin ; and in English is strictly found only in the verb 
to teach and perhaps a few others. In Greek it is most frequent 
with verbs of doing', iroieiv, Spav, ep<yd^eadal tlvcl ti ; of speak- 
ing, \eyeiv, elirelv, dyopevecv ; of asking, epeaOai, epcorav, i^erd- 
%€iv, Icrropelv, dviaropelv, ' to inquire out ;' of teaching, SiSdafcecv, 
as in Lai and English ; of demanding, alrelv, diraiTelv, irpdrre- 
aOai, TrpofcaXdaOaL i to challenge ;' of clothing and unclothing, 
ivhvetv, d/KpLevvvvat, iichveiv, v7roSeLV ; of taking aivay, dcfcaipei- 
crOai, diravpav, diroppaUiv, ivapi^ecv, crvkav, diroarepetv ; of dis- 
tributing, Karav€/jL6iv, hdaaaOai ; of concealing, dirotcpviTTeiv, ksv- 
Ozlv. Further, dvafMifivrjcr iceuv Tivd ti i to remind one of a 
thing,' ireiOetv Tivd ti t to persuade one of any thing ;' and still 
many others, especially in the poets. — In the Passive, one Ace. 
remains ; see § 134. 6. 

Examples : Hdot. 8. 61 rore brj 6 QepuaroKker)? rov? Kopivdiovs 7roXXa re Ka) 
KaKct eXeyev. — Eur. Hec. 967 ra tiXXa bevrepov <x' e pr)crop,ai. — Pind. 01. 

6. 82 anavras e'ipero rralba, after the boy. — Cyr. 1. 2. 8 bibdo-Kovcri rovs 
wdlbas craxfipocrvurjv. ib. 3. 17 nals tls, erepov iralba eKbvtras ^irava, rov p-ev 
eavrov eicelvov rj p.(j) ie o~ev, rov b eKeivov avros avebv. — Hell. 7. 1. 26 ol 'HXeiot 
aTVflTOVv rds iroXeis rovs Apudbas. — Ar. Arch. 625 bid ravd vpds Aaicebai- 
uovioi rrjv elprjvrjv irpoKaXovvrai. — Iph. T. 158 lu> baiponv, bs rov piovvov pie na- 
uiyvqrov cruXa?. — Hec. 282 rov irdvra §' akj3ov rjp-ap ev pH depe i\ero. — Hdot. 

7. 121 rpel? poipas 6 Sepfjrjs daadpevos irdvra rov ne^ov crrparov, (enopeve- 
to). — Eur. Hippol. 912 ov p.rjv <fii\ov? ye Kpvnre iv h'iKatov ads, irdrep, bva- 
Trpa^tas. — Anab. 3. 2. 11 dvap,vr)cr<s> vp-ds tovs twv npoyovoav Kivbvvovs. — - 
So Homer says, Od. /3. 203 ovde tvot iaa eaaerai, oeppa x.ev rjye diaTpLfirjcriv 
'Axalovs ov ydp.ov; — and so too are naturally explained: dno^vpelv riva 
rr)v Ke<fia\r)v Hdot. ILdrpoKkov ekovaav ana j3poT(V aiparoevTa, alp.a Kddrjpor 
^no7Tr]b6va Horn. etc. 



328 SYNTAX. * 131. 

Note 8. The number of verbs with a double Ace. might easily be still 
further enlarged; (e. g. vucav, iEschin. p. 79. 35 MtXrtaS^y rijv iv Mapadavt 
udxrjv rob? fiapfidpovs- ivUrjo-ev ;) but on the other hand also many of the 
verbs above cited admit other constructions. Hence we see, that this con- 
struction does not necessarily belong to the verbs ; and we may here apply 
what is said above in note 1. So e. g. dcbaipelo-dai with the Dat. Od. u. 9 
alrap 6 rola- iv dcpelXero voartpov rjp-ap. The Act. dabaipelv seems never to 
be construed with a double Ace. Cyr. 7. 2. 26 p.dxas Se <roi kol TroXepovs 
d(patpa> ) comp. also § 132. 4, where it appears that verbs of taking away are 
just as often construed with a Genitive. — Further also, Troielv, as An. 5. 
8. 28 tovtco rdvavria noirjo-ere rj rob? kvvcls 7TOiovcn. — Like dvapipvrjo-Keiv, SO 
virop.ipvr)0~Keiv rwd ri, e. g. Dem. p. 704 dvdyKrj vnopivrjaai rays' xpovovs vpds ; 
yet also (by § 132. 10. d) with the thing, of which one is reminded, in the 
Gen. e.g. Thuc. 7. 69; also dvap,ipvrjcrKeiv Plat. Menex. p. 246. For the 
Pass. dvap,cp,vrjo-Keo-8ac etc. see § 132. 10. d. — In like manner alrelv often has 
the person with rrapd c. Gen. e. g. Trkola, rjyep,6va alrelv napd nvos Xen. etc. 

Note 9. With verbs of distributing, the whole can also stand in the Gen 
itive; that is, the whole as a partitive Gen. is made to depend on the noun 
expressing a part, and not on the verb. E. g. Hdot. 1. 94 6 (Bao-tXevs Bvo 
poipas bieVke Av8a>v ndvrmv. Xen. Lac. 11. 4 AvKovpyo? p.6pas bieXkev e£ 
kou t7T7recoi/ Kai oirXirav. Also Passive: Cyr. 1. 2. 5 SadeKa Uepo-av 
(pvXai birjprjvrai. 

Note 10. To the construction of the double Accusative explained in no 

5. belongs also especially the crxvi^ - Ka ^' oXov /cat p.£po? so called: or 
the construction in which both the whole and the part are put in the Ac- 
cusative; e. g. Horn, ttolov ere eiros (pvyev epKos odovrav ; — rbv de otkotos ovaC 
Kakv\rev. — ri be ere eppeva? 'Uero nevdos ; Comp. also § 132. n. 4, and § 133. 5. 

6. Different is the construction of the double Accusative (found 
also in Latin) with verbs signifying to name, choose, make, hold 
for any thing ; where then an Ace. stands in the relation of 
predicate to the proper Ace. of object. — In the Passive the Norn, 
is double, as in Latin. 

EXAMPLES : aocpLarrjv 6vopd£ovcn rbv avbpa rovrov. — rovs *A6r]vaiov? eTkovro 
o~vp,pdxov$. — Soph. OC. 919 Kai roi ere Qrj(3ai y' ovk eiraibevo-av kclkov. — Cyr. 

6. 2. 19 KpoTcroy yprjrai ra>v 7ro\ep.i<£>v arparrjyos. 

Note 11. When with verbs of naming this predicate adjunct is merely a 
pronoun or the like (ri, rovro, etc.) it is usual to insert ovopa. E. g. Eur. 
Ion. 269 ovopa ri ere KaXelv fjp,ds xpetov. — Mem. 2. 2. 1 rovs ri rroiovvras rb 
ovop.a rovro (sc. dvapierrous-) dnoicaXovaLv. Likewise when the thing is named, 
ovopa can still remain ; but then, by virtue of a special syntactical inexact- 
ness, the thing named is put in the Dative ; as Plato Polit. p. 279 rovrot- 
cr\ d?) rols o- Kendo- p,ao~i rb p.ev ovop.a ipdria eKoXeaapev, we have given 
(to) them the name. Other examples see in Heind. ad Crat. 6. 

7. The Accusative expresses further the remote object in con- 
nection with intransitive verbs or other predicates, especially 
adjectives, when it specifies the part, circumstance, or definite 
object, to which the general idea contained in those predicates ex- 
tends, or by which it is limited. This construction is known un- 
der the name of the Greek Accusative ; and is often imitated by 
Latin poets, e. g. os humerosque deo similis. That the Ace. does 
not here come from an omitted preposition (/card), follows from 
§ 130. 4. 



§ 131. ACCUSATIVE CASE. 329 

Examples: koXo? icm to o-ap-a he is handsome as to body; noda? g>kvs 
swift-footed; irovfiv ra o-KeXr) to have pain in the legs; dXyel to.? yvdSovs. 
Also Sav/ACLo-ros 1 to. tov 7roXep,ov admirable in the things of war; *2vpo? rjv ttjv 
narpiba he was a Syrian as to country; 'EcoKpdTrjs tov v op. a Socrates by 
name, Ail prjTiv arakavros. Eurip. Bacch. 1301 (46) opyas Trpenei Seovs 1 
ov^ opoiovadat (BpoTcls. 

Note 11a. In like manner the names of games, contests, sacrifices, are 
subjoined in the Ace. to the acts of contest, sacrificing, etc. as 8pap.e7v to o-tcl- 
h\ov, vimv 'OXvprna, icrrecpavooada Ilvdia, evayyeXia (in the Pythian games, 
en account of the good tidings), baivvvai ydp.ov, Sveiv emviKia, etc. 

8. "Whenever in place of this substantive-object there comes a 
pronoun or adjective in the Nent. Sing, or Plural, this last can 
stand in the Accusative even with such verbs as are elsewhere 
construed with a different case or with a preposition. E. g. hei- 
crdac rod apyvpiov to be in need of money ; but generally, r\v it 
Secovtcu if they need something. 

Examples : tovto dnopSi in this I hesitate; tl xpa>pai airco j ovk oiba o,ti 
Xp£>fiai avrco for what (how) I can use it. Plato Phileb. p. 36 777 o-Ke-^ei rode 
Xprjacop-eda. — Plat. Apol. p. 17 tovto vpcov beo/xai. — Xen. Cyr. 7. 2. 22 ovk 
alriwpai Tabe tov 3eov. Hell. 7. 5. 12 to itrevOev yevo p.evov e^eaTi to 
Selov aiTiaadai. — Cyr. 1. 6. 5 tl yap pep,vr]o~ai eKelva' — Hdot. 7. 139 TavTa 
Xeyiov ovk av dpapTavoi TaXr)6es. Cyr. 2. 2. 3 6 be pdXa tovto ye evTaKTcos 
virrjKovaev. — Soph. OC. 1106 curet? a Tev^ei. Eur. Suppl. 266 ypav? Tv^ovaai 
ovbev u>v ai>Ta? exPW- Comp. Xen. An. 6. 4. 32. — Plato Crit. p. 45 ov 
biKaiov p.01 boKels eVi^a/jeTy n pay pa, § 133. 2. h. 

Note 12. This usage has been the occasion of very greatly and unneces- 
sarily extending the number of verbs with a double Accusative ; since from 
clauses like these : ra p,eyio~Ta axfieXrjcreTe ttjv ttoXiv, noXXd pe r)biKr]Kev, tovto 
p.e avay<a^€i, (3id£eTai, vovdeTco ere tovto, it by no means follows, that wcpeXelv, 
dbiKelv, etc. would therefore be connected with two nouns in the Accusative : 
except indeed in the construction in no. 4 above : TroXXrjv dbiKiav rjbUrio-ev e/xe. 

9. The Accusative marks, as with us, the length or duration 
of time ; and also the measure of distance. 

Examples: Xen. Vect. 5. 2 evbaip-oveaTaTai noXei?, at av nXelarov xpovov 
ev elpfjvrj biaTeXcocri. — Dem. Cor. p. 235 ol xpyvTol irpeo-fieis ovtol Kadrjvro iv 
MaKeSovia Tpels 6X0 vs prjva?. — So too with ordinals, where we commonly 
put for or since: Eur. Rhes. 444 beKaTov rjb-q alxp<d(eis eror, comp. Anab. 
4. 5. 24. — Thuc. 2. 5 aVe^et f) TLXaTaia tu>v Qqfieov oraSiovy efibop,r)KOVTa. 

10. Finally, the Accusative is often employed as an adverbial 
adjunct ; and some examples in the neuter gender have been al- 
ready given in h 128. n. 4. So too tlvcl rpbirov ; in What way ? 
Kvvbs hUrjv in the manner of a dog ; ifir)v X^P LV f or m V sa ^ e 
(§ 146) ; ttjv copav the right time ; tt)v rayiaTiqv, evOeiav, fjuaicpav 
sc. 6$6v 3 etc. 

Note 13. An Accusative is sometimes subjoined (especially by the poets) 
to a clause, as if in apposition with the action therein expressed. E. g. II. 
co. 735 rj Ti? 'A^atcoy ptyei (avTov) dno Trvpyov, Xvypov oXedpov, ' which is a 
dreadful death;' Eurip. Orest. 1105 'EXevrjv KTav<op,ev, MeveXeco Xv7rt]v ttl- 
<pdv, Helen we will slay, a bitter grief to Menelaus. Id. El. 231 eidaip-ovoir]?, 
liicrdov rjbicrTcov Xoyav. 

Note 14. A proverbial phrase is usually denoted by inserting immediately 
Defore it the words ri Xey6p.€vov. E. g. Plat. Gorg. init. dXX rj 7 to Xeyo 



330 SYNTAX. $ 132. 

pevov, kcltottiv eoprrj? rJKopeu ; ' do we come then, as they say, after the feast?" 
So also to rov ttoltjtov, as the poet says, before a quotation from a poet 
etc. e. g. Plato Theset. p. 183 Uappevidrj? poi (paiverai, to tov 'O pr) pov, 
aldolo? re poi apa deivo? re; Also rovvavriov, on the contrary, e. g. ovtos 
8e, 7rau tovvclvtLov, TjfiovXero pev, ovk rjbvvaro 8e. Further, tclvto rov to, in 
the very same way. 

Note 15. As a similar abridgment of a like inserted clause or phrase 
must the Accus. be regarded, which marks time by means of the ordinal 
numbers; e. g. Dem. 01. 3. p. 29 pepvrjo~6e, ore dnnyyeXdr) $1X177770? vplv, 
Tp'irov rj TtrapTov eros tovtl, 'Hpaiov ret^o? noXiopiccov, this third or fourth year, 
three or four years ago. 

Note 16. In Greek the Accusative does not strictly occur in exclamations, 
as in Latin; the Greek prefers here rather the Genitive (§ 132. n. 31). 
Still, in the poets, through the omission of Xeyco, the Accus. sometimes has 
the force of an exclamation; as Soph. Ant. 441 ar) 8r), ae ttjv vevovcrav e\ 
nedov Kapa, cprj? rj Karapvrj pi) 8e8pa<evaL ra.de; Cornp. also the Ace. c. Inf. 
in exclamations, $ 141. 11. 7. 



§ 132. The Genitive Case. 

1. The use of the Grenitive, both subjective and objective, with 
another substantive, belongs to the Greek in common with other 
languages. Both these kinds of Grenitive can also be dependent 
on one substantive at the same time ; and when this occurs, the 
subjective usually precedes, and the objective follows, the sub- 
stantive. 

Examples of the objective Genitive, which is frequent in the poets, arc 
these : 77660? vlov a longing for one's son; evvoia '&6r)vaiu>v goodwill towards 
the Athenians; r) rov Seov Xarpeia the worship of God; evypara UaXXd8o?. Xi- 
ral SeS>v prayers to the gods; i) rwv ILXaratecoi/ emo-rpareia, against the Pla- 
tceans; acorrjp kclkwv, from evils; peXe8r)paTa Trarpo?, etc. — Both Genitives : 
tcdv 'icovcdu r) rjyepovlrj rov npo? Aapeiov 77oXepov Hdot. r) eKelvav peXXrjai? rwv 
el? r)pd? 8eivcov Thuc. 3.12. 

Note 1. It is to be noted, that instead of the objective Gen. of the pers. 
pronoun after a substantive, the possessive pronoun (as in Latin) may be 
used in the same case with the substantive. Thus in Horn. Od. X. 202 ads 
77660? longing for thee; also JEsehin. r) ipr) al8d)s, and Thuc. to r)peTepov 
8eo?. — Xen. An. 7. 7. 29 ol vvv o~oi inrjicooi yevopevoi cv (piXiq ttj crjj e77eio~6rj- 
o~av, aXX* dvayKrj. 

2. In the mention of cities with the countries in which they 
are situated, where we employ the Prep, in, the Greek naturally 
uses the Grenitive. Thus, tt}? 'Am/cris e? Oivbr)v Thuc. iv Ko- 
prjaaa) rf}<; E(pecrlr}s Hdot. 

3. In order to comprehend the Grenitive in its full syntactical 
relations, especially with verbs, we must premise, that the fun- 
damental idea of the Grenitive is that of Separation, a going 
forth, whether out of the interior of any thing or from its exte- 
rior ; and that therefore the idea of the Prepositions i/c out of the 
interior, and «7ro from the exterior or side of an object, lie pri- 
marily in the Grenitive case itself. When, therefore, in construc- 
tions where the common language employs only the simple Gren- 
itive, we occasionally find one of these prepositions inserted, this 



i f 32. GENITIVE CASE. 331 

is only to be regarded as an addition for the sake of clearness ; 



$ 130. 4. And even where in prose the construction with the 
preposition is the common one, the poets again can employ the 
simple Grenitive. 

Examples of such Genitives in the poets, where the more precise Ian 
guage of prose inserts the preposition, are these : dvabvvat &X6? Horn. /3dX- 
\eiv la> rei^co? id. 86 pad v tl Cpepeiv Soph, ocrcrcoi/ d(pievai avyds Eur. 
OXvpnov 7TTdjA<Evos id. 7r o 8 6 f is 7roSa t€lv€l Arat. — So too in prose, instead 
of the usual yeveaOai e< tlvo? to be descended from any one, we find: 
Xen. Cyr. 1.2.1 Trarpos pev 8rj Xe'yercu Kvpo? yeveadai Kapftvaecd, prjTpbs 
Se 6p.6koya.TaL M.av8dvr)S yevso-6ai. So too ap-^eiv, ap^ecr 6ai, in the sig- 
nif. to begin, are found sometimes with eV or and, and sometimes with the 
simple Genitive : pvQow, pdxq's, etc. 

4. Hence, the Genitive of the person or thing separated, that 
is, out of or from which a separation is made, is put with all 
verbs, transitive or intransitive, in which the idea of separation 
is implied. E. g. verbs of separating, restraining, voacpt^ecv, 
ywpiCjs.iv, Kcokveiv, ipyTveiv, etpjeiv, Tivd twos. — Of depriving, 
(TTepicTKetv, d<fiatpeZv, aTroarepelv. — Of freeing 1 , averting, eXevOe- 
povv, Xvetv, a<fiievai, dTraWdrrecv, aoa^etv, dfivveiv, dXe^eiv. — Of 
escaping, i^avtardvai, ycopelv, viroyfDpelv, elfcetv. — Of distance, 
difference, dueyeiVy hieyeuv, Sca^epetv, comp. 12. — Of failing, 
missing, dfiaprdveiv, d/JLifkatcLGKeLv, afydXkecrOai, ^evhecrOai. — Of 
neglecting, leaving off, pbeOleaOaL, dfyieoQai, pieOievai, vcfrievai, 
iravetv, iravecrOai, Xtfyetv, eireyetv. — So too the kindred adjectives, 
as yv/ivos, iXevOepos, Stdcfiopos ; also adverbs, as voafyi, %co/H9, e/cd$. 

Examples : Eur. Phcen. 1016 voaov r^i/S' aTraXXdgco x@dva. — Anab. 1. 10 
4 SieV^oi/ dXXrjXoDv /3ac^lXelis , re kol "JZXXrjves ft>r TpiaKovTa erraSia. — II. £". 107 
'Apyeloi Xrj^av (povoio. — Od. 8. 659 pvr]aTrjpa? '4.iravo-av dedXayv, see iravn 
§ 114. — II. 8. 234 peOieTe Sovptdos aX/o)r, comp. Od. <fi. 377. — Eur. Phaen 
388 to o-Tepeo-dat 7rarpi§o? kcikov peya. — Andr. 381 aXX' i £av icrroo t<x>v8* 
dvcLKTopcov (temples) Seas. — ib. 374 yvvr) dv8p6? dpapTdvova' apapTavei. 
Q'lov. — Mem. 4. 2. 26 ol avdp<£>7roi 8id to e\j/evar6aL eavTwv 7rda^ovo-i 7rXei- 
crra icaicd, — Hec. 852 iya> ere Srjcroii tov8' iXevQepov <po(3ov. — Hence Ave 
may explain Od. a. 69 6(p6aXpov dXdoao-ev he blinded him of his eye; (ppev&v 
KCKopptvos; etc. 

Note 2. That many of the verbs here named may also be construed with 
a preposition, hardly requires to be mentioned: e.g. £Xev6epovv Trjv'EXXd8a 
dno T&v M.7]8(£>v Thuc. aoo^ecv €K klv8vvcov Plato ' iraveiv, dnaXXaTTeiv e'/c kci- 
K<ov Soph. Nor is it strange, that other cases, and especially the Accusa- 
tive, should be used in connection with the same verbs, when in other re- 
spects they are from their nature appropriate; see the remarks in § 131, 
n. 1. Thus we have already noted other constructions with dcpcu'pen/, dno- 
o-Tepelv, § 131. 5, and n. 8; with dpvveiv, dXetjeiv, ib. n. 2; also peSuvai with 
the Ace. etc. For encpevyeiv see § 131. n. 2. 

5. From the above principles is readily derived the usage of 
the Grenitive, when it expresses a ivhole from which some part is 
taken, whether this part be regarded as separated or as still con- 
nected with the whole. This is the partitive Genitive, so called ; 
and is employed as follows : 

a) Not only after substantives, by no. 1 above ; but also after 



332 SYNTAX. $ 132 

adjectives (participles) and pronouns, when these serve to make 
one object prominent above others of the same kind. Hence with 
all numerals, and with adjectives expressing number or multi- 
tude; as 7toXu?, dXlyos, ol /jlev and ol Si, ovSefc, /jlovos, 6 erepos, and 
the other demonstrative and relative pronouns. And as the de- 
grees of comparison presuppose a certain number, in which the 
difference of degree is found, so too this (xenitive stands after 
comparatives and superlatives, to mark this greater number. 
For its position, see § 125. n. 2. 

Examples : ovdels rav 'EXXfjvav, povos dvdpamcdv, to>v crrpaTiiOTcov rols pev 
eooKec, roty d ov • avrai t<dv rroXeav • ov? tg>v ttoXit&v bebiao-iv, airoKTelvovcnv 
ol Tvpavvoi Xen. Hier. 6. 15. Also ol (ppovipot t£>v dvOpancov i. e. genr. clev- 
er persons : tS>v dvdpcov rot? KaXols Kayadols alperooTepov ecrri Savelv rj 8ovXeveiv. 
— T(ov TroXeplcov tov? Trpocrpi^avra? pd^j] eKpdrrjcrav. — 6 pel£a>v rolv bvolv irai- 
hoiv ' r) peyiaTrj t£>v voaaiv dvaldeia • KTr/pdrcov ripicorarov eariv dvrjp (filXos avve- 
tos re KQ.I evvov?. 

Note 3. When any thing in the Sing, is to he expressed as heing a part 
of some whole which is also in the Singular, the Greeks are accustomed to 
put the part, not in the neuter, but in the same gender with the Gen. of the 
whole; just as in the Plur. phrase ol cppovipoi tcov dvdpcotrav above. E. g. 
r) ttoXXt) ttjs TLeXoTTovvr)o-ov the great (greater) part of the Peloponnesus ; 6 77/xt- 
crvy rod xpavov half of the time. Thuc. 1. 2 tij? yrjs r) dpio-rrj del to.? pera^o- 
Xas tcov olK7)Top(£>v el%ev. — Also in superlatives, e. g. r) opdordri] rr)s aKe\j/ecos 
the most correct mode of investigation. Plat. Cratyl. 18. 

Note 4. With ol pev . . .ol Be, the whole is also sometimes put in the same 
case with these pronouns. E. g. Od. p. 73. 101 01 Se 8veo aKoireXoi, 6 pev ov- 
pavbv evpvv l<dvei • — rbv o erepov o-xoireXov ^dapaXcorepov o^rei, *Ohvcro~ev. — 
Thuc. 7. 13 kcu ol £evoi ol pev Kara rds rroXets d7TO^u>povcrtv, ol Se a>s eKao-roi 
dvvavrai.— In like manner, An. 5. 5. 11 duovopev vpds . . . ivlovs o-kwvovv 
ev rals oIkims. II. X. 11 'A^atotcr iv adevo? epfiaX e/cacrro. Comp. § 131. 
11. 10, and § 133. 5. 

Note 5. The usage so frequent in Latin, when the Gen. of a substantive 
stands after a neuter pron. or adjective, (as quantum hostium, parum dili- 
gentice,) is indeed found also in Greek ; but for the most part only in 
phrases which actually relate to quantity, (e. g. 7roAu tg>v noXepioov, oaov dp- 
yvp'iov) ) and even here the mode of expression with an adjective (not neu- 
ter) is more common; as iroXXol tcov rroXeptav. The same Latin idiom 
occurs also in marking extent or degree ; see in n. 6. — The extension of this 
usage to phrases relating to quality, belongs almost exclusively to the poets : 
Soph. Ant. 1229 ev ra> £vp<fiopds bcecpdaprj? ; El. 169 tl dyyeXlas epx^rai; 
Eurip. j3oarpvxoo8eos dj3pa Traprjido?. On the other hand, Thuc. 4. 130 f)v 
tl o-Tao-iaapov ev rfj noXei, is to be taken as relating to quantity, comp. 7. 
69. Still less frequent is the construction with the genitive, when the 
dependent idea is also a neuter adjective, (Lat. quid novi, nihil boni,) e. g. 
Greek tl kcllvov) ovdev kclXov. Yet with the art. we find: ovdev tov na- 
Xov, from subst. to kclXov. 

b) With words which mark time and place, when they denote 
parts of some greater extent. Hence consequently after adverbs 
of time and place. 

Examples : Tp\s tyjs r^pepas three times a day; Snore tov erovs in what pari 
of the year; itavTayov r^? dyopds everywhere in the market; 7r6pp& V?}y f]XLK.[a? 
far advanced in years; iroi ytjs dcpiKoprjv ; to what part of (he earth have 1 
come? like ubi terrarum? 



$ 132. GENITIVE CASE. 333 

Note 6. Hence there arose in the tragic writers frequent turns of cop- 
struction like these: ov% Spas, lv el kcxkov) 7td£> ttot el cppevcov ; rl Xe£oo ; 
ttoI cppevoov e\6ti3, ndrep ; So too in prose, in phrases marking extent or de- 
gree; as els tovto dvaio~xvvTlas Trpofiefirjice, to this degree of shamelessness; 
TTpo? rovro kaipov napeo-Ti to. rrpdypara, to this (decisive) point of time . An. 
1. 7. 5 iv tolovtco rjo-av tov kivSvvov. In like manner, Eur. Ale. 9 roVS' 
eo-<£>£ov oIkov is rd6° f]p,epas. 

c) The G-enitive of the whole is often put with verbs whicL 
imply or refer to a part ; especially with elvcu. For explanation 
it is usual to supply rh, rl. 

Examples : Thuc. 1. 65 'Apio-Tevs rj6e\e tg>v p.evovrcov elvcu. 3. 70 6 LTei- 
6 las eTvy%ave ttjs (3ov\rjs a>v. — Xen. Hell. 6. 3. 5 el op.oyv&p.ovolp.ev, ovk av 
tS>v Qav p.ao~T(ov (sc. t\, i. q. Savpaarov, see in lett. a) etrj, p,r] elprjvrjv Tvoiel 
crdai. — Further, eSco/ra aoi t<ov ^p?//xarcoz/, I gave thee some money; KaTeayu 
ttjs Ke<pa\rj? am broken as to a part of my head, have a hole in my head. 
So too especially the poets in many turns of construction; e. g. ndo-ae 6° 
a\o? Seloio, onTYjaai Kpecov, ^api^op-evrj 7rape6vT(£>v Horn. etc. 

d) With all verbs and adjectives which include the idea of a 
part ; e. g. of taking part, partaking, as fjuereivcu, perkykCv (Adj. 
fi&TO'Xps), fJLeTairelv, fieTa^ihovat, fMeraXa/ji^dvecv, avTiXcqiftdveaOao, 
KOLvcovetv (Adj. kolmovos) ; t also of sharing, obtaining, as Tvy%d- 
veiv, \ayydveiv, dvrcav (dvrcdt,€cv, dvrav), KVpelv, fcXrjpovo/jLeop. 

Examples : Mem. 3. 4. 14 f) yj/vxq tov Selov /z ere yet. — Isocr. p. 22 eneibrj 
Svtjtov aapaTos erv^es, neipa) ttjs ^j/v^rjs dSdvaTov ttjv yv(apr\v KaTaXiireiv. — 
Dem. p. 690 ovtol k\tj p o v o p. o v o~ i ttjS vperepas 86^rjs Ka\ twv vp-eTep(£>v dyadeov. 
— Soph. El. 869 i^Opeo-Trj?) Keicevdev, ovte tov Ta(pov avridcras, ovt€ yocoi 
nap rjp5)V. 

Note 7. With the most of these verbs the Accusative is also not unusual, 
(and so with p.eTelvai the Nom.) because it is easy to connect with them the 
transitive ideas to have, to get, to possess, to give. E. g. Thuc. 2. 37 peYeo-rt 
irdcri to 'Lvov. — Aristoph. Plut. 1144 ov yap perei^es Tas 'io~as TrXrjydi, 
ep,ol. — Xen. An. 4. 5. 5 p.eTedocrav avTols rrvpovs r) aXko ti, comp. Hdot. 8. 5. 
— II. 5. 580 j3d\e ^eppaSio) dyicebva tv^iov p,eo~ov. But evrvyxdvoi on the 
contrary commonly with the Dative, because of its composition. — iEschyl. 
Sept. 684 KaKos ov Ken\r]o-r) (3lov ev Kvprjaas. — With k\t) povo p,e7v, both the 
thing inherited and the person from whom are put in the Genitive ; only in 
later writers the thing is put in the Ace. as Luc. D. Mort. 1. 3 ovk eTredv- 
p,eis Kkrjpovop.elv divoBavovros ep,ov to. /cri^para ko.\ tov ttIOov koi ttjv 7rr]pav. 

Note 8. As ovo\ia above (§ 131. n. 11), so here, with verbs of partaking, 
the sub st. pepo? is often added in prose, to mark extent or quantity (much, 
little, etc.) so that then the Gen. seems to depend on p.epo?. 

Examples : iEsch. Ag. 518 ovk ^'pw Savcov p-edetjeiv (piA-rctrou rdepov p,e- 
pos\ — Is. Nic. p. 35. d, tS>v dpeTcov ovdev p.epos toZ? Trovrjpols /xereart. — 
Cyr. 7. 5. 44 p.iKpov ti vp.1v p-epos ep.ov p-ereaeTai. 

e) Finally, this partitive Grenitive is put with verbs which in- 
clude the closely kindred ideas to hold fast, to lap hold of, to 
touch, and the like, viz. dirTeaOai, \api(3dvea9ai with its com- 
pounds espec. dvTt\ajxj3dvecr6ai, eyeaQai, ^fraveiv, ^vyydveiv, hpdr- 
reaOai, KaOucvelaOai, and the like ; comp. also no. 10. h, below. 

Examples: Soph. OC. 955 Savovrcov ovdev akyos anTeTai. — An. 7. 6. 41 
rjv croocppovwpev, i^opeOa avrov, we shall hold him fast. — Eur. Or. 780 (W^e- 
pes "fyaveiv voaovvTos dvdpos: — Dem. 01. p. 15 ecos earl Kaipos, avTikafieaOe 
ra>v 7rpayp,aTL0v. 



334 SYNTAX. § 132. 

Note 9. Some examples of varying construction occur, as in n. 7. E. g. 
with the Accus. Od. a. 342 paXio-rd pe KadUero ivtvOos aXaarov. With, the 
DaL Pind. Pyth. 4. 527 acrvxiq Siyepev, and often. 

Note 10. To the same principle are to he referred constructions like the 
following : rrj9 x el pb? ciyeiv rivd to lead one by the (his) hand ; iirio-irao-as nva 
KOfjLTJs to drag one by the hair ; rbv \vkov tcov atrcov KparS) to seize the wolf by 
the ears. Here too the prep, etc can stand; see § 147. n. 1. — This of course 
must not he confounded with : \aj3e7v nva x el Ph t° se ^ ze one with the hand. 

Examples :"I1. y. 369 rj, koL eTratigas KopvOos \dj3ev imrobaa-elris.- — Xen. 

An. 1. 6. 10 e\dj3oVTO TYjS £cOVT]? TOV^OpoVTTjV. 

Note 11. From the custom of regarding a suppliant as one who embraces 
the knees of the divinity or of the person entreated, it has come to pass that 
verbs of entreating or supplicating , otherwise purely transitive, are con- 
strued with the Genitive, espec. Xtaaeadai, Ik€T€V€iv, yovvd£eaBai, licveiaOaL. 
So fully in Homer, (II. £. 45. cp. 71) Aa/3obz/, i\(bv, ayjsdpevo? AtVo-ero yovvcov; 
with Accus. and Genit. ^. 345 prj pe, kvov, yovvcdv yovvd£eo, prjSe toktjcov. 
Eur. Or. 660 ravTrjS (ttjs bdpapros 1 ) iKvovpai ere. Hec. 752 tKereuco ere rcovde 
yovvdrcov K.al crov yeveiov Se£iay r' evdalpovo? : and hence also finally, Od. {B. 
68 \[(r(Topac ijpev Ztjvos 'OXvpnlov r)8e 0e/xierroy. Comp. belcrdai in n. 14, and 
npos $ 147. n. 1 ; also ev^ecr^at c. Dat. § 133. 2. c. 

6. But as the part may be conceived as still connected with the 
whole, and all the parts together form, the whole, so that out of 
which any thing consists or is made may be expressed by the 
G-enitive relation, the Genitive of material. 

Examples : arecpavo? vaKtvdcov a garland of hyacinths ; Hdot. aTJjXr] \i6ov 
a column of stone ; id. 7. 63 poiraka £uAcoz\ So with verbs : Cyr. 7. 5. 22 
(polviKos (elcriv) at Qvpat, 7T€7roir]pevaL. Hdot. 2. 138 ecrrpiopevr) ian 68b? \L6ov. 

7. The G-enitive serves naturally to express, not only the^ out- 
ward material (no. 6), but also the internal relations of an at- 
tribute or quality connected with the object, i. e. Genitive of 
quality; as also the more personal relations of possession and 
property, i. e. the possessive Genitive. Hence arises the most 
common signification of the G-enitive after substantives ; e. g. ol 
rod rrcLTpos 7r<ztoe? ■ to Tov %pvalov cre\a<? • tt}? aperrjs to /caXXo? • 
Sevbpov 7ro\\£)v 6Tcbv. But the same is also conceivable after ad- 
jectives (e. g. ot/cetQ?), and with such verbs as elvcu, <yiyveo-6ai, 
TiOevat, etc. See n. 13. 

Example: Isocr. Nic. p. 19 anavra rd rav oIkovvt&v ttjv ttoXlv olKela 
tw koAco? /3acriAet>e)i/rcoi/ icrriv. 

Note 12. The poets sometimes employ a substantive in the Genitive as 
a periphrase for an adjective; e. g. Eurip. Phcen. 1590 rpavpara aHparos 
wounds of blood, for alparoevra bloody. Soph. OT. 533 roaovb'' e^eir rd A prjs 
Trpoaconov. Antig. 114 Xevtcr)? x L ® V0S VTepvg, a wing of white snow, for 
snow-white. Aj. 1003 a> bvadearov oppa ical roXpr]? TriKpds. — [This is the 
Hebrew construction so frequent also in the prose of the Septuagint and New 
Testament; e. g. Luke 4, 22 Adyot ttjs ^ciptror, gracious words. 16, 8 oiko- 
vopos ttjs aSiKtas 1 , the unjust steward. Rev. 13, 3 fj 7r\r)yf) rod Savdrov, the 
deadly wound; and often. Sometimes, though rarely, the qualifying word 
takes the other in the Genitive ; e. g. Rom. 6, 4 iv Kaivorrjn ^co^y in newness 
of life, i. e. a new life. 1 Tim. 6, 17. See Herm. ad Viger. p. 888. Winer 
Gramm. des N. T. § 34. 2. Gesen. Heh. Gr. $ 104. Lehrgeh. § 163— Tr. 

Note 13. The connection of the Genitive with elvai, (also ylyveadai, and 
with predicates where elvat can he supplied, as rjyeladai, ndevai,) does not 



* 132. GENITIVE CASE. 335 

correspond entirely to the Latin construction of esse c. Genit. (v. Abl.) and 
therefore needs to he here more fully considered. Thus 

I. Where the subject is a thing, an abstract, or something conceived by 
the mind, that to which it belongs (the person) is put in the Genitive. Such 
a clause may always be rendered : is a thing of, etc. or more exactly : a) 
The property of; e. g. irdcra. rj yrj eari /3ao-iA eco? is the property of the king, 
belongs to him; Trorepcov rldrjs (sc. elvai) rrjv ovaiav, Plato Theaet. p. 186. 
b) The wont j part, duty of; e. g. to>v pdxj] vikmvtcov koI to ap-^eiv icrriv 
An. 2. 1. 4; dvdpo? eVrt cfypovlpov axfieXelv tovs dvdpJmovs; comp. 7rpoi? 
§ 147. n. 1. In this case instead of the person in the Gen. the correspond- 
ing abstract noun can be used, as in Lat. est stulti v. stultitice; e. g. Soph. 
El. 1054 7ro\\rjs dvo'ias (earl) Kai to Qrjpdo-dai Kevd. Dem. 01. p. 12 tu 
TToXXa dnoXaiXeKevaL ttjs vpeTepas dpeXe las av rtr $elr] St/ccu'coy. c) The power , 
ability of i. e. in the power of; as in the proverb : ov ttclvtos dvbpbs ds 
JLoptvdov io~6* 6 ttKovs. Soph. OT. 393 to a'iviyp ov^l tovtt iovtos (i. e. 
tov TvyovTOs) rjv dvbpbs hienreiv, dWd pavTeias e'Sei. 

II. Where the subject is a person, the Latins usually express any perma- 
nent quantity belonging to it by the Genitive (or Ablative), as Ccesar erat 
magna prudentia, etc. In Greek this is very rare; e. g. Hdot. 1. 107 Kap- 
(3var]s oli<ir)? pev rjv dya6r)s, rponov 8e fjcrvxiov. More commonly the 
Greeks employ the adjective, as o-axfipav io-Tiv 6 dvr)p ; especially with an 
Accus. subjoined, as 3avpao~To? rjv Tr)v tveiriav, admirable as to eloquence, 
of singular eloquence ; peyas rjv to aapa, he was great of stature. On the 
other hand, the Greek language employs the construction in question for 
other genitive relations ; e. g. of partaking, no. 5 c; of the material, no. 6 ; 
and also of a transient quality, t)v ctcov TpiaKovra. 

8. From the idea of going forth out of tht interior of an object 
and of yet remaining connected with the same, there readily 
arises a relation of dependence, either external or intrinsic ; that 
is, a causal relation. Hence, not only prepositions like irepi, 
eveica, vtto, etc. take the Grenitive, but also many of the adjectives 
and verbs, which follow below, are construed with it, in order to 
express the cause by reason of which a quality, an action, a state 
or condition, exists or takes place ; e. g. totto? Saavs SevSpcov be- 
cause of the many trees ; aya/ial ere rr)<; avSpelas because of thy 
valour. This is the causal Genitive. 

9. But the cause of an action can at the same time be the ob- 
ject upon which that action is directed ; since the two may often 
coincide. In such case the Grenitive takes a sense seemingly op- 
posite to its fundamental idea, viz. that of direction upon an ob- 
ject ; e. g. eTuOvfjLO) t^? apeTTJs I strive on account of {after) vir- 
tue, where virtue is at the same time the cause and the object 
of my effort. Hence the preposition eirl, and many of the follow- 
ing adjectives and verbs, are construed with the Grenitive ; which 
then is the Genitive of object. 

10. The following are the more important Adjectives and verbs, 
which, according to nos. 8 and 9 above, (we purposely do not 
separate the two,) more commonly take the complement of their 
idea in the Grenitive : 

a) All words signifying plenty or want take the object by which 
this condition is caused, or in relation to which it exists, in the 
Genitive ; viz. Tfkrjpovv, irifiifkavaiy eviropelv, KopevvvaOai, aaai, 



336 SYNTAX. < 132 



yepueiv, PpiOetv, Set, Xpb Trpoarjtcei, helcrOai, 'xpjfeiv, uTropelv, oira- 
vit,eiv, X7]povcr0aL 3 and the like ; with the adjectives 7rAi<y?, TrXrjpris, 
fjbsaTos, fcevo^, iiriSe^, epijfios, tyi\6s and the like ; also the ad- 
verbs aXt?, ahr]V, epic aZr)V. 

Examples: Plato Rep. p. 557 Xcroos ovv ovk av aTvopols TrapadeiypaToov. — 
Soph. OT. init. irokis QvpiapaToov ye pet. — Cyr. 1. 2. 9 rj toov e(pr)j3oov r]\iKia 
[xaXcara eiripeXeias 1 d elrai. — Eur. Hec. 228 TcapecrT-qKev dyoov 7r\r)prjs arevay- 
poov ovde dctKpvoov Kevos. — Hdot. 4. 21 r) toov ^avpopareoov yrj y^iXr) eVn kcu 
dypioov /cat r)pepoov 8ev8peoov. — II. r. 423 ov \r)£(£>, 7rp\v Tpboas cidrjv ekdcrai tto- 
Xepoio. 

Note 14. On the construction of Set, XPV> Trpoarjicei, see also in § 131. n. 
4, and § 133. 2. e. — From the idea of need it likewise comes, that 8e7o-6a<. 
and xpf}( elv a ^ so i 11 the signif. ?o ask for, entreat, take the Gen. of pers. as 
Cyr. 5. 5. 35 o-u i/w epo\ ^aptcrat 6 aV crov 8er}6oo. Hdot. 5. 19 eya> crev 
Xprjtfa prjdev veoxpooaai. And from the union of the two ideas is to be ex- 
plained the double Gen. e. g. Cyr. 8. 3. 19 e8eovro Kvpov aXXos aWrjs 
irpd^e&s. Hdot. 7. 53 rcovd* eyeo vpeoov xPlK^i comp. Hdot. 5. 40; see 
too Xlao-opai in note 11 above. But dgiovv in the same signif. has only 
an Ace. of person. — The verb j3pl6eiv has commonly the Dative ; yet Od. 
t. 219 rvpcov (3pldov. 

b) "Words signifying value or want of value : a£ to?, avafyos, 
a^iovciQai ; a^iovv, irpoTieiv, artfid^eiv rlva tlvo$. 

Examples: Xen. Ag. 10 eyK.oop.ioov tl dgiooTepov rj vikcu. — Cyr. 2. 2. 17 
ovdev dvtcrooTepov tov toov Xcroov roc re kcikov kcu tov dyaQov a^iovadai. — ■ 
Staph. Ant. 22 rdepov Kpeoov tov pev npoTLcras, tov 5' aTipdcras e^et. 

c) Especially is the relation of value expressed by the Grenitive 
after verbs of estimating, buying and selling, etc. There is here 
a twofold construction, viz. 1) The value itself or price is put 
in the Grenitive, Gen. of price. 2) Also the goods or wares 
bought or sold, Gen. mercis ; this last, however, only in certain 
connections with the verbs SiSovai, XapLfSaveiv, KaranQevai, and 
the like. — In both these constructions (b and c) the prep, avri is 
alsc- found before the Grenitive ; see dvn h 147. n. 1. 

Examples: 1) 8 paxpij ? dyopd^eiv ri. Mem. 3. 7. 6 ol iv rrj dyopa cppovT'i 
£ovcriv, o\ti ekdrTOVos irptdpevoi r n\e'iovo l s dirodoovrai. 2. 1. 20 toov tt 6 vcov 7rco 
Xovaiv fjpuv irdvTa Taydd* ol Qeoi. — 2) Dem. p. 529 xPVP- ara °v Trpoar/fcei toov 
ToioxiTisov \apfidveiv. Cyr. 3. 1. 37 dirdyov tovs Traidas, prjdev avToov Ka.Ta.6ei?.— 
rpel? pvds KareOrjKe tov Ittttov. See on Plat. Meno. 28. 

d) The Grenitive stands also after the ideas of being skillful, 
capable, experienced, mindful, and the contrary : e jjltt ei pros, eVt- 
crnjpLwv, iSpis, fjLvrjpLcov, a7r€Lpos, ISlcott}^, aZar)$. Hence also in the 
poets with participles, as II. (3. 720 to^mv ev elBm. it. 811 StSa- 
encopbevo? iroXepioio. Further, with the verb TretpdcrOac to try, 
prove, with all its derivatives and compounds. Also with verbs 
signifying to remember and forget : pLLfAvrjcnceaOai with its com- 
pounds, pLvrjpuoveveiv, kirikavQaveo-Qai. But these last admit also 
other constructions, espec. with the Ace. of thing and irepi c. gen. 
See n. 14 a. 

Examples: Dcm. p. 1414 tt)? yeoopeTpias kcu ttjs aXAr/r Toiavrri? tvol- 
he ia? dnetpcos i'xeiv alaxpov. — Mem. 1. 2. 21 otov tSov vox BeTircov koyooi 



$ 132 GENITIVE CASE. 337 

im\d8rjTai rcr, tovtov ovbev Sav/xacrrbv kol ttJs <t co </> p o a v v y s eivikaOecrOai. — 
Plisedr. p. 234 av toov elp-q p.ev<ov fiepLvrjcro. — II. <p. 580 ('Ayfjvcop) ovk edeXev 
(pevyeiv, irp\v ireiprjo-aiT 'A ^ 1X770?. — Od. (p. 180 to gov 7reip<ap.ecr6a. — Plat. 
Prot. p. 311 drroTveipcop.evos tov 'imroKparovs ttjs pwjJLrjs rjpoiTcov avrov. Comp. 
An. 3. 5. 7. 

Note 14 a. Where the Ace. is found with these verbs, it is always a 
neuter pronoun or a thing (see examples in § 131. 8) ; or it gives to the 
verb a different sense, as in TreipaoOai rwa to attempt a woman. So too nei- 
pdo-dat with a Dative signifies to make trial in or with any thing • as e'ya>v 
eirecrLv, r)yx e ' L V Tfetp^trofiat, wobeacrw eVetpTjo-ai/ro Horn. — That dvap,[p,vr)o-Koi 
and imojxiiivrjo-Koi take a double Ace. see in § 131. 5. — Examples of the Ace. 
and also irepl: Cyr. 6. 1. 25 (Kvpos eVparre Tavra), orrcos ev rais dyayats ras 
rage is v7rop,ip.vrjo-KOLVTO. — Eur. Hel. 265 Tas tv^o-s . . ."EWrjves ineXdOovTO, 
comp. Od. §. 119. — With nepi: Xen. Hell. 4. 5. 9 ol npeo-j3eis irepl ttjs 
elp-qvrjs ovKeri Ip.ep.viqvTO, comp. 4. 4. 15. — Andoc. p. 73 fxr} nepl twv ireirpay- 
p.eva>v axiTols e7fiXd8r]a6e. 

e) Yerbs signifying to care for, to be anxious, and the con- 
trary, take the object (or cause) of such care, etc. in the Geni- 
tive ; as e7TL[Jbekea6ai, KTqheaOai, cppovrl^ecv, pbekei /not twos, a/xe- 
Xeiv, akeyl&Lv, oXtycopelv. Also verbs signifying to admire, to pity, 
to contemn ; as dyacrdat, ^avfjua^eiv, evhaifjuovi^eiv, naicapi^eiv, cp6o- 
velv, olfcrelpetv, /caraeppovetv, fcarcvyekav. So too (fielSecrdat to spare 

Examples : Cyr. 5. 3. 40 ol apxpvres eTripi,eXelcr6oiv ivdvTav. — Soph. OT 
1060 fiJ7, TTpos Beav, e'tnep ti tov aavrov fi'iov Kr]8ei, fxarevarjs. — Eur. Med. 
1046 <pe7crai t€kvcov. — Dem. p. 472 p,rj8ev6s Karacppovei. — Cyr. 5. 4. 32 
ot/creipcD o~€ rod irdOovs. — Lys. p. 198 eya> p.ev tovs ev t<5 7roXep,oi TeTeXevTi]- 
kotus p,a<ap i £ co rov Qavdrov. 

Note 15. Verbs of admiring have commonly: 1) The Accus. of pers. 
and Gen. of thing, as ayap.ai ere ttjs dvSpeias, comp. no. 8 above ) or 2) The 
Gen. of pers. especially when the object of admiration has with it a parti- 
ciple or a clause with, on, el, etc. e. g. Cyr. 3. 1. 15 ayao~ai rov irarpos; 
oaa fiefiovkevTai. Hdot. 6. 76 ayaadai ecpr) 'Epacrlvov ov npobibovTos rovs 
noXi-qTas, comp. Plato Crit. init. Also the Accus. of thing, ayafiai ttjv 
tovtov (pvaiv Plat. — The verb cpdovelv follows the first construction, 
except that it takes the Dat. of pers. instead of the Accus. e. g. Eur. Ion. 
1024 cpdovelv yap cpacri p.rjTpvias tckvols. Plat. Hipp. p. 228 "irnrapxos ovk 
aero delv ovtevl aocpias (pdovelv, comp. Cyr. 8. 4. 16. — Verbs of con- 
temning, making light of as Karacppovelv, vnepopav, mostly take both, the 
person and thing in the Genitive ; yet there are also instances where they 
have the Accus. like aya/xai; e. g. Xen. Ag. 8. 4 enaivco 'AyrjaiXdov to vnep- 
idelv ttjv j3aaiXeas geviav. Eur. Bacch. 495 Karacppovel p,e ml Qyfias 
ode. Comp. Thuc. 8. 8. — Still other and various constructions are found 
with the above verbs; so e. g. ire pi c. gen. as tovtov crept ep,eXe nepi Hdot. 
vv.ep c. gen. as cppovTi^eiv vnep twos Dem. iirt c. dat. as dp,e\e7v Soph, 
also the simple Dative, as Savfxdfav, dyaaOevTes r<5 epym Thuc. Plato, etc. 

f) The Grenitive is also put with verbs signifying to desire, as 
eiridvjJLelv, opeyeaOac, icpiea&ai, avriiroieicrOai, epav,* epacrOai ; also 
to aim at, as aro^d^eorOaL, TiTvaiceaQai, and hence likewise in the 
poets ro^evetv, clkovtiC^iv to sling, lirataaeiv to rush upon, and 
other like verbs. 

* In kpa.v to love lies the primary idea of desire. On the other hand, in <pi\e7v, 
aTepyeiv, ayairav. the primary idea is inclination, good-will; and these are therefore 
construed only with the Accusative. 

y 



338 SYNTAX. § 132. 

Examples: Anab. 3. 2. 39 e'i tis xPVPutoov eiridv p,el, Kparelv neipdcrOti). 
Cyr. 8. 2. 22 6peyop.ai del nXeidvaiv. — Eur. Hec. 976 fxrj epa rcov TvXrjcriov. 
— II. S. 100 6tcrTev(rov MeveXdov. $.118 rov &' l$v? pep,au>ros aKOvnae. 
«. 263. etc. 

g) Yerbs signifying to accuse, to condemn, as Karrjyopeiv, 
/carjifyvcoo-Kecv, KarahiKd^eiv, take the Gen. of pers. and Ace. of 
crime. Yice versa, the verbs ypdfaadaL, Kplveiv, hmiceiv (Pass. 
(pevyecv), alriacrdcu, alpelv (Pass. aklo-KeaOai), take the Ace. of 
pers. and Gen. of thing. 

Examples: Dem. p. 1319 ris vp,(bv av Karayvoir] p,ov roaavT-qv paviav ; 
Cyr. 5. 5. 19 e^eis riva vrXeove^iav pov Kar-qyoprjaai; — Ar. Eq. 367 8id>- 
£o/xcu ere deikias. PL Apol. p. 35 (2a>Kp.) darefiela? eepevye vtto MeXirov. 
Mem. 1. 2. 49 ovk e£e<rri (t<5 vUX) Tiapavoias iXovri rov irarepa drjerai. So too 
Kkonfjs, doopoov aX&vai Aristoph. — See further on the construction ivith the 
Passive, § 134. n. 2 a. 

Note 16. With ypd<peo~6ai there is also commonly found (by § 131. 4) the 
Ace. of the noun ypacprj or dUrj, so that then the Gen. depends on this word : 
thus, ypdepeerdai nva ypcxpqv cpovov, also without Genit. Dem. p. 311 ovde- 
plav TrcoTTOT iypd^raro p.e bUqv. — Other verbs, like eyicaXelv, iivet-ievai, 
are also connected with the Genitive ; but by reason of their composition 
take also the Dative of person; so Plat. Legg. p. 873 ol irpoaqKovres ene^l- 
T<£>o-av rov cpovov rco icrelvavri. The Adj. evoxo? is put sometimes with the 
Dative, and sometimes with the Genitive of the crime. — With the Gen. of 
thing, prepositions are sometimes employed; e. g. nepi, as rrepl Trpobovias 
exipive Isocr. 

Note 17. The punishment to which the person, accused or condemned is 
exposed, is usually put in the Accus. e. g. KaraoiKa^eiv nvbs Sdvarov, gr)p,iav 
ocpXelv rdXavra 8e<a ; hence also depXio-icdveiv ye A cor a, alcrx^vqv, to incur 
laughter, shame, etc. i. e. the penalty of scorn, etc. But the Genitive is also 
found, espec. in the phrase Savdrov Kplveiv to accuse capitally, of a capital 
offence; Cyr. 1. 2. 14 Savdrov ovroi Kplvovcn. Comp. Hdot. 6. 136 3-avdrov 
vTrayayebv MiXriddea. Thuc. 3. 57. etc. 

h) Yerbs of the outward senses take the object (cause) in the 
Grenitive, except those of seeing-; as oacppalvecrdai, to smell (also 
o&lv, irvelv, in the neuter signif. to smell, give forth odour) ; 
yeveiv, yeveaOac, to taste ; a/covecv* to hear; tyaveiv, diTTeaOai,, to 
touch, comp. no. 5. e. Further, also verbs of inward perception ; 
as alaOdveaOai, irvvOdveaOai, pbavOdvetv, avvtevai, Tvyydveiv, eirat- 
eiv. — But all these verbs just as often take the Accusative ; with 
this main difference, that the immediate perception requires usu- 
ally the G-enitive ; while the mediate, or that received through 
others or from circumstances, prefers the Accusative. — 'Axoveiv 
and other verbs of perceiving are often construed at the same 
time with the Gren. of pers. and Ace. of thing. 

Examples : o£eiv v. we'iv pvpwv to smell of ointment. Hdot. 1. 80 ol Ittttoi 
ocrcp pavro r<x>v Kap.rp\u>v. — Dem. p. 782 rovs yevop,evovs kvvcls rcov 7rpo/3d- 
nov KaraKonreiv (petal delv. — Mem. 2. 4. 1 iJKOvad nore rov "2(£>Kpdrovs 8ia- 

* The verb aicoveiv and its compounds, c. genit. often have the special signif, 
to listen, to obey ; e. g. Cyr. 8. 6. 1 robs x i *- l( *-PX ovs °^ K a\\ov % eavrov efiov\ero 
anoveiv. Hence also avr)Kov<Tre7v and the adjectives KarijKoos, virrjKoos, evireiO-ffs, are 
in like manner construed with the Genitive. — The Dative is also found, espec. 
with inra.Kovei.v 



§ 132. GENITIVE CASE. 339 

Xeyopevov. Cyr. 6. 2. 13 7rpocrio-TaTai duovcrofxevos t<ov Xoyoav. 1. 4. 3 eVe- 
dv/j-ei civ Tt? en. 7rAetco ctKOvetv civ to v. ib. KafJilSvrrve, enel rJKovaev dvSpos 
f)'8rj epya biaxeipiCopevov tov Kvpov, ane/atXec — Flat. Hipp. maj. p. 291 
tov dvdpo? ov Tvy^dvofxev. — Legg. p. 791 ra /x^tto) cpcovrjs crv vievra 7rai§ia, 
comp. Hdot. 1. 47. — For the construction of these verbs with a Participle 
and Infin. see § 144. 6. marg. 

i) The following verbs, which are kindred with the above and 
also with the idea of partaking (no. 5. d), also take the object 
(cause) in the Genitive, viz. verbs signifying to enjoy, to profit, 
as airoXaveiv, eiravpicricecrOat, bvivacjQai, yevetv to let taste, jev- 
ecrOai (see in lett. h), KopevvvcrOai, poetic aaacrOai, curat see 10. a. 
Also verbs signifying to eat and drink, when the idea of enjoy- 
ment or of desire predominates ; since otherwise they are purely 
transitive. 

Examples: Eur. El. 1079 &> rXrjpcov eya>, ob? cipn TrevQov? Tovbe yev op.au 
niKpov.— Iph. T. 1047 ovaio~6e p,vd<£>v /cat yevoicrO' ev8alp.oves. — II. X. 562 
e ko peer craro (jjopfirjs. II. o. 317 8ovpa XuXaiop-eva xpob? dcrai. Od. co. 717 
acreaOe KkavOjidlo. — Xen. Hell. 3. 3. 6 ovk ibvvavro KpxmTeiv to p.r) ov^ r)8ea>s 
av Ken oipLwv eaSLeiv avToiv, i. e. out of hatred. 

Note 18. The natural prepositions with these verbs are i< and 0770, 
which are often found before the Genitive; e. g. Plat. Apol. p. 31 d dno 
tovtcov dneXavov kcu pnoObv iXdp.fiavov, ei^ov civ Tiva \6yov. Comp. Rep. p. 
395. c. 

11. From no. 9 above it is to be explained, that with all 
Comparatives 
the object with which comparison is made, is put in the Grem 
tive ; Lat. in the Ablative. E. g. aocpcorepo^ ecrrc rod StSacT/cd- 
\ov he is wiser in comparison of (with) his teacher, i. e. than 
his teacher ; koXXlov epuov aSets thou singest better than I; ape- 
tt}? ovhev KTrj/jLci ecrrc aefivorepov. 

Note 19. Prepositions which explain this Genitive of comparison, are 
-rrapd and irpos c. Ace. with both of which examples actually occur; see 
§ 147. n. 1. — The rule that this Genitive is only put, where it can be re- 
solved by rj, than, quam, with the Nom. or sometimes the Accusative, is not 
rigidly observed in Greek ; since it often occurs instead of rj with the Dative ; 
e. g. p,el£cov tw elnovri ylyverai (SXaj3r) tov tr eiro ltjkotoS 1 i. e. rj t5> Treiroir}KOTi. 
Thuc. 7. 63 TCWTa toIs oTrXiTais ovx rjacrov twv vavTwv 7rapaKeXevop.ai, comp, 
1. 85. ib. 2. 60. 

Note 20. In such examples as kuXXlov ip.ov a8ei?, p,el£ova epya ep.ov 8u- 
Ttpa^ev, the Gen. strictly stands for a whole clause : rj eyeb q8a>, bienpat-a. 
The ambiguity which sometimes thus arises, can be cleared up only by the 
context; e. g. Hdot. 2. 134 Trvpap,i8a aTreX'nreTo 7roXX6v e'Aao-crco tov naTpos, 
\. e. rj 6 7raTr)p cnveX'nveTO. Aristoph. Plut. 558 tov UXovtov 7rape^co fieXTiovas 
av8pas, i. e. rj 6 II. Trape^et. Especially, the Greek language could express 
such minor clauses by means of certain abstract nouns ; and this usage the 
Latin imitates. 

Examples: Hdot. 2. 35 epya Xoyov fiefa. Thuc. 2. 50 Kpelcraov \6yov 
to el8os T7j? vocrov, greater than language, beyond the power of speech. 2. 64 
Arci'Sor K.peicro~ov spe melius Hell. 2. 3. 24 7rXeove? tov Kaipov. Plato 
Gorg. p. 484 nepaiTepo) tov deovTos i. e. rj del. So too is to be explained 
Thuc. 1. 84 ol AotxeS. dpadeo-Tepov tcov v6p.<£>v Tr)s vnepoy\rias naidevovTat, 
i. e. l are educated with too little learning to despise the laws.' 



S40 SYNTAX. § 132. 

Note 21. When ir\eov or eX otto *> is followed by a numeral, the 9 (as 
in Lat. quam) may be omitted without any change of case. 

Examples : Plat. Legg. p. 856 ^77 eXarrov 8e<a err] yeyovores. — Paus. 8. 
21 ov TrXeov CLTT^ei crrab'iovs enrd. — Thuc. 6. 95 r) Xeia eirpdOrj raXdvrcov 
dvk eXarrov irevre ku\ eiKO&i. 

Note 22. Sometimes by pleonasm there is subjoined to the comparative 
the Gen. neut. of a demonstrative pronoun (rovde, rovrov), in order to direct 
attention to an annexed clause with rj ; e. g. Eur. Heracl. 298 ovk ear\ 
rov8e 7tcu(tI koXXiov yepas, r) narpbs eadXov Kayadov irecpvKevai. II. o. 50S 
7jp.1v S' ovTis rov8e voos Kai pr)ri? dp,eivcov r) pH^ai -^elpas. Comp. § 127. 1. e. 
— This 7 can also be omitted before a following Infill, as Plat. Gorg. p. 519 
rovrov rod Xoyov rl av dXoycorepov e"vr\ 7rpaypa, dvdpccnrovs dyadovs 1 ddiKew. 
Still shorter, Eur. Ale. 900 ri yap dv8p\ kcikov p.ei£ov, ajiaprelv Tnarr)s aXoxpv. 
Comp. § 140. n. 3. 

Note 23. This Genitive of comparison is also found with the superla- 
tive ; that is, when to the superl. there is subjoined the Gen. of the reflex- 
ive pronoun, in order to express the highest possible degree; e.g. Xen. 
Mem. 1. 2. 46 8eivoraro9 aavrov rja$a thou didst surpass thyself. Hdot. 
1. 193 (r) y?j) ineav a pi err a avrr) ecovrrjs ive'iKy, eVi rpirjKocria eKCpepei, comp. 
Plut. Ages. 26. — Just so with the comparative: eavrcov evfxaOecrrepoi 
ylyvovrai, i. e. more than common. Plat. Prot. p. 350 eavrcov SappaXecorepoi. 

Note 24. The words aXXor and erepos sometimes imitate the com- 
parative, e. g. aXXos ipiov another than I, erepa rovrcov other than these, dif- 
ferent from these. Mem. 4. 4. 25 irorepov rovs 3eov? r)yrj rd 8'tKxita vop,o6erelv, 
7) aXXa rcov 8u<aicov ; 

12. Hence all verbs implying a comparison, or including as it 
were the idea of a comparative or superlative, are construed with 
the Grenitive ; e. g. Trportfiav (ft twos) to honour more, to esteem 
higher, and many others compounded with irpo ; also TrXeovetcrelv 
to take advantage over, /jtetovejcrelv to be ivorse off. Likewise 
verbs signifying to surpass or excel, as irepvyiyvecrOat, irepieivai, 
Stafpepetv, virepfiakXeiv, dptcnevetv, KaWiarevetv, Stair peiretv ; to be 
inferior, as rjTTdaOat, varepelv ; also to rule, as apyew* ftacn- 
Xevetv, dvdcraetv, /cparelv (see marg. note § 133. 4. c), rp/elcrOat, 
eiriaTarelv, and the like. In like manner the adjectives ey/cpar?]?, 
afcparrjs, Std(f)opo<; } Stair 'peirrjs, as also Stifkacrtos, iroXXaifkaaios, 
ireptrros, in all which there lies the idea of a comparative. Fur- 
ther, yjttco elvai tlvos has the special signif. to be subject, given 
over to ; Kpelrrco elvai twos, to be better, superior. 

Examples: Dem. p. 792 orav rb 8iicaiov r)rrdrai rov cpdovov, irdvra \pr) 
vopl(eiv earpdcpdai. — Xen. Ages. 5 ttoXv nXeoves 1 roi>v noXep-icov r) rcov r)8ovcov 
8vvavrai k par el v. — Cyr. 8. 2. 21 01 pev, e7rei8av rcov dpicovvrcov 7repirra 
<rr)crowrai, Karopvrrovcri. — Mem. 1. 5. 1 r)rr co eivai rr)s yaarpos, given to de- 
bauch. — Dem. 01. p. 35 86t-a Kpeirrcov rcov epOovovvrcov. 

Note 25. Words compounded with ivpo often repeat the Prep, rrpo before 
the Genitive. Others are frequently construed with iv c. Dat. Verbs of 
ruling espec. in the poets often take the simple Dative ; e. g. II. a. 288 irdv- 
rcov p.ev Kpareeiv eBeXei, wavrecrai §' dvdaaetv, comp. 816, 864 Tpcoecrcri r)yep.o- 
veveiv, r)yeio~6ai; so too eTTivrareiv rtvi by reason of the composition. Still 
others take the Accusative ; as vrrepfiaXXeiv. 

13. That so many adjectives, as we have seen, (strictly indeed 



* For &pxew, &px^crdai, m tne s 'gnif. to begin, see no. 3, above. 



$ 132. GENITIVE CASE. 341 

all adjectives,) can be construed with the Genitive, arises from 
the circumstance, that the Grenitive is the natural case of the 
object to the noun in general, whether substantive or adjective. 
Hence the objective case of the verb (the Accusative) passes over 
into the Grenitive, so soon as an adjective is formed from the verb. 
Thus from iirlcrTaa-Oai ti comes eiri(rrr\yb(x)v tivos ; from fcctfcovp- 
yelv riva comes fcatcovpyos twos. Especially does this occur with 
the numerous derivative adjectives in ikos. But that adjectives 
may also take the Dative, and even the Accusative, arises in like 
manner from their inherent verbal nature, which in some is more 
prominent, in others less so. 

Examples: Soph. OT. 1436 pfyov p,e yr/y i< r^crS', o7rov , Qvtjtcov cfyavovpcu 
(Ar]8ev6? TV poarjyo pos; from tt pocrayopevco. — Hdot. 2. 74 oqfuey, dvdpcorr&v 
ovdapcb? di]\r)p,ov€S, from drjXeladai injure. — Mem. 1. 5. 3 (6 aKparrj?) ku- 
Kovpyo? p-ev tcov aXXcov, eavrov 8e noXv KaKovpyorepos. — 3. 1. 6 tov arparriyov 
elvai xpr] itapaaKevacrriKov tcov eh tov Tr6Xep.ov, Kai TroptartKov tcov 
€7rtTt]8eicov roty or/jartcorair. — Thuc. 1. 126 dXirrj pioi ttjs Seov. 

Note 26. In like manner all adjectives, which thus have the Dative, can 
take the Genitive so soon as their substantive nature becomes prominent ; 
e. g. to. yfrvxr}? £vyyevr) Plat. co dr]8oi, opvecov £vvvop,e, tcov epcov vpvcov 
t-vvrpocfie Aristoph. ocra tovtoov ddeXcfid, tcl ivavTia tovtcov Plat. 17 £vv- 
oiko? tS>v Kara Qecov 8lktj Soph, f] Tvopeia 6p.oia cfivyrj? iyevero An. 4. 1. 
17. So too with Participles : to tov KpeiTTovos gvpcpepov instead of tco KpeiT- 
rovt Plat, rrptivov dalfiovo? tov *p,ov To8e Soph. 

Note 27. In other examples we might easily regard this Genitive with 
adjectives as identical with the Accusative- adjunct treated of in § 131. 7. 
It is however essentially different. That Accus. is rather an adverbial ad- 
dition, by which a declaration already complete in itself, though general, 
is modified and limited to some particular thing: /ca\6r t6 areola. The 
Genitive, on the other hand, marks the object, from which as it were the 
quality first proceeds ; and is therefore the necessary complement of the at- 
tribute not yet fully expressed by the adjective ; as e. g. iroXts evcowp.os (sc. 
KaS/iou) receives its essential and complete sense when the Gen. Kd8p,ov is 
added. The following examples may serve to illustrate what is here said ; 
among which are several from the poets, who in this way can adopt many 
new turns of construction. E. g. ev8a[p,cov tov Tpoizov icai tcov Xoyiov Plat. 
vtt€v$vvos dp^T]? iEsch. a> (r^erXt'a rdXp/y, co TaXaiv eyco creOev, dv(TTt]ve kclkccv. 
dvarrjvos (ppavcov Soph. Eurip. £evo9 tov Xoyov Tovde Soph. reAeio? tyjs dpe- 
ttjs Plat. crvyyvcop,cov tcov d/xaorq/zarcoz/ Xen. 7rcuy copalr) ydp,ov Hdot. eVt- 
aTGCpr)? o'lvov Horn. KaTi]pe(f)rjs TravToicov dyadcov Anacr. kclkcov ovbeis 8vad- 
\007-or Soph. — Hence also the Genitive stands especially with adjectives 
compounded with a privative; comp. the Genit. in no. 10. a. E. g. aVcuy dp- 
pevcov Ttaibiov Hdot. Uepi/cXr}? eyeveTO -^p-qpLaTiov dhcopoTaros Thuc. Tip.rjs ari- 
p,o9 ecrrco Plat. (filXcov a.K.Xavo~T09, a\a/A7rey fjXlov, avaros ko.kcov> etc. 

Note 28. To the above is closely related the Genitive with the phrases 
a>?, 7ra>r, ottcos e^ei; KctXco?, p,€Tpico9 e^etr, etc. E. g. cos rrobcov 
etyov Hdot. o>y eKarepoy tls evvoias fj p,vr)p.r]$ e^ot Thuc. icaXcos KadlcrTa- 
ctOcu tov 7roXep,ov id. Also generally with very many verbs, which are 
not adduced in the above specifications.* 

* Indeed, to specify all the verbs which happen any where, and especially in 
the poets, to be construed with the Genitive, and thus increase the number of di- 
visions without end, would be just as fruitless as it would be without object. Here 
too the same remarks hold good, which have already been made in § 130. n. 
9„ § 131. n. 1. The above divisions and specifications serve only to shew, how the 



342 syntax. < 132. 

14. As in general the cases often serve to express adverbial rela- 
tions ($ 115. 4 and n. 3), so the Genitive especially is employed 
for general specifications of time and place ; in distinction from 
the Dative, which is the case of definite specification. Thus : 

a) The Genitive is put in answer to the question when ? but 
only of indefinite and continued time ; e. g. vvktos, rj/jiepas, by 
night or by day ; SeiXr)?, xeificovos, eapos, ^e^of?; also tt]<s avrrjs 
fj/juepas, ravT7]s -n}? vvktos, in the course of the same day or of 
this night ; but ravry rfj vvkt'i in this night. Comp. in \ 147. 
n. 1 hrl c. gen. 

Examples : Xen. CEc. 9. 4 37 oiKia ^ei/xcoz/oy p.kv eviqhios ecrrco, rod drj Se- 
oovs evo-Kios. — Plut. Mor. p. 181 tvoWcciv r)p,epa>v ov p.ep.e\err)Ka for many 
days. — Hell. 7. 5. 18 oXiyav r)pepa>v dvdyKrj cnruvai in {after) a few days. — 
Plat. Phsedr. p. 248 etcelcre ovk d(piKve7rai eru>v p.vpia)v in ten thousand years, 
as an indefinitely long period. 

b) That the Genitive is also the case for general specifications 
of place, is apparent from the form of the most common adverbs 
of place, 7rov, oitou, ov ; and from poetic usage, as "Apyeos *Ayai- 
itcov, JJvkov leprjs, Mvfcrjvrjs, IOd/cr)?, Od. 7. 251. (f>. 108. But this 
usage never passed over into prose ; except perhaps in the phrase 
Sefta? v. apio-repas %et/3o? Hdot. # Prose writers employed the 
prepositions, especially Kara ; see § 147. n. 1. 

Note 29. Sometimes the Gen. stands nearly absolute at the beginning of 
a sentence, in order to shew beforehand, that something is about to be said 
respecting that object. Here it is customary to supply in mind the Prep. 
we pi about, as to; which also can actually be so written. E. g. Xen. CEc. 
3. 11 rr}? te yvvancos, el di8ao-K.op.evr) vtto rod dvdpbs ray add KaKOTroiel, di- 
Katcoy av r) yvvr) rr)v alriav e^oi, comp. Plat. Legg. p. 794. a. Comp. also the 
relative clauses in § 143. 11. In like manner in Homer, Od. A. 174 elne 8e 
p.oi irarpos re <a\ vieos, r) en nap Kelvoicri ep.bv yepas, r)e Krk. See note on 
Soph. Phil. 439. 

Note 30. A very common omission of the word on which the Gen. de- 
pends, is that of oIkos house, before the Gen. of the possessor; e. g. elo-rjpev 

Genitive case, in consequence of the mode of view which the language connects 
with it, associates itself by preference with certain classes of ideas. It cannot well 
be, but that after all there should remain quite a number of single examples ; 
which however are just as much founded in the general view of the Genitive case, 
as these former. So e. g. evivdaxeiv rwu aurov Kredvoov Theogn. yws Trpo<pepei 65ov 
Kal epyov Hes. also the Homeric iirelyecrOat 65o?o, 3-eeij/ irzdloio, fi\dirreiv nvd KeAev- 
Qov, Aovcrai irora/xoTo, irpriaai irvpSs, and the prosaic Uvea rod Trp6(ra>. All these are 
causal relations; which later usage expressed differently, or with the help of a 
preposition. 

* This whole use of the cases to express adverbial relations obviously belongs 
less to syntax, than it does to the formation of words. At least we find here, as 
everywhere in the progress of language, a mutual influence and action. At first, 
in order to mark such relations, they made use of certain final syllables appended 
to nouns, as (pi, be, Si. But inasmuch as such forms often approached in significa- 
tion the forms of the cases (§ 56. n. 9), it happened by degrees, that the real case- 
endings were employed for the same purpose ; as vv>cr6s, Kcuas x eL P^ s i Mwk^wjs, 
comp^Lat. node, marl, and the names of cities; Germ, cines Tages, linker Hand. 
etc. In respect to many adverbial forms, however, which manifestly according to 
this analogy have genitive-endings, very often no corresponding Nominative can 
be found in use; and such forms, therefore, have become fully adverbs; e. g. nod, 
iffis, comp Lat. noctu, Germ, links, des Nachts ; see §§ 115. 116. 



§ 133. DATIVE CASE. 34S 

el? *AAKt/8ia5ou, into the house of Alcibiades. Hence too iv aSou, els a8ov f 
in or into the house of Hades, the infernal regions. Comp. § 125. 5. — A 
special anomaly is iv jj/zerepou Hdot. 1. 35. ib. 7. 8 [14.] 

Note 31. From no. 10. e, above, and the similar usage in other lan- 
guages, may be explained the very common use of the Genitive in exclama- 
tions of wonder or complaint. Thus sometimes with an interjection, e. g. 
oijxoL t£>v kclkcov alas what misfortunes ! o'l fxoi rdkaivr]S Antig. 82 ; <w Zev, rrjs 
Tvavovpyias, Jupiter, what cunning ! Sometimes also alone, as ttjs tvx 7 ! 9 * 
to efie vvv devpo iXdelv Cyr. 2. 2. 3; ttjs iraxvrrjTos, the stupidity! 

k 133. The Dative Case. 

1. The fundamental idea of the Dative is strictly the opposite 
of that of the Genitive ; since in the Dative the idea of Approach, 
a coming or being near, an intervening, lies at the basis ; and 
hence such prepositions as iv and crvv always govern the Dative. 
in the present section we pass over all such examples as directly 
accord with the English usage of to and for with their case, and 
are therefore readily understood; e. g. Sovval tlvl to give to any 
one, eyQpbs tlvl hostile to any one, nrelOeaOaL toTs vo/jlols to obey 
the laws, or be obedient to the laws, eireaOal tlvl,* and the like. 
—But many of the relations thus expressed in Greek by the Da- 
tive, are with us more clearly marked by other prepositions ; as 
towards, at, on, with, against, etc. see e. g. no. 2. a. 

2. The relations of the Dative are chiefly of two kinds, accord- 
ing as the action or condition expressed by the verb refers to an 
object which is personal (or personally conceived), or which is a 
thing. In the first case, called the Dative of person or of the 
object affected, it corresponds in general with the Dative of other 
languages ; in the other, it supplies in Greek most of the rela- 
tions of the Lat. Ablative. — We here treat of the Dative of per- 
son or of the object affected, which is found with the following 
classes of words : 

a) With all words the signification of which can be referred to 
the ideas of junction, coming together, approach ; where we for 
the most part use prepositions. E. g. ofxiXelv to have intercourse 
ivith, jLivyvvcrOaL, fid^eadac, ofiaprelv, ipL^eiv, a/jaXkaaOai, iroke/Jieiv 
tlvl, and the like. For dvrav, avridfav, see marg. note to no. 4. c. 

Examples: ayaOols 6/ziAei. Mem. 3. 9. 2 ol AaKeSai/xovioi ovk av i6i- 
Kouv ~2k.v6o.is iv robots dtaycdvi£eo~dai. 

b) With verbs compounded with prepositions implying ap- 
proach, junction ; or such as by composition receive this signifi- 
cation ; as irpoaeXOelv, elcreXdelv, eircaTpaTeveaOaL, crvyylyveadaL, 
<rvvTvy%dv€Lv, KaraWdrreaOaL to reconcile oneself ivith, foaXe- 
yeadaL, Especially with verbs signifying to set upon, to assail, 
as irpoa(3dXk€Lv y eTTLTiOecrOaL, iiruceZa&aL, eirL^eLpelv to put one^s 
hand to, iiTLpovkeveLv, iizkpyeaQaL. 

* With 'iirearOai, onwdiiv, etc. a preposition is often used ; as a-uv. one* or fxerd c. 
gen. They thus signify rather a going with, accompanying : bee Pa.ssow 



344 SYNTAX. § 133 

Examples : Xen. An. 5. 9. 23 ra opvea pdXiara eTriTidevrat 7 « at era 
KaOrjpevio. Mem. 2. 3. 5 t'is av eTTt^etpotJi roif dSuyaroiS'. 

Note 1 . So soon however as the object appears merely passive and sub- 
jected to the action of the verb, many of these verbs take the Accusative. 
E. g. Eur. Snppl. 648 "ASpaoroy eTrearpdrevo-e KaS/xetW noXiv. Plat. Phsed. 
p. 88 avTov fie vvv eTvepxerai. Aristoph. Pac. 180 noOev fiporov p,e Trpoae- 
/3a\e. An. 1. 6. 6 ovro? iirokepno-ev epo'i- eyeo Se avrbv irpocnrokepaiv, cttoit]- 
o~a axrre So'^at tovtco Travaaadai. 

c) With verbs of commanding-, exhorting, entreating, most 
of which also are compounded with a preposition ; as irapaivelv, 
7rapeyyvav, iiriTeXKetv, VTroriOeaOai, irpQardcTcreiv, iirirpeTreiv, ev- 
'XecrOai, irpoaev^eaOat, apacrQai. Others, like vovOerelv, and those 
in which the idea of exciting is prominent, like iiroTpvveiv, irapo* 
%vvetv, take the Accusative. Further, tcekeveiv, Lat. jubere, pre- 
fers in Greek also the construction with the Accus. c. Infin. and 
only in late writers does it take the Dative with the Infin. But 
Homer uses the same construction in the signif. to call to. 

Examples: Cyr. 3. 2. 8 Kvpos Trapnyyvnue rots Uepcrais crvo-Kevd^ecrdai. 
— vovderco ere cos eraipov Plat. — Kekevo) ae djnevai. — II. /3. 151 rot 8' clWt)- 
Xoto-t KeXevov anreadai vna>v. Comp. Plut. Mor. p. 229. c. 

Note 2. Generally speaking, most of the above verbs are more or less 
also construed with the Accusative ; and therefore the lexicon should be 
consulted under each verb. — Especially, for the Gen. and Ace. with other 
verbs of beseeching, entreating, as SelaOm, Xio-aopai, TrpoorKwelv, etc. see 
§ 132. n. 11, 14. § 131. 3. 

d) "With verbs signifying censure and reproach; espec. pe^e- 
(jQai and its compounds, eiriTipbav, eiriifX^craeiv, iytcaXeiv, \ol8o- 
pelv and -elcrQai. The thing with which one is reproached is put 
either in the Accus. or with a preposition. — For (pOovelv see § 132. 
10. e, and n. 15. 

Examples: Xen. Hier. 5. 3 37 rvpavvls dvayKa^et kcu rais iavrcov nxarp'io-iv 
ey<a\elv. — II. p. 211 aft pev nd>s pot, en t7rX 77 crcreiy dyopfjenv. Cyr. 1. 4. 
9 6 &elos avroo eXotSopetro. 

Note 3. The Accusative is also in use along with all these verbs, just as 
in notes 1 and 2. E. g. Cyr. 1.4. 80! §e (pvkaices e\oi86povv avrov. An. 2. 
6. 30 tovtwv ov8e\s Kareyeka ovt avrov 9 epepepero. 

e) "With the verbs nrpeirei, irpocrrjKei decet, e^ean licet ; which 
can also be construed with the Ace. c. Inf. see § J 42. n. 2. — For 
the construction of the impersonals Set and xpV> see ^ 131. n. 4. 

Examples: Aristoph. Av. 970 tl npnariKei S^r' epol KopivOiav ; — An. 3. 
2. 11 dyaOois vp.lv 7rpoo"f]K€i elvai, see § 142. 2. b. — Cyr. 7. 5. 83 ov tov 
apxovra tg>v dpxopevoiv irovn pore pov Trpoai']K€i eivai. — Soph. El. 612 noias d 
i pol Set 7rpo9 ye rrjvde (ppovrldos. 

f) With words signifying likeness or unlikeness ; as ojllolos, 
t'0-09, TTapa7r\rjcrio<; ) ivavrios. This holds good, not only where we 
put the Dative (to with its case) in a direct comparison, but also 
where we introduce the object compared by as, like as; conse- 
quently for &)<? with the corresponding case, similar to the Gren. 
after comparatives. — Hence finally the Dative stands also with 
avro<; the same (adv. wo-avrcos) ; e.g. gvtos iarcv 6 avrb* 



$ 133. DATIVE CASE 345 

eKeivcp the same as that or with that ; rd avra 7rda^co croi I ex- 
perience the same things with thee or as thou. 

Examples: Xen. Cyr. 2. 1. 15 avbpes Tlepcac, vfiels /cat ecpvre lv rrj airy 
rjjxlv x^PQ- ' * v V* v T fl ^^Tpibi ov juerei^ere ra>v "(rcov fj p.lv ' vvv 6° e£eari vp.lv 
els rbv avrbv fjp.lv Kivbvvov ep,(3alv6Lv kol rcov 6p.oic£>v fjplv a^iovaOai. — Qrjaevs 
Kara rbv avrbv xp^vov *H p a k A e I iyivero. 

Note 4. The adjective o/xoios and the like can also be construed with 
the Genitive (§ 132. n. 26) ; but only in a direct comparison. — As above in 
respect to the Gen. of comparison (§ 132. n. 20), so here with 6 alrds and 
the Dative, ambiguity may sometimes arise ; as ra avra Xeya e/cetVco, I say 
the same to him, or as he. — This use of the Dative with 6 avrds is imitated 
in Latin : Ov. Am. 1.4' Vir tuus est epulas nobis aditurus easdem.' As 
too in Lat. the object compared can be introduced by ac after ceque, idem, 
so likewise in Greek by Kai, see § 149. m. 8 ult. 

g) With every action which tends to the advantage or disad- 
vantage of any one. This is the Dat. commodi et incommodi so 
called ; the use of which in Grreek is far more extensive and pe- 
culiar than in Latin. 

Examples, see in n. 5-9. 

h) Peculiar is also the use of the Dative with such substan- 
tives, as are either derived from verbs governing the Dative, or 
imply a relation of advantage or disadvantage. 

Examples: Hes. $. 93 Movadav leprj 8do-is dvdpdmoio-iv. — iEsch. Pr. 617 
nvpbs fiporols dorrjp* opqs Hpop.r]8ea. — Plat. Ale. I. p. 116 rrjv rols cplXots 
(Sofjdetav Xeyco mXrjv eivai. — Rep. p. 332. C, rols crd>p.aai ra f)8vap.ara. — 
Thuc. 5. 5 (pikta Toiy' ? Adrjvaiois. — In the poets this usage of the Dative is 
extended still more widely. 

Note 5. Under the Dative of advantage and disadvantage (Dat. commodi 
et incommodi) is included, first, that relation of this kind which is com- 
mon to almost all languages ; which exists e. g. in the Homeric neto-erai, 
acra-a o I Aicra yeivop,eva inevrjae Xiva, ' what Fate has spun for him at his 
birth (of good or evil),' II. v. 127; MeveXdto rdv8e ttXovv io-reiXapev 'for 
Menelaus (for his benefit) have we undertaken this voyage,' Soph. Aj. 1045. 
— On this is founded the less direct Dative of advantage or disadvantage, 
which is subjoined with reference to the purpose or wishes of a person; 
e. g. eneiddv rdx^ra avrols ol nalfies ra Xeybpeva £vvia>cnv, where avrols re- 
fers to the expectation of the parents. In like manner this Dative refers 
to the emotions excited by an action; e. g. fj p.f]rr)p eq ae notelv o, ri av /3ov- 
X77, lv avrfj [xaicdpios ys Plat. Lys. p. 208. d. Soalso in the case of disad- 
vantage, ol rrartpes rovs vlels rrapapvOovvrai, brav avrols ££ap.aprdvao~i Plat. 
Soph. p. 230, where we are not to seek in avrols the persons against whom 
the transgression is directly aimed (to their disadvantage), but simply a 
minor reference to the feelings of the fathers. — From such passages we can 
now advance further and easily comprehend those instances, where in a 
manner quite common in Greek, the Datives /not, trot, etc. are inserted, 
merely in order to give to the discourse a touch of feeling and sentiment ; 
c. g. Od. 6\ 569, where it is said to Menelaus, that the gods (564) would 
send him to Elysium, ovvck e^eis 'EXevrjv Kai acpiv yap,(3pbs Aids eaai. 

Note 6. It is a special Grsecism, when to this Dat. commodi just described 
there is added an adjective or participle, in order to mark more fully the 
condition into which the object affected by the action is brought, or in which 
t appears in relation to the action. E. g. the indefiniteness of e/zol rjXOev is 
removed so soon as I say, ep,o\ do-p.eva v. f)8op,evcp rjXOev, he came to me 
to my joy, I rejoiced that he came. Plat. Crat. p. 418 dap.ivois rols dv6o&- 



34(5 SYNTAX. $ l'3-j. 

..ols to <pcos iyiyvero. This construction is usual with eivcu and yiyvecrOai, 
and especially with fiov\opiva>; e. g. et avro> ye croi (3ovkopiv(o eVrii/ a7ro- 
KpivecrdaL, briefly, when thou wilt thyself answer. So too with ekiropiva, $e- 
\ovtl, ttoOovvtl, ukovti, &xdopevcp, 7rpoo-§eYO/ieV». Od. y. 228 ovk av epoiye 
eKnopiva to. yevoir , ouS' d $eoi coy ideXoiev. Comp. also § 145. 5. 

Note 7. Kindred with this is the Dat. of person, by means of which an 
assertion appears as the subjective judgment of the person thus put in the 
Dative. Thus the naked averment : Xen. Mem. init. agios icrn Savdrov, 
becomes a personal judgment by means of the Datives : ipoi, rrj ttoXci agios 
io-n Savdrov, in my judgment, in the eyes of the citizens, he is worthy of death. 
Soph. OC. 1446 dvdgiai yap nao-iv icrri SuoTvyeTy. Ant. 904 Kalroi a eyco 
Tifjirjcra to"is (ppovovaiv ev. — Hence we may explain the frequent paren- 
thesis of a Dative with cor, as cos ipoi, cos ipfj bogy, Soph. Plat. Comp. 
§ 143. 16. 

Note 8. Not only intrinsic and ethic relations, but also those of time as 
affecting a person, may be thus expressed by means of the Dat. of person, 
when there is connected with it a participle or a clause with a conjunc- 
tion of time. E. g. Soph. Phil. 354 rjv 6° rjpap fjdr) devrepov nXeovri poi, 
II. (p. 155 fjde 8e poi vvv rjcos ivdeKdrrj, or is"lXiov elXrjXovda, comp. co. 765. 
Freer, Thuc. 3. 29 rjpepai de rjaav ttj MiTvXrjvrj iaXcoKvia. cnrd, or is to 
"EpfiaTov KaTe7r\evarav. Comp. § 145. 5, and n. 3. 

Note 9. Out of this same Dat. commodi has arisen the usage of joining 
to a whole clause or proposition the Dative, instead of the Genitive belong- 
ing to a substantive j e. g. Hdot. 1. 31 eVt ttjs apdgrjs be acpi oxeeTo rj prjTijp 
' upon the wagon sat to them the mother,' instead of l sat their mother.' 
Hence such a Dative is sometimes, by a sort of negligence, followed by a 
real Genitive; e. g. Od. p. 231, 232. — A Dative which cannot thus be re- 
ferred to the whole clause, stands sometimes instead of the Genitive after 
words expressing relations, as kindred, friend, guest, etc. e. g. tov gevov fjplv 
rjdeojs av TzvvOavoiprjV, Plat. Soph. p. 216. ult. 

Note 10. Yet sometimes, vice versa, the Genitive of a pers. pron. which 
belongs to a following substantive, is put instead of the Dat. commodi ; e. g. 
Plat. Phffid. p. 117. b, idv crov fidpos iv toIs cr/ceAecri yevrjTai, where crov, 
which belongs to criceXeo-i, stands with the verb instead of aoi. So too : 8ta 
ti pov dvdpids ov Keirai T?vv6dvovTai, where indeed pov has its full meaning, 
but is thus placed first, because it stands at the same time for po'i. See 
further the Index to Plat. Meno, under Genitivus. 

3. Not only in the case of personal objects, but also in general 
a Dative can always stand after compound verbs, where we com- 
monly employ a preposition with its case. This actually takes 
place, however, only under two conditions, viz. 1) When by 
means of this Dative there is really expressed a relation of ap- 
proach, a tendency to any thing. This usage is much less ex- 
tensive than in Latin; since with objects not personal the Greeks 
prefer the prepositions, as efc, irpos, hri s c. Ace. 2) When the 
verb is compounded with a preposition, which in itself already 
governs the Dative, as <rvi>, iv, eirl ; so that consequently the 
preposition and the verb have as it were a like power over the 
following Dative ; as crvvairo6vr]aK6iv nvt. See more in § 147. 
n. 9. 

Examples: Pind. Isthm. 6. 60 6 £' dvareivas ovpavop xelpas av8ao~e. Plat. 
Legg. p. 783 TVpoae-xpvaiv avTols re koi ttj npagei tov vovv. Hdot. 1. 1 
l^uivtK-i 77/ re aWfl X^PJl ivaniKviovTO Kal drj koi is "Apyos. Soph. 00 



! 1"8. DATIVE CASE. 347 

372 elarjX&e rolv r puradXloiv ept? kokt]. Isocr. Paneg. p. 67 nepifidXXet 
ra? noXeiS' rals p,eylarais av p(po pals. De Pao. 176 TrXeloai i<al pel(oai 
k a /coir 7repieneaov, malis inciderunt. So Eurip. rjj noXei elaKopl^eiv, but 
Thucyd. always eV rrjv noXiv. 

Note 11. This idea of approach belongs so peculiarly to the Dative, 
that the poets even witti'verbs not compounded employ the simple Dative 
instead of a preposition, to express motion towards, to, into any thing ; e. g. 
II. e. 82 x eL P veSta neve. rj. 187 ickrjpov Kvverj j3dXe. Soph. El. 747 
Trinreiv iv eb co. Trach. 597 ovttot alax^ v TI Tr^crel. Comp. the Prep. iv, 
§ 147. n. 1 ; 'also ivBdbe etc. § 116. 

4. The Dative of thing expresses the following relations ; most 
of which are given in Latin by the Ablative. 

a) The instrument, or in general that with which and by 
means of which any thing is done, Dat. instrumenti. Thus it is 
said in general : xprjaOal tlvl* to make use of a thing ; and also 
in particular : iraracro-eLv pd{3S(p to strike with a rod; and so too, 
as in Latin, with the Passive : a-fiCXy ireiroi^yukvov made loith the 
graving tool. 

Example: Isocr. p. 215 Qqaevs biereXeae rbv fiiov ovk inaicrco {artificial, 
affected) ovvdpei rr\v dpxqv diatfivXarriov, dXXd rfj rwv ttoXitcou evvola 8opv- 
(popovpevos, Tjj pev e^ ova la. rvpavvcov, rals 6° evepyealais Srjpayaycov. 

Note 12. If the instrument or means he a person, then the prep. Sid c. gen. 
is used as in Latin. The same prep, is often found with things, just as in 
Latin, urbs vi capta or per vim capta; hut, as there, with a certain difference, 
see Zumpt § 301, and below in § 147. n. 1, under irpo? c. gen. Sometimes 
also ev stands with this Dative; see § 147. n. 1, under iv. 

Note 13. In like manner, in cases where we use with, as in Latin cum, 
so the Greek also employs the prepositions (cnVor pera) ; namely, where the 
objects are personal, or also with things, when the idea of being together, 
accompanying, is prominent. — From this it is an exception, that the words 
err par la, aroXos; vr}e?, and those which signify a kind of troops, as ottXI- 
rai, ne£ol, etc. are commonly put in the Dative without avv, as in Lat. 
copiis without cum, in clauses like these: dcpUovro e'Uoai vavalv. Time. 1. 
107 e(3or)6r]aav eavra>v re TrevraKoalois kol ^iXt'oty oiiklrais kcll rcov £vppd%ti)v 
pvplois. 

Note 14. The place of the prep, avv is often supplied, by joining with 
the Dative the pron. avros in the same case ; and the being together then 
appears as something inseparable and immediate in respect to place and 
time. Xen. An. 1. 3. 17 cpofiovpai, prj rjpds avrals rals r pit] pea 1 Kara- 
hvarj. Comp. Elmsl. ad Eur. Med. 160. 

b) The mode or manner ; e. g. tclvtcl iyevero TcpSe tw rpoTrw 
this occurred in this manner ; Bpofjucp 7raprj\6ev he came run- 
ning; pb€<yaXr] airouSfj irdvra iirpdrTeTO. — Instead of this Da- 
tive also, we often find prepositions, as Bid, Kara, 777509, etc. see 
* 147. n. 1. 

c) The cause, or rather that on which an action or condition 
is founded, from which it springs ; where we employ the prepo- 
sitions from, of, out of, for, at, by, etc. and the Greeks especially 
hud and iirl. E. g. ovk dypoiKia tovto ttoio), out of boorishness ; 

* So too xpv<rQ<u m the signif. to ask counsel, to consult (e. g. the gods, an ora- 
cle), has- the Dative in Homer, Herodotus, and the late writers, e.g. Plut. Yit 
Alex. 14. 



d48 SYNTAX. § 133. 

re6vr]icev airoifXr^ a he died of apoplexy. — This Dative is most 
frequent with verbs signifying an emotion of mind (§ 131. n. 3), 
as ^alpetv, aX<yelv, a^OecrOat nvi, ^<xXe7rco9 (pepetv, Svacpopelv, airei- 
prjfcivai, aOvpiuv irpdjixaat to he disheartened at matters, and 
many others, as ^ravfidfav, dyaadai, yeXav, etc. Many of these 
we have already seen connected with the Grenitive ($ 132. n. 15) r 
which thus might be easily regarded as identical with this Da- 
tive ; and indeed in translation the two are often not at all distin- 
guished. But this Dative is strictly and essentially identical with 
that in lett. a and b, above ; and therefore differs essentially from 
that Grenitive, as also from the Accus. in § 131. 7. # 

Examples : Cyr. 3. 1. 28 ol p.ev evvoia kcli cpiXlq rfj ip.fi to 8eov crvh- 
Xa/jiftdvovo-iv, ol Se avayKrj navra eKirovovvrai. Dem. Phil. I, Trpcorov p.ev 
ovk o\Bv\ir]Tiov to7? Trapovo-t. Trpdy/xao-iv, comp. 01. 3. p. 30. Time. 4. 85 
Savpd£a> rfj dnoKXrjcrei jjlov rcov irvkcov. — But ifrl is often inserted, see hri § 147. 

d) With comparatives, and similar verbs (as Scacpepetv), the 
Dative expresses by how much any thing is more or greater, or 
wherein one thing surpasses another ; e. g. 7ro\\S dfielvcov, oKuycp 
pbet^cov. 

Examples : Xen. Hell. init. ov TvoWals f)p,epai? vcrrepov. Mem. 3. 3. 13 
ovre evqb&via roaovrov 8 ia(pe povcriv 'Adrjvaioi t<ov aAXcoj/ ovre pa>fxj], oaov 
cpikoTLfxia. — But very often, instead of this Dative, we find the adverbial 
Ace. noXv, okiyov, etc. 

e) The definite time ivhen (comp. § 132. 14) ; e. g. irapr\v rfj 
Tpirr) r)fiepa he was here on the third day ; rfj varepaia rrjv (3ov- 
Xrjv i/cdXovv the next day they called together the senate. 

f ) The definite place where; see n. 15. Yet here by degrees 
usage has decided in almost all cases for the preposition. 

Note 15. Some names of cities received a special Dative-form in answer 
to the question where ? see § 116. 3. In the poets the usual Dative is more 
frequent; e. g. of cities: 'OAu/x7ua Pind. 01. 7. 16; MvKrjvais Eur. Phcen. 
621 ; 'Ekeva'tvi, Mapad&vi Aristoph. also Thuc. 1. 73. So in other specifica- 
tions of place, as ovpecriv erpecpe Hes. 3-. 1001. e. 232; comp. Theocr. 3. 16; 
dypolcri rvy^dvei Soph. El. 312. 

* Such examples, so instructive for the right understanding of the cases, where 
the same word is connected with two and even all three of the cases, are the fol- 
lowing; e. g. iraidbs ovk aXyeiv BoKeis- rb <rbv p.ev a.Xy5>, Kd5p.e • evyevws dKyei 
KaKots, Eur. Hec. 1232. Bacch. 1280. Tro. 729. — Further: 8a<rvs SevSpwv et 5eV- 
$peo~i; iyyvs, ivavrtos, ofioios tj/juv et r\\x.u)v. k purely (overpower) riva. et riuSs, and 
in Horn, in the signif. to rule, with the Dative, Od. tt. 265. — The following are to 
be distinguished: elfil rbyevos ' Acrcrvpios Xen. Cyr. 4. 6. 2; yevei irpoo-^Kap 
8acnAe?An. 1. 6. 1; yevovs p.ev ^iceis aide roiade Heracl. 213; although in each 
instance we may translate : by descent. — 'Aj/ti$v (avryv, avTid(etv) in accordance 
with its signification is most commonly construed with the Dative, as in Horn. 
But II. ir. 423 hvTr\(Tw to OS 5 auepos, as if avrla rod?? auepos elp.1. And Hdot. 4. 
118 avTiafaixev top eiri6vra, i. e. go against him for combat. — "Ayacrdai and 
bav/idCeiv with persons take nud and riu6s; with things, rl, tiu6s, and rivl. — 
'Eirifialveiv in the signif. to tread, to mount, has the Genitive, as emfiaiueiv ttjs 
X&po-s, tvs vedis (as fialua> eirl ttjs vedes § 147. n. 1, eir'i) ; also in a hostile sense, by 
§ 132. 10. f, as Tpoi-qs eirifiyixeuai Od. £. 229. In the signif. to set upon, attack, it. 
takes the Dative, by no. 2. b, above; Xen. Cyr. 5. 2. 26. And finally, especially 
in the poets, it takes an Ace. of the object; as Uiepir]u, Xeip.S)ua imfids Horn. Soph, 
comp Hdot. 7. 50. 



5 134. VERBS. THE PASSIVE. 349 

5. Finally, a verb may be accompanied by two Datives ; yet 
not so, as in Latin with certain verbs, that one Dative marks 
the person to ox for whom, and the other the thing or object for 
which; but rather, in a manner similar to the double Accus. 
treated of in § 131. 5 and n. 10 (*•&#' okov ical fiepos:) ; or so that 
one Dative is rather subjoined epexegetically to the other. The 
usage is for the most part poetical. 

Examples: II. A. 11 'A^atoicr iv he peya uOevos e/i./3a\' €ko.cttco icap 
dirj. Eur. Iph. A. 1589 epol 8e t cikyos ov piKpbv elo-yei (ppevL Heracl 
63 j3ov\ei ttovov jjlol t fj 8 e npoa6e7vai -^epi) Pind. 01. 8. 110 Kocrpov ov crept 
Ztvs yevei coTraijev. 2. 27 Zed, apovpav en Trarp'iav o~(pLcrtv Koptcrov \onrc2 
yevei. For 'A^atolo-iv eKacrro) and the like, comp. also § 132. u. 4, and § 129. 
n. 12. 

VERBS. 

§ 134. The Passive. 

1. The Passive, from its nature, takes as its subject in the 
Nominative, that which in the Active stood as immediate object 
in the Accusative. The subject or Nominative of the Active, on 
the contrary, becomes now the object from, by, or through which 
I suffer or am affected. "When this is a person, it is most com- 
monly expressed in Greek by means of the preposition viro with 
the Grenitive ; e. g. Act. 6 'i^\A,eu? KTeivei rbv "Etcropa ; Pass. 6 
"Efcrcop Krelverac viro rod 1 A / ^i\\€co<;, Hector is killed by Achilles. 

2. Many verbs of the Active form, in which the idea of suffer- 
ing, being affected, is predominant (e. g. irdo-^co itself), may be 
construed wholly like Passives, i. e. with viro c. gen. They then 
serve to supply the place of less usual Passives. E. g. aireOavev 
vir avrov, instead of the unused eKraOrj. See these verbs and 
the examples in § 147. n. 1, under viro c. gen. 

3. Instead of viro, the preposition irpos with the Grenitive is 
likewise used ; e. g. irpbs airdvrcov ^epaireveaOai to be honoured 
of or by all. — Sometimes also it a pa \ e. g. olfiat, yap fie irapa 
gov aocpias 7r\r)pcodr]o-eo-6aL, Plat. Symp. p. 175. c. — Further, and 
by the Ionics especially, e f ; e. g. el rl troi fce%apLcr/iivov e'f ijiov 
iocDptfOr] l if any thing agreeable is presented thee from or by me,'' 
Hdot. — Homer uses especially viro c. dat. e. g. viro Tpweaau ha- 
(ifjvcu. — See more on this whole subject under the prepositions. 
§ 147. n. 1. 

4. Not unfrequently the Dative of person alone, without any 
preposition, is put with the Passive to mark the author. This 
occurs most frequently with the Perf Passive, as a periphrase 
for the less usual Perf. Act. see 5 97. n. 6. 

Examples: Dem. 01. p.. 35 ovk eh nepiovcriav enparTero avrols ra rrjs 
jrdXecor, not for their own advantage urns the state administered by them. 
Soph. El. 621 alaYpois yap alaxpa tt pay par e/cSiSacrKerat. — KaXcb? Xekeicrai 
o-oi well has it been said by thee, thou hast well said. Xen. Cyr. 3. 2. 16 a 
'nTUaxyov Troirjcreiv ayaBa rjpas; airoTeTeke<jTai croc rjdr]. 

Note 1. It is net to be denied, that ambiguity may often arise out of this 



350 SYNTAX. $ 134 

idiom ; e. g. ivavra o~oi XeXexrat all has been said by thee, or also to thee. But 
this will usually disappear by attention to the context. Comp. also the 
Latin idiom: mihi laudatus, etc. 

5. According to the general rule (in no. 1), only the immediate 
object, which with the Active stands in the Accusative, would 
become the subject of the Passive ; and this rule is strictly ob 
served by the Latin, English, and other languages. But since 
many an object, which in Greek is put in the Genitive or Dative, 
may be in its nature a near object, or may at least be so conceived, 
(and is in other languages actually put as an immediate object 
in the Accusative,) the Greeks allow themselves sometimes to 
convert such a Grenitive or Dative into the subject of the Passive 
Thus a Gren. and Dative : Act. d/jLeXetv tivos to be neglectful of 
any one, or in Engl, as Ace. to neglect any one ; iriareveiv nvt to 
trust to any one, or Engl, as Ace. to believe any one ; and hence 
the Greeks can say : ra tovtov 7rpdyfiara dfieXeLTac viro rcov ^rewv 
are neglected by the gods, Plat. Apol. p. 41 ; 6 ^eiW??? ov tti- 
areverat the liar is not believed. 

Examples: Thuc. 5. 75 ^KQrjvdioi, coanep tt poa era^Or] aav 7 to 'Hpaiov 
e^eipydaavro. — An. 5. 7. 12 copa rjpiv fiovXevecrdai nepl r/pwu avrcov, prj kcltci- 
(p povq d&fiev. — Hell. 3. 5. extr. Karrjyopov pevov Uavcraviov kcu ov napov- 
To?, Sdvaro? avrov Kareyvacrdr], comp. 4. 4. 2, also the person in the Nom. with 
KarayiyvwaKeiv, in n. 2 a. — Mem. 4. 2. 35 ttoWo\ 8ia tov ttKovtov €ttl^ov- 
Xevopevoi airoWvvTai. — So to a.Tropovpevov y quod in controversia est, 
Plat. Soph. p. 243. etc. 

6. The Passive in Greek can also have an Accusative. That 
is, when the Active governs two Accusatives ($ 131. 5), and the 
Accus. of person becomes the subject of the Passive, the Accus. 
of the thing remains as object of the Passive ; e. g. ol iralhes foBd- 
o-Kovrat aco(f>poavv7]v the boys are taught a proper behaviour, 
Lat. docentur modestiam. 

Examples : Dem. p. 217 ol Maicedove? Trap' eXay/n-roi> (almost) cKpypedrio-av 
ttjv kcltcl SaXcLTTCiv Tj y e p. o v i a v. — Xen. Apol. 17 ti airiov tov e/*e (Socr.) pt]8* 
yep* epos cmaiTeio-Qai evepyecrlav; 

Note 2. For the Accus. with Passive verbs, see further in § 131. 1, 3. 
$ 136. n. 1. — The other idiom treated of in § 131. 4, namely, that Active 
(and mostly intransitive) verbs take the Accus. of the kindred abstract noun 
in order to give more definiteness to the idea of the verb, has place also 
where the verbal idea is a passive one ; and consequently is found with 
Passive verbs. E.g. TvirTeTai TrX^yay 7roAXay he is beaten many blows. 
Eur. Hipp. 1227 6 TXrjpcov (Hippolytus) dearpov ^vae^fjvvaTov eX/cercu 8e- 
6eLs. Plat. Legg. 3. p. 695 iraibeiav ttjv MrjdiKrjv jrepieibev TrcubevBev- 
Tas avrov tovs vUZs. Hence also is to be explained : HvBayopas ndo-as ipvrjBq 
reXerdr, Diog. L. 8. init. 

7. The two constructions last mentioned can also be united in 
one clause ; namely, so that the Dative of person, which stood 
as the remote object of the Active, becomes the Nom. of the Pas- 
sive ; while the Accus. of the Active remains as object of the Pas- 
sive. E. g. from eiriTpkirew rep ^cotcpdrei, rr)v hiaiTav, comes 6 
XodKpaTT]^ eirirpe7rera>y ttjv Siairav. 



5 134. VERBS. THE PASSIVE. 351 

Examples: Eur. Andr. 654 r^i/S' e/c x e P&v a f manual. — Soph. Tr. 157 
hekros eyyeypap,peprj ^vv6r\\iara. — An. 2. 6. 1 ol ararrjyol rav '~EXkf)voov 
a.TT0Tfir]8evTes raf KecpaXa? irikevT-qo-av. — virb 7roAeeoy rrjv t]yep,opiap Trento-Te v- 
to. — UpoprjOevs vrf derov eKeipero to rJTrap. — Dem. p. 247 ecopcov QiXimrov 
top 6(p6a\p.bp eKK€Kop.pevov, ttjv nXelv nareayoTa, tt)v ^e2pa, to crKe- 
Xos Treirrjp&nevov. 

Note 2 a. Those constructions, where the verb in the Active is connected 
with a Genitive of person and an Accus. of thing, as KaTayipwaiceip and the 
like, are by late writers changed to the Passive in precisely the same man- 
ner ; e. g. Diog. L. 2. 51 Bepocpcop (pvyrjp vrr 'Adrjpalaip KaTeypoocrdrj. App. 2. 
3 (pvyfjv KCLTahiKaaOeis. Dion Cass. 68. 1 ttoWoX Sclvcitop K.aTe8iK.d<r6r]o-ap. 
Contra, Xen. Hell. 4. 4. 2 iav KaTayvao-Qf} ti?, but yet with the thing (ib. 3. 
extr.) SavaTos avTov KaTeyva>a8r), comp. ib. 7. 3; 7. Dem. p. 721 ea>s av 
eKTicrrj o,n av KaTayvcoadrj avTov. Comp. Hdot. 7. 146. 

8. The Verbal Adjectives in reos and to? are in their nature 
Passive ; for their signification, see § 102. n. 2. 

9. In consequence of their passive nature they are also con- 
strued like the Passive ; (that in ros, however, only when it ex- 
presses possibility, see n. 6 below ;) and hence the subject of the 
Active is put with them in the Dative by no. 4 above, while the 
object of the Active appears with them as the Nominative. E. g. 
7] iroKi^ a)<f>e\r)Tea aoi eari the state must be benefited by thee, 
i. e. thou must be useful to the state ; tovto ov prjrov earl /not,, 
this must not be said by me, I must not say this. Yery often 
however this reference to the person is omitted, and then the sense 
is to be expressed by must, can, or the like ; e. g. Xf reo? 6 tolovto? 
vo/aos kcli ovk eWeo? fcvpcos elvat, ' such a law must be repealed, 
and not be suffered to remain valid.' 

Examples: Plat. Rep. p. 459. e, vp.poi TvoirjTeot toIs rjpeTepois TroirjTal? npe- 
TTOVTes Tolsyafiois. — id. Conv. p. 189. b, mi p.01 eVrco cipprjra to. elprjpepa. — Cyr 
5. 3. 43 ep tjj Tvopeia r) re ai(onr} riV/c^rea, ko.1 ?} ru£i? 8ia<pv\aKTea. 

10. When the Neut. in reov stands in this manner, with or 
without iarlv, it corresponds to the Latin Nom. neuter in dum, 
e.g. \etcreov iarlv, or simply Xe/criov, i one must speak.' But it 
differs essentially from the Latin phrase, in that it can then take 
•ill the constructions of its verb with an object, as in the Active, 
unchanged; e. g. dperrjv e%eiv ireipareov 'one must strive to 
have virtue;' rot? \6<yoi<? rrpoaetcreov rov vovv 'one must 
give attention to the words ;' ravra irdvra rrot^reov /jlol ' all this 
I must do.' — The Neut. in rov is used only by itself, without 
such verbal constructions ; e. g. /Bmdtov ian ' one can live.' 

Examples: Mem. 2. 1. 28 ray 7roXep,iKa? rt'^i/aj Trapa.Ta>v eTno-Tapevoov pa- 
OrjTeov koX daKrjTeov. Hes. $.732 evSa TiTrjve? KeKpvcpaTai, roTr ovk e^iTov eWt, 
•who cannot go out.' 

Note 3. The Attics use also the Plural in Tea (of the Neut. in reov) in the 
same signification. E. g. /3aSio-rea 'one must go;' Aristoph. Plut. 1085 o-vv- 
€K7roTe' eWi ttjv Tpvya ' one must drink up even the dregs.' Comp. § 129. n. 9. 

Note 4. By another Attic peculiarity the form in Teov, as if in conse- 
quence of the idea Set which lies in it, sometimes takes the subject of the 
Active in the Accusative instead of the Dative ; e. g. Plat. Gorg. 507. d, top 
3ov\6 p.evov evdaipova elvat cr(£t(ppoavvr]v dioDKTeov kol dcncrjTeov. Xen. Hipp 



352 SYNTAX. § 135. 

1. 5 rov? iTvneas do-Krjreov, 07rcoy en\ tov? "ltttvovs dvcnrrjdav dvvavTai. Other 
examples see in Plat. Crit. p. 49. a. Dem. 01. p. 21. Heind. ad P]at. 
Phsed. 128. 

Note 5. Since Deponents are also used passively in some of their forms 
($ 113. n. 6), the verbal adjectives are formed from them in a like sense; 
just as elsewhere from regular Actives ; e. g. epyd^ofiai I work, epyaarov 
what can be or is accomplished by labour, epyaareov one must work. Indeed, 
in certain verbs whose Passive or Middle receives a signification, which 
may be considered as a new Active, the verbal adjectives in some cur- 
rent instances have both significations, viz. that which comes from the 
proper Active, and that from the Passive or Middle. E. g. ireio-reov 'one 
must convince ,' from Treida), and l one must obey,' from Treidofiai. Just so 
a-vveQirrreov, TrapaaKevaareov, 'one must accustom himself,' 'one must pre- 
pare himself,' without iavrov, Plat. Gorg. p. 507. Rep. p. 520; f) 686s nopev- 
rea Soph. Phil. 994. — On the other hand, from TpeTrop.cu I turn myself away, 
go away, there is formed in order to express this sense the very unusual 
verbal adjective rpairnreov, from Aor. 2 irpdirnv. 

Note 6. Verbals in tos sometimes take the signification (but not the con- 
struction) of the Particip. Perf. Pass, and then stand only as adjectives; 
e. g. TroirjTo? made, TrkeicTos plaited, crrpeirTos twisted. 

§ 135. The Middle. 

1. In treating of the Middle we may exclude all strictly De- 
ponent verbs ; since in their signification they belong wholly to 
the Active. Not to be excluded, on the other hand, are those 
Middles which take their Aorist from the Passive ; see the list, 
§ 113. n. 5. 

2. The fundamental idea of the Middle is the reflexive. The 
strict and complete reflexive signification is, when the subject of 
the verb is at the same time its immediate object, and stands with 
the Active in the Accusative. Hence the Mid. Xov/jlcli, is the same 
as iyco \ovco ifie v. i/xavrGv, I ivash myself, I bathe. It is how- 
ever to be observed, that only a very limited number of verbs 
actually have the Middle in this its first and appropriate signifi- 
cation ; and indeed such only as occur very commonly in this 
wholly reflexive meaning. In most verbs, therefore, when this 
sense is to be expressed, it can be done only by means of the re- 
flexive Pron. i/iavrov, eavrov, etc. 

Examples of this Middle proper are : dndyx^rdai to strangle oneself, dire- 
XecrOcu to withhold oneself, d/xvveo-dai to defend oneself, (pyXdrreadai to guard 
oneself, iyyvdadai to pledge oneself alo-xvveo-6ai to shame oneself, rrapavKevd- 
£eadai to prepare oneself, Kp*\idvwcr&ai to hang oneself, and its compounds. 
So of other actions which take place on one's own body, and where instead 
of the person in the Ace. we can supply to o-6op.a with the Active; e. g. 
XovaBai, xpiW#at, yvp.vd^ea6ai, ivbvaacrOai, diropupypvadai, KelpecrOat, crrecpa- 
vovarOai. 

3. In many verbs this original reflexive meaning of the Middle 
recedes more from view, while they either become real intransi- 
tives, or at least are translated by us as intransitives, for want of 
a suitable reflexive mode of expression. ' 

Exam t les: ore)Xer/ to siti'J. Mid. tnre'XXecr&u to send oneself, to journey } 



§ 135. VERBS. THE MIDDLE. 353 

daiwadcu to feast oneself to banquet. So too nopeveo-Oai to go, to journey ; 
(paivecrdat to shine, naveadai to cease. irXcifccrdcu to roam about, evoy^eludai to 
fare sumptuously, Koipdo-$at to go to bed, to rest. 

Note 1. These Middles obviously correspond to their Actives, precisely 
as immediates to their causatives, § 113. 2. So further yevopat to taste, ay- 
tropai to decay, rot, eXnopai to hope ; of which the infrequent Actives can he 
expressed in English only by means of a periphrase with cause, make, let. 
etc. as yeu&> to cause to taste, arjirco to cause to rot, e\7rco to cause to hope. Sec 
also the Anom. p,aivopat, § 114. 

4. But the Middle can also readily become transitive ; and thus 
in most instances can have with it an object in the Accusative. 
The simplest instance of this is where the Active i« construed 
with two Accusatives, one of which then remains with the Mid- 
dle ; e. g. ivSveiv Tiva yiT&va to put on one's coat for him, Mid. 
e.vhvaaaOai yiToyva to put on one's oivn coat. Of this kind are 
most of the actions done to one's own body ; which in Greek are 
for the most part referred to the construction with a double Ac- 
cusative. 

Examples : eaaaadat (from evvvpt) to put on, Kelpeadat to shear oneself 
(e. g. tceipopat ttjv Ke(paXr\v i. q. Keipoa epavTov ttjv K.e<paXr)v), o~Te<pa.vovcr6ai, 
anopopyvvaBcu, Xovcrdai (e. g. rar ^etpas one's own hands), vnodrjcraaOai and 
vnoXveo-Bat to put on and off sc. one's shoes, eyKaXinrreadai to veil one- 
self etc. — Mem. 1. 6. 2 ScoKparns ipaTiov r)p,(piecrTo ov povov cpavXov, aXXa 
to avro Sepov? /cai -^eipSivos. — Od. cr. 200 rj fi' aTropop^aTO X e P°" 1 7T ape ids <fi<*>- 
vrjcrev re. — II. y\r. 739. oi S', dnopop^apevoi kovitjv, bvaavro ^iifflvof. 

5. The Middle can also take an object of its own, whenever 
there arises out of the reflexive action (as described in no. 2 
above) a new simple sense, which can. be regarded as transitive. 
E. g. irepaiovv Tiva to set one over a river, Mid. irepaiovaOai to set 
oneself over, i. e. to pass over ; and then it takes the river in 
the Accusative, irepaiovaOai tov Tiypiv to pass over the Tigris. 

Examples : <poj3e7v riva to frighten another, cpoj3eladai to frighten oneself, 
i. e. to fear, e. g. tov? 3eov?. So rlXXeiv to pluck, kotttziv, tvtttciv, to beat ; 
but TiXXeo-Qai, KoiTTeardai, rvrrTeadai Tiva, to moan, to bewail, sc. by plucking out 
one's own hair, beating the breast, etc. Also alcrxvva to shame, put to shame, 
alo~xvveo~0ai riva to feel ashamed before any one; (pvXdo-o-eadai Tiva to guard 
oneself against, to beware of; dpvveaOai Tiva to defend oneself against. That 
all these verbs have in the Middle received a new transitive sense, appears 
clearly from the fact, that e. g. for alo-xvvopai ae we can no longer put 
aicr^ut-co epavTov ere, as in no. 4. — Hdot. 2. 42 oi nepl tov Upbv TviTTovrai tov 
tcpiov, kcu eneiTa 3a.7TT0vai. — Cyr. 1. 4. 7 'AcrTvdyr]s av pne pit ei [avv t<u ~Kvp<o) 
npecrfivTepovs, oVcd? dno tcov fitKr^copicoi/ (pvXaTTOiev avTOV oi fie eXeycv (r£ 
K.) rds 8vcrxa>p la? oti deoi (pvXaTrea 6 at ovdev tjttov 77 rd Qrjpia. 

6. In all the preceding instances, the Mid. sense arises out of 
the usual transitive construction of the Active with the Accusa- 
tive, viz. (po/3ov/jiao for ijco </>o/3<y epuavTov. But as the subject of 
the Passive (§ 134. 5, 7) sometimes comes from the construction 
with the remoter object, viz. the Dative, so this sometimes takes 
place also with the Middle ; and then the other object, which stood 
with the Active in the Accusative, stands in the same manner 
with the Middle. E. g. 7rpocnToir)aai tiv'i ti to annex something 

Z 



354 syntax. 5 135. 

to any one, i. e. make it his own, as a territory to a state, ete. irpoa- 
nroirjcracrOai tl to appropriate something to oneself, sibi. Here 
we may reckon a large number of verbs Middle ; in which the 
simple reflexive meaning recedes more and more, and the Mid- 
dle form signifies only, that the action takes place in some connec- 
tion with the subject, for his advantage or disadvantage ; in short, 
that it stands in some close relation to the subject. Thus ^elvai 
vofuovs is to give laws e. g. to a subjugated country ; but ^eaOai 
vofiovs to give laws for oneself and one's own country ; cmjaao-- 
Qai Tpo-iraiov v. eitcova, to set up a trophy or column for oneself, 
in one's own cause. And although writers often apparently put 
the Active for the Middle, i. e. leave out of view the intrinsic ref- 
erence of the action back upon the subject (e. g. Tpoiraiov gt^gclv- 
tcov Thuc. 7. 5) ; yet they are very exact, at least the good prose 
writers, never to employ the Middle, where some such reference 
to the subject does not exist. Comp. below no. 9 and n. 3. 

Examples: Tropi&aOal n to obtain for oneself, to get; ickaUaOai to bewail 
e.g. tu 7to.6tj one's own sufferings, but kKclUiv tcl rrdO-q tivos to bewail the suffer- 
ings of another ; avfj.fj.axov noielo-Oai riva to make one my ally ; icaTao-Trjo-aadai 
(pvXaicas to set guards for oneself; a'lpeaBai. to take up for oneself, e. g. rrohtfiov 
to undertake a war; avvalpeo-dai rtvi rrokcfiov to take upon oneself tear along 
with another, i. e. to aid him in war; evpio-KOfiai to find for oneself ', nancis- 
cor; ayecrdai yvvalna to take a wife : Kk-rfpaxracrdcu to obtain by lot; KaTarrpaT- 
T€o-0ac to achieve for oneself; elo~Kop.[£eo-8ai to import for oneself or friends, and 
so eKKOfxi(eo~$ai to export ; dtadeadai to. ttjs 7ro'Xecoy. — Hence too the ideas of 
repelling from oneself, rejecting, despising, commonly have the Middle form ; 
as aTrooo-acrdai, aTroKpovo~ao-6ai, diroOeadai, and many others compounded with 
diro ; also Trpoto-dai, npofidWeorOai, and the like. — Mem. 4. 4. 19 tovs vdfiovs 
e'xois av drrelv, otl oi ai/dpoorroi ovtovs edevTo; eyco p.iv, €<firj, Qeovs olfiai tovs 
vopovs tovtovs toIs avBpcoTrois Selvat. — Thuc. 2. 78 01 liXaTairjs Traidas kol 
yvvaina? i k.k€ KOfiia fievoi rjaav is Tas^A.6r]vas. 

Note 2. Hence it comes, that when, in a verb which in the Active has 
two Accusatives, the reference back upon the subject is also to be express- 
ed, the verb is put in the Middle and can retain both the Accusatives • e.g. 
airco ere tovto I ask this of thee, leaving it indefinite whether for myself or 
another ; but aiTovfiai ae tovto can only be definitely : J ask this of thee for 
myself. But this construction is rare ; though it is the common one with 
dcpaipeladai, see § 131. 5. — Yet where the Mid. has received a new transi- 
tive signification of its own, it can take the construction with the double 
Accus. just as well as Active verbs; see in § 131. 5 irpaTTco-Qai, TTpoKaXel- 
u6ai ; also Ttaaadai to avenge, Od. o. 236 eticrdro i'pyov deLKes dwldeov N^X^a. 
See also Schneid. ad Xen. An. 1. 1. 10. 

7. The Middle expresses further a mutual action ; as havepue- 
a6ai to divide among themselves, SiaXeyeaQaL to converse with 
one another. Dem. p. 1317 icoivfj SLavetfidpuevot irevre Spa- 
%A^? e/ccKJTO? irpocrehe^avTO. 

Examples : (3ov\eveo~0ai, diaXXdrTecrOai, cnrevbeo-dai, cnrovo'oTroiuadai, 8ia- 
XvaaaOai ; further, all verbs signifying strife, disunion, as diacpepeadai, Kpi- 
veadai, diaK0VTi(eadai, StaSopaTi'^Vcr&u, aKpuftoXlfccrOai, cpiXoTLfxeladai, ay<s>vi- 
£eadai, most of which, like /xa^ecr^at, have become Deponents. 

8. Another kind of reflexive action is expressed, when any- 
thing is said to take place about my person by my order; which 



$ 136. VERBS. PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 355 

we express in English by cause, let, etc. Thus KGipoiiai means 
I cut my own hair, but also I let another cut it ; while the Pas- 
sive fcapfjvat is used only of an entirely passive relation, e. g. of 
the shearing o f sheep. — Here too the more remote reference has 
place ; e. g. 7raparl0efiat rpdire^av * I let a table be spread for me.'' 
Examples : fxicrdoio I hire out, p,ia6ovp.a.i I let hire out to myself, i. q. I hire ; 
didd£acr6ai vlov to let teach one's own son; KarabiKaCeiv tlvos to condemn any 
one, said of a judge, but KaTaSiKafco-dai tlvos to let condemn any one, procure 
his condemnation, and KaTa8iKd£eo-6ai BUrjifrivoi to gain one's cause against; 
■nrpeafieveiv to go as ambassador, Trpecrfieveadat to send an embassy. — Hell. 7. 
4. 33 ol apxovres KaTedinacrav civtcov, comp. An. 5. 8. 21. But Dem. p. 1144 
ttjv diKnv vfj.lv 8iT)yr)(rofiai, «/' eiS^re, on aStKcor ep,ov KarediKao-aTO. — Cyr. 5 
in. rrpo? /3ao-tXea irpeo-ftevaiv w-^ero. But Ages. 2. 21 elptjvn? €Tn6vp.rjcravT€? a 
7ro\epLoi iTrpeo-fievovTO. — Od. o. 475 ol p.ev dvafiavres iirtTrkeov vypa icfkevda, 
va> (Ace.) dvafirjo-cifxevoi, taking us up also to them into the ship. 

9. "We find also the Middle, in this manner, without any ap- 
parent reference whatever to the subject ; and it is then conse- 
quently to be translated simply by the Infin. Act. with cause, let ; 
e. g. Xen. Cyr. 1. 4. 18, where it is said that young Cyrus put 
on the arms a 6 iranriro^ iireTroiTjTo l which his grandfather had let 
be made.'' 

Note 3. Finally, in many examples, though perhaps only poetical, the 
reference to the subject has entirely disappeared ; e. g. in Idelv and IbeaQai. 
Such examples are indeed to be noted, like other peculiarities and anom- 
alies of idiom; yet this mode of explanation must be adopted with caution, 
especially in prose writers, in whose style the use of the Middle, as of 
other grammatical forms, had by custom become more fixed. As therefore 
even we can distinguish between alpelv to take and alpelo'dcu to choose, so 
doubtless some like distinction had place between dnocpaiveiv and dno(pal- 
veadai to shew, to prove, irap^iv and rrape^eadac to present, Sveiv and %e- 
a6ai, crKOTTciv and o-Koneladat, etc. 

Note 4. Where, for the sake of emphasis or clearness, a remoter refer- 
ence to the subject is expressed by means of a pronoun, as ip-avrov, e/xor, 
etc. the form of the Middle is still retained (where it can have place), al- 
though it is then not required. Thus Demosthenes says : Mid. p. 557 
yeypap.fxaL ifiavTco raCra, I have written this dozen for myself. Mem. 2.-1. 
22 tt]v 8e yvvcuKa tcarao-KoneladaL Sapa eavrrjv, eVicrK07mi> 8e kol el tls aXXos 
avrrjv Sedrai. Plut. Prot. p. 349 aavrbv VTroKrjpv^dpevos. 

§ 136. Distinction between the Passive and Middle Form. 

1. The number of those Middle verbs, which may be taken as 
more or less Passive (s s 113. 4 and n. 5), might be still further in- 
creased, were it possible to draw a strict line of distinction be- 
tween the Passive and Middle. For, manifestly, the tenses, as 
the grammar has distributed them under the Passive and Middle, 
belong, in respect to usage, only predominantly to the one or the 
other. 

2. Least of all can the construction with an Ace. of the object 
decide as to what verbs are Passive and what Middle ; since 
both forms admit this construction. E.g. in KareitKcvyT) rbv $1- 
Xlttttov he dreaded {terrified himself at) Philip, r)cricrfir]v t?V 



356 SYNTAX. $ 137 

rexyrjv I trained myself in the art, we may indeed translate as 
Middle ; but yet in Greek both may just as well be taken pas- 
sively. 

Note 1. In respect to this Ace. of object, it may be remarked in general, 
that all verbs Middle and Passive, which take such an Accus. of their own, 
may be regarded as receiving a new intransitive signification; and then 
their construction accords with that of intransitives in the Active form, 
which are so often construed with an Accusative, § 131. 1, 3. But when 
verbs, which in the Active are already construed with two objects, in the 
Passive or Middle retain one of these in the Accusative (§ 134. 6, 7. § 135, 
4), this is to be explained by considering, that the idea of these verbs, in- 
dependently of the (Passive or Middle) form, carries with it its real object 
( Ace. of thing), and as it were combines with the same into one idea ; while 
the personal object, by rule, passes over into the Nominative. See also 
§ 131. n. 7. 

Note 2. In some verbs the Passive form has a special signification, e. g. 
Pass. areXkeaBcu to travel, o-Takrjvac; Mid. crTeWeaOai to dress, also to send 
for, crrelXaadaL. 

Note 3. When the Aor. Mid. is in use, the Aor. Pass, can also be used 
as Passive of a special signification of the Middle. Thus ypacpeis written, 
from ypdcpeiv; but also sued at law, from ypdepecrdae, ypd\j/acrdai, to sue at 
law. Also fipz6r\v Aor. Pass, both of alpelv to take and alpeiadai to choose, 
e. g. Mem. 3. 1. 3 ; indeed this verb even in the Present is both to choose 
and to be chosen, as Mem. 3. 2. 3 fiacrikev? alpelrai, and directly thereafter: 
o-rpcLT-qyovs alpovvrai. — Further, ixp^o-Qrjv belongs as well to XP" 03 t° & ve 
response, as to xpdop.ai to use, but in each in the Pass, signif. e. g. Hdot. 1. 
49 to. eK AeXcpcov ourco tg> Kpoicrco exp^crdt] ) 7. 144 al vrjes, is to p.ev e7roirjdr} 
crav, ovk. expwdrjerav. 

3. That the Perf. and Plupf. Pass, are at the same time (like 
the Present Pass.) the real Perf. and Plupf. Middle, is placed 
beyond doubt by many examples. "We have already adduced 
two, in the preceding section {k 135), viz. iireTroLrjro in no. 9, and 
yeypa/jLfiat, in n. 4. Xen. Cyr. 7. 3. 14 afcivd/crjv iraXai irapecncev- 
ao-fjuevi] acf)drT€L eavTijv i having long before furnished herself with 
a sword, she stabbed herself.' 7. 2. 12 hiaireTrpwyfiab I have ef- 
fected. Xen. Symp. 8. 25 fjLe/Mo-Oco/uLivos %&pov having hired a 
piece of land, etc. 



h 137. Of the Tenses. 

The Greek language has two Tenses peculiar to itself, the Ao- 
rist and Put. 3. The latter is treated of in h 138. In order to 
become acquainted with the Aorist, we must compare the other 
Preterites 

1. From the series of Preterites is to be separated the Perfect, 
which never narrates, but from its nature stands in connection 
with the Present. It diners from the Present only in this, viz. 
that the latter marks an action at present not completed and still 
going on ; the former, an action at present completed and finish- 
ed. It consequently presents that which has taken place, as al- 



§ 137. THE TENSES. 357 

ready past, but in connection with the present time. E. g. i I 
know it, for I have seen it,' i. e. am one who saw it. 

Examples : Cyr. 2. 2. 22 rovro ye yjsevbopevo? eaXcoKa, different from ovk 
op6a>5 eXe^a. — Plat. Euthyd. p. 272 'Eidvdrjpos ko.1 Aiovvaodiopos 7rp6 rod 
pev ravra §eiv<b tjctttjv p.6vov, vvv he re\o? emreOe ikcltov rrj rix v V ' *) 7"P 
rjv \oi7rf] avToiv paxi apyo? ( a mode of combat with which they were not famil- 
iar) , ravrrjv vvv ef-e'ipyacr6ov - — ovrco 8ecva> yeyovarov ev rois Xoyois ktX. 
— Dem. p. 845 ovro? Meyapab* e^oj/q/ce, /ca/cei peroUiov (protection-tax) redeiKev. 

2. The narrative (historical) tenses are the Aorist, Imperfect, 
and Pluperfect. Of these, the Imperfect and Pluperfect in nar- 
rating presuppose a definite reference to another time ; the Ao- 
rist on the contrary narrates without any such presupposition or 
reference to any other time. That is to say, a narrative carried, on 
by means of the Aorist, transports us into the past, and so lets 
the events pass on before us one after another, without bringing 
out to view the relations of time existing among them, but leav- 
ing all these to the hearer or reader. On the other hand, so soon 
as the circumstances, under which the thing took place at the 
time, are to be mentioned ; or, in other words, when it is to be 
expressed, that an event took place at the same time with an- 
other ; this is done by the Imperfect. And when that which 
was then already past is to be referred to in the narrative, this 
is done by the Pluperfect. 

Examples: Plut. Mor. p. 969 Hvppos 6 j3ao-i\ev? oSeucoy evervxe kvvi 
f>povpovvTi veicpbv . . . Koi eKeXevcre ped* eavrov KopL^eiv • oXiyats 8e varepov 
'ip.epa.is e^eracn? rjv koi Trap rjv 6 kvchv • Ihwv 8e rov? cpovia? e£eb pape kt\. 
— Thuc. 2. 103 oi 'Adrjvaioi aparjpi Kare7r\evarav e$ Ta.s y A^f]vas^ kcu 6 %eipo)v 
treXevra ovtos. — 3. 34 edXa be paXiara r) 770X1?, ore r) devrepa UeXoTrovvr)- 
frlcav eafioXr) eyiyvero. — 36 Karacrracrris rrJ9 eKKkrjuiaS' aXXai re yvS>pai eXe- 
yovro, icai. KXecoi>, ocrnep kcu tt)v irporepav (yvu>prjv) evevucr) net, eXeye roiabe. 

3. When however this reference or relation of time is sufficient- 
ly clear from the context, the Aorist can be employed instead 
of the Perfect, and in narrative instead of the Pluperfect ; see 
note 1. Especially in every discourse where the past is much 
mentioned, and so mentioned that the mind always remains in 
the present, the Aorist is often employed in Greek ; contrary to the 
usage of our language, where the Perfect alone would in such a 
case be used. It is indeed, for the most part, only when the 
speaker wishes particularly to express the exact relation of time, 
that the Perfect, and in narration the Pluperfect, are employed ; 
where nevertheless a regard to euphony has always great influ- 
ence on the choice. 

Examples: Mem. 1. 6. 14 tov? SrjaavpovS' ra>v rr&Xai crocpcov, ov? enelvoi 
KareX nrov (have left behind) ev /3t/3Xi'oir ypa^ravres, diep^opai. — Thuc. 4. 17 
(beginning of the address, comp. 1. 73) eTvep.-<\rav rjpas AaKebaipovioi, nepl 
tS>v ev rjj vtj(T(o avbpwv tt pa^ovras, o,ri av Treld&pev, Subjunctive, see § 139. 
m. 9. — 7. 77 a to) Sewv erricpdovoL ea-Tparevaapev, a.Troxpa>VT(£>s r]dr] rert- 
pt£>pr)pe6a. — 4. 92 rjpel? viKr)o-avres ttoXXtjv adeiav rfj Botcorta pexP c T °v$t 
KareaTTjo-apev. — In like manner of course in the poets; e. g. Oct. a. 17C 



358 SYNTAX. § 137. 

rt'y, Trodev u'y dvdpcov, omroLTjs 8' eVt y^or dcpliceo. — 182 vvv 8' o>Se £iw 1/77* 
Karr]\v6oVi etc. 

Note 1 . The less pliant form of the Pluperfect was avoided in prose, as 
well as in poetry. It may indeed he noted, that in the dependent clauses 
of narrative with a conjunction of time (eVei, eirei8rj f o>r, etc.), where conse- 
quently the relation of time is sufficiently apparent from the context, the 
place of our Pluperfect is very commonly supplied hy the Aorist y and, 
where duration or repetition is to he expressed, even hy the Imperfect; 
comp. Kriiger ad Anah. 1.1.6. E. g. Thuc. 7. 1 Vvkumos ml Hvdrjv, eWt 
e t: ecr Kevacrav ray vavs, TrapeTrkevcrav is Aonpovs. Cyr. 6. 2. 21 eneX de ravra 
elirev 6 Kvpo?, dveo-rrj XpvcrdvTa? kt\. So too in relative clauses. Less 
frequent is it in clauses not dependent; e. g. Cyr. 5. 1. 1 6 dvrjp avrris 
Trpeafievidv <?X* T0 * eirepyjre be avrbv 6 3 Ao~avpios ivepl o-v/ijua^tar. — Only in 
Homer and Herodotus are found many Pluperfects. Homer indeed uses the 
Pluperfect of a certain numher of verhs in a wholly aorist sense; e. g. II. e. 
696 rbv S' eXnre ^vx*], Kara. S' ocpdaXptov (ffpr' d^A^y, and so eftefifjKei, 
8e(3\r]Kei, (see (3aiva>, (3dXha), § 114,) SeideyaTO, iXeXiKro, 6pcdpex aT0 > Trenovrjro, 
iXrjXaro. Herodotus also, whose style of narrative approaches nearest to 
that of the epic poets, inasmuch as he prefers (like them) to make his 
clauses coordinate rather than subordinate, employs therefore the Pluperfect 
more frequently than does the Attic prose; e. g. 1. 84 avros re dvafiefirjK.ee 
Ktti kclt avrbv aAAoi Uepaeiov dvefiaivov ovrco Sr) SapSiey rjXcoKecrav Ka\ %dv 
rb ao-rv eivopOeero. Comp. 8. 38, 114, and often. 

4. With the idea of sameness of time there very naturally con- 
nects itself also that of duration. By this is not meant, that 
what takes place at the same time must necessarily and always 
be something having duration ; but only, that what thus takes 
place, and because it takes place along with and during the oc- 
currence of something else, may be considered as having some 
duration ; even though the action requires but the interval of a 
moment. E.g.' all slept ; then arose a cry ;' or, ' I opened my 
mouth to call him, as he came in.' — Hence there arises a second 
usage, by virtue of which, without any reference at all to the 
relation of time, the Imperfect is connected with the idea of 
duration; and the Aorist, on the contrary, with the idea of 
something momentary. — Thus it also comes, that the Imperfect 
is always used, when any thing in the past is to be represented 
as customary, or as having often occurred ; differing however 
from the Aorist, see note 5. 

Examples : Xen. An. 5. 4. 24 rovs pev ovv irehrao-ras edegavro oi fidpfiapoi 
( received them, momentary) kcu epdxovro {and fought with them, continued) ; 
eVet S' eyyvs rjvav oi onXirat (as they approached, natural Imperfect) irpd- 
vovto (they turned to flight, momentary) ; kcu oi 7Te\rao-ra\ ev6v? ehrovro (pur- 
sued them, continued). In the example from Plut. in no. 2 above, it is fur- 
ther said : 6 kvodv e£edpape, kcu KaOvkaKrei avrovs, and we must understand 
a continued barking ; had it been KaOvhaxmcre, it would have meant hut a 
single hark. — M.i\wv 6 Kporoividrrjs fjadie (ivas wont to eat) pvas Kpecov eUocri. 
./El. V. H. 1. 25 'AAe^avSpoy ffrooKiWt p6vu> r<o arparr]yw ypd(pu>v rrpoo-erldei 
to ^aipetv. 

5. Although the distinction between the continued and the 
momentary exists just as well in the Present and the Future, yet 
the language has no double form to mark this in the Indicative. 



\ 1-37. THE TENSES. 359 

But in the dependent moods, the Subjunctive, Optative, Impera- 
tive, and Infinitive, the Greek language can always distinguish 
between the two. That is to say, the moods of the Perfect and 
Future have the same relation of time as their Indicatives ; while, 
on the other hand, the moods of the Present and Aorist mark 
no time whatever, like the Present Infin. in English.* In these 
latter, consequently, there arises a double form without difference 
in respect to time, e. g. Tvirreiv or rv^ai, (friXfjs or $Ckr}ar)<$, etc. 
and of this the Greek language avails itself in such a way, that 
it employs chiefly the moods of the Present to mark a continued 
action, and the moods of the Aorist to mark a momentary one. 
Here however it must be noted, that this difference in many re- 
spects depends entirely on the view of the speaker or writer ; and 
that therefore, in numberless instances, it is really indifferent, 
whether Xeyeiv or Xegcu, Xeye or Xe%ov, is written ; since the real- 
ity of the distinction in general would not be thus at all affected. 
Examples: Dem. Phil. 1. p. 44 irpa>rov pev rpirjpei? 7revrr)Kovra rrapa- 
(TKevdcracrdal cprjpt delv, err' avrovs 1 ovrco rds yvcopas e^etj/ — , i.e. he wishes 
to have the galleys fitted out immediately, but the disposition of mind which 
he recommends by yvoopa? e^etv should have duration. And when he says 
further, p. 45, lv % j] did rbv cpofiov . . .T}<rv%iav %X3* V Kapibcov roxiro dcpvKaKros 
\-qcpdfjy here exu expresses duration, and XrjcpOjj is momentary. — So with the 
Imperative, ib. p. 44. init. eneibdv arravra dKovo-qre, Kpivare, kcu prj Trporepor 
irpo\apfidvere. Here Kpivare is momentary, but the formation of a pre- 
conceived opinion is in itself something gradual, and the orator had marked 
for it no particular moment in his own mind. 

Note 2. An action of longer duration can also in the dependent moods 
be expressed by the Aorist, when at the same time the final completion of 
it is not only before the mind, but is regarded as the end and purpose of the 
action. E. g. Plat. Crit. 15 roov 7raida>v eveKa (Bov\ei £rjv, iva avTov? iK0pe- 
tyrjS kcu, 7rai8ev(TTjS. Plat. Ale. 1. p. Ill ol 7roX\ol ovx Ikouo'l elcri tovto d 1- 
dd£ai. 

6. Participles have the same relation of time as their Indica- 
tives. The Participle of the Aorist especially has always the ex- 
press signification of the past and of something completed, not only 
when it stands as a noun or adjective, but particularly in the 
strictly participial constructions. The Participle of the Present, 
on the other hand, expresses either a present action, still going 
on and incomplete (the true Present) ; or, in a narrative of past 
events, an action taking place at the same time (the Imperfect). 

Examples : Thuc. 6. 75 01 SvpaKoarioi, rov? 'A$*ivaiovs eld ores' ev rfj Na^ia 
Xeipd^ovras, ecrrpdrevaav navdrfpel enl ttjv Kardvrjv, kou rb arpaToirebov e p- 
npT)o-avres dvexaprjcrav eV o'Ikov. 

* Yet these moods of the Aorist have sometimes a past signification : as the 
Subjunct. Arist. Ran. 1416 rbv erepovXafiwv foret, 'iv e\6r)s p.)) pdrrjv, in order that 
thou mayest not have come hither in vain. The Opt. II. e. 311 koX vv nev evd' air6- 
Koito klvetas, el p^ dp o£v vovtre Aibs ^vydrrjp 'A<ppo8lrri, comp. Hdot. 9. 71 ravra 
(pd6vcp &p etiroiev. Thus too the Infin. is often to be explained; as Anab. 3. 1. 5 
2&>KpctT7js inroTrreixras, /x-f) ti irpbs t?is ir6\eds ol birairiov etr] Kvpcp (p'iKov yeveadai, 
avpfiovXevei r$ aevocpwvri ktX. — For the Particip. of the Aorist see Text 6 ; and for 
the Subj. Aor. with dv, corresponding to the Latin Fut. cxactum, see § 139. ra. 4 



360 SYNTAX. § 137. 

Note 3. In analogy with what is said in no. 3 above, the Part, of the 
Aorist sometimes passes over entirely into the sense of the Part. Perf 
E; g. airofiakcov having lost and now not possessing; padcov, having learned 
knowing ; 3ava>v, rekevrrjo-as; having died, dead ; oi Treo-ovres the fallen, tht 
dead. So too Demosthenes says, Mid. p. 576, ' Of a discourse full of mer 
ited reproaches, the true author is 6 napeaxv^^ ra epya . . . ovx 6 iaiceppevoi 
ot>6° 6 pe pipvrjcras ra 8iKaia Xeyeiv, i. e. ; he who has afforded the facts 
not he who with consideration and care has prepared himself to speak thai 
which is right.' Consequently pepipprjo-as is entirely parallel with the two 
Participles Pcrf. and is manifestly used in order to avoid the less agreeable 
fie/iepcjiVTjKa)?. 

Note 4. We have hitherto spoken chiefly of the Attic dialect. In Homer 
the Aorist, like many other forms, appears only in the beginning of its ex- 
istence, i. e. the other tenses had not yet become so definitely separated 
from it. The Imperfect especially cannot yet in him be distinguished often 
from the Aorist. We leave the examples to the learner's own observation.* 
— In Herodotus also the Imperfect, especially in continued narration, is 
often employed as Aorist, at least according to our notions, i. e. it is used 
to narrate actions or transient events, the occurrence of which as simultane- 
ous with other events does. not necessarily appear from the context. E. g. 
3. 28 eKaXee, eiceXeve, and very often rjpeora, dpeiftcTo, etc. 1. 31, 35, 36, etc. 
See marg. note. 

Note 5. Whenever anything customary, or of ordinary occurrence in the 
world, is mentioned elsewhere than in narration, instead of the Present by 
which this is expressed in other languages and usually in Greek, we often 
find by a special Grecism the Aorist, which is then in the fullest sense ill- 
definite. E. g. Dem. 01. p. 20 fiiKpbv nraio-pa aveyaiTMjt ical duXvae jravra l a 
slight mistake often disturbs and destroys all again.' Id. Mid. 21 ov yap f) 
nXrjyr) napear-qcre {does not cause) rrjv opyrjv, dXX' r) dripia • ovbe to rvTrrecrdat 
. . . earl deivov, dXXa to ecj) vfipei, where the eori shews how the preceding 
Trapiarrjae is to be understood. II. a. 218 or /ce Qeols eniTreLdrjTai, pdXa r ZkXv- 
ov avrov, where eicXvov is Aorist. see in § 114. Isocr. Paneg. p. 50 at fiiv 
aXXai navrjyvpeis dca noXXov XP°' V0V crvXXcyeio-ai ra^ecoy b teXv 6r) aav, rj fie- 
17/zerepa 7r6Xi? artavra top al<"hva TravrjyvpLs icrriv. Hence so often in the Ho- 
meric comparisons ; e. g. II. 8. 275 a>s S' 6V otto ctkotti^ eldev vecpo? aliroXos 
avfjp, piyrjerev re Ihcov ktX. y. 33. etc. 

Note 6. Another case, where the Aorist seems to stand instead of the 
Present, is the Indie. Aorist after the interrog. t'l ov ; E. g. ri ova ejToirjaa- 
pey; 'why have we not done it?' i. e. let us do it; t'l ovk eeppaaas; i. e. 

* We adduce here some passages, in which the Imperfect stands in the same 
connection with the Aorist, where however there is no such difference visible in 
the action as to imply any difference in the two tenses; II, a. 437, 438, 465. /3. 
43-45. Here it would be absurd to assume, that the disembarking of the mariners, 
the cutting up of the flesh, the throwing on of the large cloak, must have been pres- 
ent to the mind of the poet as actions implying duration and requiring time ; while 
ihe leading out of the (many) victims, the fixing upon the spits of the (many) pieces 
of flesh, the girding on of the sword, appeared to the same mind as momentary. 
Still more decisive is Ae?7re, /3. 107, comp. 106. On the other hand it will be of 
great use in reading Homer to observe, how the far greater number of the Im- 
perfects mark a necessarily and manifestly continued, repeated, or simultaneous ac- 
tion ; and also serve, in the description of important events, to let the mind of the 
hearer dwell longer upon each single occurrence. In the simple narrative style of 
Homer, moving along in short and loosely connected clauses, the representation 
gains by these interspersed Imperfects certain resting-points; while, if all were 
Aorists, the single events would be hurried over as it were in flight before the 
mind of the hearer. Further, it will not be easy to find in Homer the converse 
of this exchange, viz. the Aorist to express what is necessarily simultaneous or 
•epeated. — Similar remarks may be connected with the reading of Herodotus. 






) 137. THE TENSES. 361 

'tell me now.' The Present is also sometimes found; Mem. 3. 1. 10 rl 
dvv ov a-K07rov fiev ', Hell. 4. 1. 11 rl ovv ov 7rvv6dvr]. See Heind. ad Plat. 
Charm. 5. — A similar and with Attic writers favourite periphrase for the 
Imperative, is the negative interrog. Fat. Indie, e. g. ov napapeveis ; dost thou 
not wait, for Imper. wait, Plat. Hence also in a negative admonition prj is 
added by § 148. 3; Arist. Ran. 202 ov prj cpXvaprjcrei? ; don't talk nonsense. 
Plat. Symp. p. 175 ovkovv KctXdy avrov Kal prj dcprjcreis ; Comp. Soph. Aj. 75 
ov aly dve^et, pr)8e deiXiav dpay ; 

Note 7. The Greeks further had a great freedom in the choice of tenses 
from this circumstance, that in a narration, where the real time was obvi- 
ous from the context, they could everywhere introduce the Present. This 
they did not merely, as we also sometimes do our historical Present, for the 
sake of animated discourse throughout whole paragraphs; but even in the 
midst of a sentence or construction. E. g. Xen\ An. 1.7. 16, where it is 
related, that the army of Cyrus came to a trench ; then follows immediately 
ravTrjv 8e ttjv rdeppov ftacrikev? ptyas tt o l e I dvrl epvparos, eTreidr] TrvvSdverai 
Kvpov Trpoo-ekavvoura. Every other language must here in both places have 
employed the' Pluperfect. — Similar is the case with the Indicative in paren- 
thetic clauses in sermone obliquo ; see § 139. m. 69. 

Note 8. There are some verbs, which in the Present seem also to in- 
clude the sense of the Perfect. Thus especially fJKa> I have come, I am here , 
e. g. Plat. Crit. 1 cipri rjiceis r) 7rd\ai. Also oi^o/xat lit. I go away, coram, 1 
am gone; whence too the Impf. acquires the appearance of the Plupf. see 
Ausf. Sprachl. § 114. Very commonly also verbs signifying to hear and learn 
(as aKovco, vrvvddvopai, pavddva, alcrddvopai) are put in the Present, where we 
use the Perfect; e. g. An. 4. 6. 17 to>v rjyepovoov tvvvQdvopai, on ovk a/3a- 
rov io-ri to opo?. Dem. Phil. 1. p. 46 o~vpTv\oiv KeXeuco, otl Kal Trporepov 7ror' 
dicova> i-eviKov rpecpetv iv Koptvdco ttjv tvoKiv. Cyr. 5. 4. 11 to pev eV ipol 
o'Lyppai (perii), to 5' eVt cro'i, creVoocrpcu, i.e. thou alone hast saved me. — 
Further, tlktciv, tckvovv, yevvav Tiva, besides the meaning to bear, to be- 
get, signify also to be the father, mother, of any one ; and hence the Present in 
often to be taken wholly as a Perfect; e. g. ttoXXov ae ^roiy cigiov t'iktci 
7raTrjp. Anthol. 4. 83 vdao? epa SpeTTTeipa Tupoy irdrpa Se pe tckvoI 'Ar#tr. 

Note 9. Special peculiarities of the Greek idiom are, further, the follow- 
ing : a) The phrase rjv a pa, especially in dialogue, for our Present ; e.g. 
Soph. Phil. 978 o'lpoi, ci7rdXa>X' • 00' rjv a pa 6 gvXkafionv pe Kanovocrcpicras 
oVAcoz/, i. e. c it was he and is still, though I marked it not.' See other ex- 
amples in Heind. on Plat. Phsed. 35. b) Further, and likewise in dialogue, 
certain Aorists of the first person, as rjo-drjv, eTrrjveaa, instead of the Pres- 
ent, in order to express decided emotion or disposition of mind in any action ; 
e. g. Soph. Aj. 536 enrjveo-' epyov Kal irpovoiav r^v edov. See Herm. ad Viger. 
note 162. Buttm. ad Soph. Phil. 1289, 1314. Comp. the epic eVXero un- 
der rreXco § 114. 

Note 10. Since the Present and Imperfect always imply duration, and 
consequently not completion, there arises the usage, that several verbs, whose 
action can strictly be expressed as complete only by the accession of another 
verb, (e. g. to give completed by to receive, to send away by to go away,) are 
used in these tenses merely to express this partial (incomplete) action, or 
as it is called, de conatu, i. e. an endeavour or purpose, though these expres- 
sions are not exact. E. g. Hdot. 7. 221 Aetovidrjs cpavepos eWt tov pdvTiv 
drroTri pir a>v, iva pr) avvaTvoK-qTai crept • 6 Se aTTOTTepiropevos avrbs pev ovk dire- 
\ure (did not leave, did not go away), tov 8e nalda . . . dtveitep^e. Id. 3. 81 
ra pev 'Oraz^r eine, Tvpavvi8a 7ravn>v, XeXe^c^co Kapol Tavra. Eur. Iph. T. 
350 cocrre pocrx ov Aavatdai ^eipovpevoi p' ecrcpa^ov. So too cu'Scoo-i, ecu'Sou, 
is often to be translated only by to offer; ireiQei is strictly only sxadet, not 
persuadet; also Krelveiy (povevei, eK(3d\\ei, espec. in the tragic writers. See 
examples in the Index ad Pemosth. Mid. art. Pmsens. 



362 syntax & 338. 

Note 11. As a periphrase for the Future, we And peXXtiv with the In- 
finitive; yet with this difference, that the Fut. form places the action in the 
future indefinitely, while the periphrase at once marks the point of time 
from or after which the action is regarded as future. Thus iroi^aa simply 
I will do; /LieXXco iroifiv I am (now) about to do; epeXXov iroieiv I was (then) 
about to do. — This verb marks elsewhere also the idea of intention, might, 
should, could; as a rjpeXXov 7rd<rx €tv i 'what I should suffer,' what it was in- 
tended I should suffer. Cyr. 4. 3. 3 aias gttov i'peXXev av ega/coveo-dai ra 
\ey6fxcva elnep 6 Kvpos. — The difference between the Present and Aorist of 
the subjoined Infinitive lies here too in the nature of the action, as con- 
tinued or momentary ; but very commonly, by a pleonastic idiom (§ 140. 1. 
c), the Infin. Fid. is employed; e. g. Cyr. 1. 6. 17 Set uTparidv, el peXXei 
rrpd£eiv to. deovra, pr]de7TOT€ navecrdai rots' TToXepiois kuko. Tropuvvovcrav. 
Plat. Phsedr. p. 260 ra peXXovrt prjTopi eaecrOai ra bUaia pavQdveiv dvdyKT). 
Hence, spec, to peXXov eo-eaOai, that about to be, the future. 

Note 12. The Perfect has also a Subjunctive and Optative, and the Fu- 
ture an Optative, which are actually used, where the peculiar relations of 
these moods coincide with the time marked by these tenses ; e. g. eWe 6 
vibs veviKrjKoi that my son might have conquered! Hdot. 3. 75 eXeye 
ova dyada Kvpos Uepaas Trerroir] koi. Aristoph. Eq. 1148 dvayndfo avrovs 
ndXiv egeixelv, axr av KeKXocfuao-i poi. Plat. Rep. p. 337 ravra npovXeyov, on 
o~v dnoicpiveo-Oai pev ovk £ 6 eXrj o~ois, el peeve vo~oio Se ko\ Trdvra paXXov 
7roir)o~ois r\ cnroup ivolo, et rls ti ae ip<x>Ta. But since, in such cases, the 
moods of the Present and Aorist are generally sufficient with the help of 
the context ; and since also the Indie, in sermone obliquo is very common 
(comp. § 139. m. 69) ; the forms in question are employed only when they 
specially promote clearness. But even then, instead of the proper Subj. 
and Opt. of the Perfect, writers prefer to use in most verbs the periphrastic 
form; e. g. necpiXr] kcos g> and e'Lrjv. 

Note 13. The Imperative of the Perfect, in its principal form, i. e. the 
second person, occurs for the most part only in verbs whose Perfect has the 
signification of the Present ; as neicpa-y di, Kextyere, pepvrjao. But the third 
person, chiefly in the Perf. Passive, has a conclusive sense, ' let it be 
done;" and often affords an energetic mode of expression; e. g. vyv de tovto 
T€ToXprjard(£> elnelv, let it be ventured. Arist. Vesp. 1129 ireTreipdo-Oa let 
it be tried, i. e. try it then. 

§ 138. Third Future. 

1. The Future 3, both in form and signification, is strictly 
compounded from the Perfect and Future. It transposes an ac- 
tion, viewed as completed, into the future ; or anticipates a fu- 
ture action as completed. And when the Perfect denotes a state 
or condition continued in the present, as iyyeypafifiai I am in- 
scribed, I stand on the list, this also remains in the Future 3. 

Examples: Plat. Rep. p. 506. a, t] noXireia reXe'coy KeKoo-pi^crerai, eav 6 
toiovtos avrrjv e7naKonfj <pvXaf-, ' the commonwealth will be in a state of per- 
fect order,' not will come into such a state; adornata erit, not adornabitur. 
Aristoph. Nub. 1436 pdrr)v epo\ KeitXavo-eTai 'in vain I shall have wept. 7 
Id. Eq. 1371 ovdel? Kara a7rovbas peTeyypa<prjo~eTai, dXX', eocnrep rjv to npcoTOv, 
eyyeypd^erai, 'no one will be otherwise enrolled through favour; but as 
lie was at first (inscribed), so will he remain inscribed? 

2. Hence this is the appropriate Future of such Perfects as take 
a special signification, which may be regarded as a new Present. 
E. g. XeXehTTTai it remains over and above, XeXetyerai it ivill re- 



* 139. THE MOODS. 363 

main, but XeapOrjo-eTcu it will be left behind; — Kefcrrjficu possess, 
ue/mvrj/jLcu call to mind, Ke/crrjo-ofiaL, fze/xvrjo-o/xcu. 

3. In many verbs in the Passive, the Attics employ the Fnt. 3 
as a simple Future Passive. Besides the verbs Seco and Tnirpd- 
(tkcd (see in § 114) this is chiefly the case with ireiravcro^at, tce/co- 
-fyofiai. In other verbs, this Future is used by the Attics altern- 
ately with the ordinary Fut. Pass, and in the same signification ; 
e. g. /3e/3\rj(roijLcu, XeXe^o/Luac, and others. 

Note. In some verbs the Fut. 3 has a particular emphasis; and implies 
either: 1) it shall, I will; e. g. Soph. Aj. 1141, where to the words of 
Menelaus, ev vol (ppdcrca' rovb* eariv ov^i Sanreov — it is answered, av d' 
dvTctKovaei rovrov a>s reddyJAerai (comp. § 151. I. 6), where the common 
Tacj)f)cr€T(u would be far less forcible -or: 2) immediate action, haste, e. g. 
<£/>a£V, kcu 7reir pdgeTcii, speak, and it will have been done, i. e. immediately, 
Arist. Plut. 1027, comp. 1200. From such passages the old name of this 
tense would seem to have been derived, viz. Paulo-post Future. 

4. The Active has no separate form for the Lat. Fut. exactum, 
and employs therefore for the Indie. Opt. and Infin. in this sense, 
the natural periphrasis ; thus ire^iXrjKa)^ eaofjuai, icrolfMrjv, eaecrOcu, 
I shall have loved, etc. In clauses which require the Subjunc- 
tive, this sense is expressed by the Subj. Aorist with a v, § 139. 
m. 16. — Those verbs which cannot form a Fut. 3 (§ 99), natu- 
rally take in the Passive the same periphrasis. 

Examples: Dem. 01. p. 30 Sedo~aq~6e bv rporcov vpel? eo-rparvyrjKOTe? 
ndvTa eaeaOe vnep QCk'nnrov, comp. p. 13. Xen. Hell. 7. 5. 24 ^inpavdiv- 
6as ivopi^ev o\ov to dvTi7ra\ov vevivrjicco? eareo~6ai. 18 ev6vp.ovp.evo? on 
\e\vpao-p.evos eo-otro rfj eavrov Sd^fl. Dem. p. 1452 ra deboypeva vvv 
vOuels eo-eaO' rjprjpevoi. 

§ 139. The Moods. 

1. The Indicative as the mood of certainty in matters of fact, 
and the Imperative as the mood of command, accord in general 
with the usage of other languages. But in conditional or de- 
pendent relations, expressed in Latin by the Subjunctive, the 
Greeks employ the two moods, Subjunctive and Optative. Their 
essential difference is this, viz. that the Subjunctive marks a 
specific relation or manner of expression, as to which experience 
must decide how far it is valid or not ; while the Optative im- 
plies, that the expression is to be taken merely as a supposition, 
as something conceived in the mind and subjective, without at all 
considering whether experience will confirm it or not. 

Note 1. Although according to their nature the Subjunctive and Opta 
tive would stand only in minor or dependent clauses, yet there are partic- 
ular cases, where they are also used in simple clauses. We treat first of 
these, before taking up the use of these moods in dependent clauses. 

I. The Subjunctive in Simple Clauses; 
1) It expresses doubt and deliberation (Conjunct, dubitativus v. delibera- 
tivus) ; but very seldom except in the first person. Such clauses are to be 
regarded as in their nature dependent : since (3ov\et, 3eXeir, ovk olda, or the 



364 SYNTAX. § 139. 

like, either stand with them or are to be supplied ; e. g. iroBev j3ov\ei apgat 
pai; l whence wilt thou that I begin V /3ouAei ovv o-KOTrvpev; Anacr. ri o~oi 
•SeAetr 7rotr)o-o>; Subj. Aor. Or also without such words: eiVco ovv aoiro 
aiTiov; l shall I then tell thee the cause?' Plut. Theset. 17. — vvv aicovo-io av- 
6is ; Luc. D. Mort. 30. 1. — rl Troia>; irr) j3a> ; noi rpanapai; Eurip. Ion 
758 e'inapev rj aiyapev, rj tl dpdaopev ; — This Subj, is also possible in 
the third person; e. g. iroi ti? eh fly; Dem. Mid. 10 6 rotovros irorepa pr) bta 
diKr)v ; 

2) It serves for incitement or exhortation (Conjunct, adhortativus) ; but 
only in the first person, and especially in the Plural; e. g. 'Iccpev let us go, 
Ib&pev, avpfiovkevaipev, etc. In the Sing, it commonly stands in connection 
with an Imperative (aye, (pepe) ', e. g. (pep iSco Eurip. (pepe §r) ray paprv- 
plas avayva> Demosth. comp. II. f. 340. In this way, though very seldom, 
even the second person occurs: Soph. Phil. 300 (pep', & reKvov, vvv ko\ to 
rrjs vrjo-ov pdOrjS. 

3) For the Imperative, in the second and third persons, but only in nega- 
tive entreaty or admonition with pr), prjbe, etc. Here too, it may be noted, 
only the Subj. Aorist is used, § 148. 3. E. g. pr) rpeo-rjs tremble not. Soph. 
Ant. 84 akX ovv it poprjvvcrrjS ye tovto p,rjbevL. Dem. Phil. p. 114 nai 
prjbel? €17777, ti tovtcdv peXei rfj 7ro\ei. 

4) In epic writers the Aorists of the Subj. often stand for the Future, 
which indeed has in general a close affinity with the Subjunctive,* inas- 
much as that which is to take place, must in any case be left to experience. 
In translating such passages, therefore, it is better not to use the Future 
directly. E. g. II. a. 262 ov yap 7700 tolov? Xdov dvepas ovhe tbeopai, nor can 
(shall) I ever see them. £. 459 ko.1 nore tis emfjcrt. Also along with the 
Future, Od. p. 383 bvo~opai els 'Atbao ko.\ iv veKvecrai (paeiva>. 77. 437 ovk 
eo~6* ovtos dvrjp, old* eVcrerai, ovbe yevrjrai. 

5) In later writers also, and especially the Attics, there is a Subjunctive, 
which in a certain degree stands for the Future, viz. the Subj. after ov p.r), 
espec. in the 3 pers. Sing, and Plural; by which the occurrence of some 
fact is denied by the speaker. This construction most commonly is made 
to depend on some omitted verb of care or solicitude; but it is better to re- 
gard such phrases, as also the very similar case of the Opt. with ovk av, as 
independent hypothetical modes of expression ; and explain them from the 
nature of the Subjunctive alone, without recourse to such aids, which do 
not always meet the case. E. g. in Soph. Phil. 102, Neoptolemus asks, 
why he should use stratagem against Philoctetes, and Ulysses replies : ov 
prj tt idrjrai • Trpbs fi'iav ovk av \dfiois. Id. El. 1035 dXX* ovttot' e£ epovye pr) 
pdBrjs robe, but never from me shalt thou learn this. Xen. Hi. 11. 15 eav 
tov? (pi\ov$ Kparfjs ev noicov, ov prj o~oi bvv(£>vrai dvreyeiv ol iroKepioi. Comp. 
Dem. Phil. 3. p. 130. etc. — Instead of the Subj. we sometimes find after 
these particles the Fut. Indie, in the same sense, but more emphatic; e. g 
Eurip. Med. 1149 ov pr) bvcrpevrjs earei (pCkoi?, iravo-ei be Svp.ov ko.1 naXiv 
arpe-^ei? Kapa, i. e. be not thus disinclined towards thy friends, etc. Comp. 
further § 148. n. 5, and Dawes's Canon in marg. note to m. 46, below. 

II. The Optative in Simple Clauses. 
1) Without av, as expressing a wish, desire; so Plat. Phsedr. extr. S Seol, 
doirjre poi Ka\cp yeveadai ravboOev • TrXovaiov be vopi£oipi rbv (ro(p6v kt\. In 
this sense it is often accompanied by a particle of wishing, as el (at), e'iOe, 
el yap, a>? utinam, also ot/rcor so (§ 149. m. 1) ; e. g. Xen. Hell. 4. 1. 38 e'L6\ 
Si \cpare, (p[\o? r)piv yevoio. This Opt. also softens the tone of command, 
and thus stands for the Imperative ; e. g. Horn. Od. |. 407 rdx^o-Ta poi evbov 
eraipot etev. It stands then also as the expression of one's will, commonly 

* This affinity is indicated in the language itself; since the forms of the Future 
and of the Subj. Aor. 1 Act. (Mid.) are^in most verbs very much alike. 



$ 139. THE MOODS. 365 

in the first person, and similar to the Subjunctive; only that the Opt. does 
not like the latter directly incite to action. Od. tt. 383 aXXa (pBeco/xev 
eAdvre? (sc. Telemachus) . . . /3ioroz/S' avrol kclL KTi^/xar* e^co/ze^, bacrcrdp-evoL 
, . . oIklq 6° avre Keivov p.rjrepi dol/Jiev e'xeiv, rjd' 6Wtr ottvlol, comp. II. v. 
119. Comp. also marg. note to m. 14 below. 

2) Without av, as a continuation of an indirect clause ; see m. 70 below. 

3) With av, see m. 15 below. 

Note 2. Inasmuch as the Opt. Aorist implies no definite relation of time ? 
(§ 137. 5), strict analogy would require, whenever the wish is to be ex- 
pressed as in the past, (e.g. that I had done this !) that the Opt. of the 
Perfect should be employed. But as this form was avoided, and was in- 
deed unusual, its place was supplied by the Indie, of a Preterite with a par- 
ticle of wishing; e. g. Mem. 1. 2. 46 eWe croi rdre avveyevopirjv, ore det- 
voraros cravrov rjcrBct. Eur. Suppl. 824 eWe /xe Kabp,eliov evapov crrt'^es iv 
Koviaio-iv, comp. Andr. 1185. That is to say, inasmuch as the wish can no 
longer be realized, this mood (by m. 12 and 13 below) is fully adapted to 
this matter of fact. Hence, also, when a wish of the like kind refers to the 
present, the Indie. Imperf. is employed with eWa etc. e. g. Eur. Heracl. 733 
«<9' rjo-Ba Sward? bpav, ocrov Tvp66vp.os el. El. 1061 et#' et'^ef, a> reKOvcra, 
QiAriov? eppevas, utinam haberes, not utinam habeas. — With this we may con- 
nect the usage, mostly poetical, of introducing such clauses of wishing by 
axpekov (commonly with a particle of wishing) and the Infin. Pres. or Aor. 
depending on it; e. g. II. <fi. 729 cop /x' o^eV "E/crcop lereivai. Plat. Crit. p. 
44 eZ yap axpeXov oloire elvai oi noXXoi, see the rest of the example in m. 51. 
Comp. also m. 13. 

2. The Subjunctive and Optative have their proper place in 9 
subordinate or dependent clauses. The remark, that the Sub- 
junctive connects itself for the most part with the primary ten- 
ses, and the Optative with the historical tenses, has its founda- 
tion in the nature of these moods ; see Text 1. Thus I say : ovk 
olBa 07T0L Tpa7r(o/uLaL, non liabeo quo me vertam, because I take it 
for granted, that experience (the future) will decide in what di- 
rection I turn myself. Hence too the Subjunctive follows in like 
manner the Perfect (which from its nature is connected with the 
present) and the Future ; as also the Aorist when it stands for 
the Perfect ; see § 137. 3, and the examples from Thucydides. 
In narration, on the other hand, the mind transfers itself into the 
past, and consequently into the mental position of the subject as 
acting or speaking, without at all considering whether experience 
has since decided or will hereafter decide ; and then the thought 
appears as a supposition, as something subjective, and therefore 
requiring the Optative ; e. g. ovk jjSeiv oiroi Tpairoi^rjv, non liabe- 
bam quo me verterem ; 6 Se eXeyev, otl eXdoiev oi irpeo-fieLs. — 
That however the converse of this can just as well have place, 
we shall see further on. 

3. With the use of the moods the particle a v stands in the i 11 
closest connection ; and by it this part of Syntax is rendered in 
no small degree intricate and difficult. Its essential power is, to 
modify the specific relation expressed by the moods ; and from 
this again has arisen a second usage, by which it is also joined 
with other words. It indicates, namely, that what is affirmed, 



366 SYNTAX. § 139 

is to be viewed as dependent on certain conditions ; which condi- 
tions, however, in most cases, it does not specify, but only causes 
them to be felt. Hence, in every instance, av strictly contains in 
itself a whole conditional clause. — We include here also the epic 
usage of ice, fcev, which, although more free, is for various reasons 
best comprised under that of av. — The following are the special 
usages : 

1 1) "av with the Indic. Present and Perfect, is in itself an impossible 
connection ■ since it would make the certainty so affirmed again dependent 
on a condition, and consequently uncertain. When therefore such a con- 
nection seems to occur, the av belongs not to the Indicative, but to some 
other word ) e. g. in olp.ai av, ovk av otS' on — , the av belongs to the depend- 
ent clause ; see examples in m. 19 below. — On the other hand, av can stand 
with the Indic. Future; because it there serves to soften the affirmation in 
respect to things still future, like the Subj. Aorist instead of the Future, 
see m. 5 and 6 above ) e. g. Od. y. 80 e'Lpeai, oTnr66ev elp.ev • eya> §e kg toi m- 
raXe^co. II. a. 174 nap ep.oiye ko.1 aXXoi, ol Ke p.e rcp^o-ovo-t. This is rare in 
prose writers: Xen. Cyr. 7. 5. 21 nokv av en p.dXXov rj vvv dxpeloi eaovrai 

V7r6 rov €Knen'krjx^ a '" 

12 2) With the Indic. of the Historical Tenses av has the following sig 
nifications : 

a) The repetition of an action, or something customary, so far as this rep 
etition is supposed to be dependent on certain conditions, the existence of 
which however is only suggested by av; e. g. iwoiei av he was wont to do. 
sc. when circumstances permitted, as often as he pleased, etc. This usage 
is very common in all writers. E. g. Anab. 1.9. 19 Kvpor, et nva Span] 8et- 
vbv ovra oiK.ov6p.ov, ovdeva av ncimoTe dfpeiXero [tt)v ^copcr-], dXX' del nXeia) Trpocr 
eSt'Sou, comp. 1.5. 2. — Hdot. 3. 119 r) Se yvvr) (poireovcra enl rdy Svpas rod 
(3ao-i\e(x>?, Khaieo-Ke av kcu (bbvpero. — Soph. Phil. 290 sq. the sufferings of Phil- 
octetes : npos t)e rov6', o p.oi /3dXot arpaKro?, gvtos av rdXas elXvop.rjv 8v 
crrnvos' . . . e "i t' edec n Kal tzotov Xaffelv kcu £vXov n Spavcrai, ravr' av e£ep 
mov rdXas ep,r)-^av6i p.r) v • eira nip av 7rapr)v ktX. 

b) Equally common is the use of av with the historical tenses in order 
to signify, that, in consequence of the impossibility or non-fulfillment of cer. 
tain conditions, some action or thing in like manner cannot or could not be 
fulfilled; and consequently, with the negative {ol). that something which 
now takes place or has taken place, would not do so or have done so, had 
certain conditions been realized. Here by rule the Imperf. with av is used 
when the thing relates to the present ; and the Pluperf. or Aorist with av, 
when it is .n the past. E, g. eiroiovv av tovto I would do this (implying : 
dXX' ov ttoio) ; and with the negative : ovk clv eirolri&a, ovk av e'7reiroir)Keiv, I 
would not have done it (implying : dXX' enoirjo-a). 

Examples: Xen. An. 4. 2. 10 avrol pev av eiropev6r)crav, yrrep ol oXXoi* 
ra t)e vno^vyia ovk t)v ciXXi] rj ravrr] eKJ3rjvai. Dem. p. 242 Sid tovtovs vp,els 
ecrre crcoot, enel did ye vp.d? avrov? ivdXai av drr oX d>X etre, where the unful- 
filled condition is : 'if ye had been or acted for yourselves alone.' Od. /3. 
184 <w? av Kara(pdio-3ai avv eKelvco axpeXe?' ovk av Too~o~a 3eo7rpo7rea>v dyd- 
peves: Other examples see in m. 28 below. 

13 Note 3. This av is omitted with verbs which declare, that something 
must take place or was permitted; such as xPl v i *®"» 7rpoo-rJKev, «?£:>, evr)v 
Lat. debebam, etc. E. g. Soph. EI. 1505: 

XP r ) v °° evdvs eivai Trjvte rol? ndaiv diKijv. 
oaris irepa Trpdo-o-eiv ye tcov vop-cov SeXei, 
KTeiveiv • to yap travovpyov ovk av r)v ttoXv. 
The reason is. that there is not here implied : dXX" ax ^pr) ; since not the 



f 1^9. THE MOODS. 367 

necessity of the fact, but the fact itself, is denied. On the other hand, it is 
afterwards replied : aXX' ecrri 7ro\v. 'E%rjv yap drrofpevyetv I could have fled 
(implying: aXX* ovk dnecpvyov). Comp. An. 7. 7. 40. So soon however as 
one can rejoin : dXXd del, extort, or ov Set, the av must resume its place. 
An. 5. 1. 10 et /zeV rj7rio~Tap.eda, on rjgei Xeipiaocpo? — , ovk dv eoei Xeyeiv ktX. — 
Also with cocpeXov, epeXXov, ecprjv, e {3ovX6p.rjv, the omission of av is 
common for the same reason; e. g. II. a. 415 aid 1 o<peXes irapd vr,vcr\v 
dbaKpvros KaX a7rr)p,(£)v fjcrdai. Arist. Ran. 866, AI2X. ej3ovX6p,r]v pev ovk 
epl£eiv ivddde' ovk e£ urov yap eanv <oya>v. For axpeXov comp. also m. 8 
above. — Another case of the omission of av see below in m. 51 and 30. 

3) "Av with the Subjunctive is in itself an unnecessary connection. For. 1 1 
since the Subjunctive represents a thing as dependent on certain conditions 
now or hereafter to be realized, it everywhere includes in itself the power 

of av. Hence av is never joined with the mood itself; and consequently 
there can never be, at least in good Attic, a simple clause with the Sub- 
junctive and iiv.% When, on the contrary, the Subjunctive stands in de- 
pendent clauses, or such as are introduced by a conjunction or a pronoun, 
it is the usage of the language, that then av is evolved from the idea of 
the Subjunctive, and connects itself closely with the particle or pronoun; 
e. g. edv and oirorav (for el av, ottot dv), eeos av, 09 av, etc. For examples 
see § 139. A, sq. 

4) "Av with the Optative serves to express a subjective opinion depend- 15 
ent on or qualified by some condition; that is, it expresses a less positive 
affirmation, or a merely supposed possibility, for which in English we use 

a periphrase with can, might, could, would, should, etc. E.g. Mem. 1. 2. 
19 'icrws ovv emoiev av noXXoi, on ovk av ttotz 6 creoeppoiv yevoiro vfipio~rr}s. 
Cyr. 6. 1. 45 dcrpevios dv npos dvdpa, olo? av el, dTraXXayelnv. Plat. Phsed. 
p. 81 to o-mparoeiftes ecrnv ov ns dv a^airo, ' the corporeal is what one can 
touch 1 sc. if he will. — This mode of expression is especially at home among 
the Attics ; who, in consequence of the tone of moderation peculiar to them, 
employ it in the place of the most positive affirmations, or also to avoid the 
definiteness of the Future ; e. g. ovk dv cpvyois, i. e. ' thou wilt not escape ;' 
Dem. Phil. p. 44 ov yap dv rdye rjht] yeyevqpeva rrj vvvl fiorjdeiq KcoXvcrai dvvr]- 
Oeirjpev. Hdot. 5. 9 yevoiro 5' dv nav ev tg> paKpco xpovep. — Finally this Opt. 
with dv is also used to soften the tone of command ; thus Xeyois dv for Xeye ; 
also xiopoi? dv eicrco Soph, ovk dv (pOdvois see § 150. m. 37. 

4. When the particles and pronouns to which dv is subjoined 16 
have with them the Subjunct. Aorist, this forms an implied 
Preterite ; and, consequently, when the context refers to future 
time, a Future Preterite, Lat. Fut. exactum; see § 138. 4. 

Examples : Dem. Mid. p. 525 XPV °" e > otav pev riQno-Oe robs vopovs, ottoIol 
rives elm aKorrelv • e7reiddv 8e drjerde, (pvXdrreiv kat xPW@ a h !• e - 'when 
ye have made them.' Phil. p. 44 eneiodv anavra aKovavre, Kpivare, 
1 when ye shall have heard all, judge.' Xen. Cyr. 2. 3. 5 ris eOeXrjaei prjdev 
KaXov ttolcov, a dv dXXoi 177 apery Koran pdtjiDa t, rovrcov laopoipelv ; ibid. e£ 
fav (i. e. e£ tovtoov a) dv eyco ttoitjo-id, ovk dv Kpideirjv ovre irpwros ovre devrepes. 
Plat. Prot. p. 311 nepuovres ev rrj avXfj diarpixjscopev, ems dv <pu>? yevnrai. 

5. Whenever the construction requires it, the Greek language 17 
can change any clause made conditional by dv into the Infinitive 

or into the Participle, leaving the dv standing with the Infinitive 

* la Homer there are such clauses^ see U. o. 184, 205. 7. 54. But this is ex- 
plained by m. 5 and 11 above. — The same poet writes both moods (Subj. and Opt.) 
in one construction : Od. 5. 692 r\f £<tt\ 5//crj frelwv fiatTiXfav, &\\ov k' ix ea ' l PV fft 
BpoT&v, &\\ov Ke <pi\oir], where indeed we must assume some difference in the con- 
ception, which however cannot well be given in a translation. See also II. <r. 307. 



368 SYNTAX. 9 139. 

or Participle. The Greek has thus an advantage over every 
known language, in giving the force of an Optative or Indicative 
with dp also to the Participle and Infinitive. But neither the 
Infin. nor Participle with dp ever stands for the Subjunctive with 
dp ; since, as we have seen above (m. 14), this dp is strictly not 
connected with the Subjunctive, but with the accompanying par- 
ticle or pronoun; and, consequently, must fall away, when the 
particle or pronoun falls away. 

Examples : Xen. Cyr. 3. 2. 19 co 'App.evie, (3ov\oio av aoi ttjv vvv apybv ov- 
aav yrjv evepybv yeveuQai ; ecfirj 6 'App.evio$ rroXkov av rovro irpiaaBai' noXv 
yap av av$~dvecr6ai rrjv rrpocrodov, where in translating we change the in- 
direct to the direct style. Dem. 01. p. 36. Lept. 9 raXXa o-lcottco, ttoXK* av 
?Xooz/ elnelv, 'although I could say much.' Hdot. 7. 139 vvv 8e 'Adrjvaiovs 
av rty Xeya>v (whoever should say) crcoTrjpa? yeveo~6ai rrjs 'EXXdbos ovk av 
egapaproi. Plat. Crito p. 48 oi paSteo? cnroKTivvvvTes Ka\ dvaj3icocr Kop.evo I 
y civ, el oloir rjcrav, 'who lightly kill, and would also perhaps bring back 
again to life, if they could;' from dvefiicoo-KovT* av, see m. 12. b. — The same 
holds good with the Participle, when it stands with the verb in the con- 
struction described in § 144. 6, where we often render it by a clause with 
that ; e. g. after eipicrKeiv, elhevat, opav, etc. Thuc. 7. 42 Spa to Tmparet'xt- 
orp.a djfkovv re ov, teal el eTriKpaTrjcreie ris tov arparoTTebov, pahlcas av avro \rj- 
cpdev. See also the example Xen. An. 7. 7. 40, and in m'. 44 below. 

18 After the verbs So/ceip, olecrOai, eXirl^eip, ovk eari, and the like, 
dp gives to the Infin. of the Aorist, and not seldom to that of the 
Present, the force of the Infin. Future. 

Examples: Cyr. 3. 1. 20 TroXet? dXovaai, avpp.dxov? irpotrkaftovarcu, o'lovrat 
dvap.a-^eo'ao-Bai. av. Dem. Phil. p. 53 ovk eanv eva civdpa av dvvqOrjvai 
tv ore ravd* vjiiv rrpa^ai ajvavra. ibid. p. 40 fjyovpai ko\ npcoTos avao-ras el<6 
rcor av avyyvcop,r]9 Tvy\dveiv. Xen. An. 1. 3. 6 vo}d£i£> vp-as ep,o\ elvai (pi 
Xovs Ka\ crvp-pd^ovs; /cat avv vp.lv av elvai ri/xtor, oirov av a>. — The Infin. Fut 
without av (§ 140. 1. c) presents a thing as a supposed certainty; e. g. Cyr 
2. 1. 12 06 6° rjadrjcrav, vop.i£ovTes p-era TrXeiovcov aycavielcrOai. Whethei 
also av can stand with the Infin. Fut. is not entirely certain, though a sup- 
posable case ; sec e. g. Cyr. 1. 5. 2, and espec. Agesi. 7. 7. Matth. Gr. Gram, 
p. 1406. 

19 Note 4. As to the position of av, it can regularly never stand first in a 
clause. But, after what word it shall be placed, depends manifestly in 
many cases on the choice of the writer, or on the propriety of letting the 
uncertainty be earlier or later felt ; in many cases also not. Thus it stands 
indeed very often immediately after the Opt. and Indicative ; but never so 
after the Subjunctive, for the reasons above assigned (m. 14). Yet, not 
only in clauses with the Subjunctive, but also with the Opt. and Indicative, 
av connects itself by preference with certain words, as ris, nebs; yap, the ad- 
verbs, the negatives ovk, ovoVt'r, etc. — Of the phrases olp,ai av, ovk av olda, 
we have already spoken, in m. 11 above. 

Examples: Plato Phsed. p. 102 av S' olp.ai av, «y eya> Aeyco, rroiols, 
where av belongs to noiols. Tim. p. 26. b, ovk av old' el dvvatprjv aixavra iv 
p.vt]iirj rraKiv A.a/3ai/, i. e. el dvvatjxrjv av, whether I could, i. e. if I were asked. 
'Eoo/cet av fjfuv rjbeoa? navra diarrpagai, where av belongs to the Infinitive. 
We may further note the position of av in clauses like Dem. 01. p. 13, t'i 
ovv civ ris e'liToi ravra \eyei<? rjpiv vvv, where the civ belongs to e'lrroi, but is 
joined with the t'i ovv of another clause. Plat. Phaed. p. 87. a, t'i ovv civ 
cpair} 6 Xoyor ert airio~Tels ) for t'i ovv aVto-rei?, (pair] dv 6 A. Dcin. p. 680 4k 
tovtov tov \rr)rpio-p,a.TOS KvpoOevrov av. el pr) oV rjpets; TjdiKijVTO ol (Ba^rilxel?, 1. p 



\ 139, A. THE MOODS. 369 

el to yj/r}(ptap,a eKvpadrj, ol (3ao~i\el? rjdlKrjvT* av would have been offended (see 
below), el firj 6V r]pds, had it not been for us, see § 150. m. 26. 

Note 5. The part, av, like the negative, may be twice and even thrice 20 
repeated, without any addition to the sense. This happens especially in 
clauses, where av is joined (by n. 4) with one of the usual words, and then 
the av is repeated with the mood, of course only with the Indie, or Optative : 
e. g. 7tg>s av 7tot d<piKoifxr]v av • — ovk av cpddvois av ; Or when a clause inter- 
venes J e. g. Soph. El. 333 &<jt av, el aOevos Aa/3oi/ii, drjXao-ctfx av oV avrois 
tfipavS). See also Heind. ad Plat. Phaedr. 138. Herm. Opusc. IV. p. 188. — 
Vice versa, where the av ought to stand twice with different predicates, it 
may be in one place omitted; e. g. Mem. 2. 1. 18 6 jiev e<a>v ireiveov <fidyoi 
iiv, oirore j3ov\oito, KaX 6 eicoov di\jsa>v ttIol. 



6. The subordinate or dependent clauses, in which, the Subj 2 J 
and Opt. moods have their proper place, are of various kinds. The 
consideration of these moods in such clauses, however, is not to be 
separated from that of simple clauses ; since even in the former 
the Subj. and Opt. are only used, when they can stand according 
to the general rule. It is therefore a wrong supposition, that the 
choice of the mood depends on the preceding particle ; indeed, on 
the contrary, the particle is often modified by the mood. Still, it 
will be of use, to go through briefly with the several kinds of 
dependent clauses, in order to follow out the general definition in 
the application of the moods, and render it clear by examples ; 
and especially in order to know what constructions are by pref- 
erence employed in the different kinds of dependent clauses, and 
why. — "We proceed therefore to treat of these clauses, under eight 
kinds, viz. conditional, relative, those with particles of time, caus- 
al, telic or final, ecbatic, transitive with on or &>?, interrogative. 

§ 139. A. Conditional Clauses. 

In every conditional clause, the condition is viewed either as 22 
possible or as impossible. Possibility is expressed either as al- 
together definite, or as depending on experience, or merely as a 
subjective supposition. Hence arise three principal cases. 

1. Possibility without the expression of uncertainty : el ivith 
the Indicative ; e. g. el iftpovrrjo-e, kcl\ rjcrrpa-^ev ' if it has thun- 
dered, it has also lightened ;' el tl e^et?, So?, - if thou hast any- 
thing, give it me.' — Plat. Symp. 188 el tl e^eXuirov, abv epyov, 
avairXrjpoocrato 

Note 1. That which is future is always uncertain, or at least dependent 25 
on certain conditions ; hence the Greek in such cases prefers the next follow- 
ing construction with the Subjunct. Yet we find el with the Indie. Future, 
even in the indirect style, whenever the fulfillment of the condition is either 
hoped or feared ; because in such instances the mind of the speaker is not 
tranquil, but affected, and therefore anticipates the case as definitely realized 
in the future. E. g. Xen. An. 4. 7. 3 777 yap o-rpana ovk eWt ra e7riTr]8eia, el 
p.Tj \r)y\rop.e6a to x<*>piov. Plat. Phaed. p. 107. C, 6 kivSvvos ho^eiev av deivbs 
eivai, el tls avTrj? (ttjs ^t>X*? y ) dp,e\r)o~ei. Eur. Hel. 1010 d8tKolr]p,ev av, 
el pr) a 7T S a) 0- co. See too the example from Eur. Or. 559, in m. 30 below; 
also other.-: j n Krijger ad An. 7. 1. 16. 



370 syntax. § 139. A. 

24 2. The condition is such, that experience will decide, whether 
the case happens or not. That here the Subjunctive must be 
used, follows from the general definition in § 139. 1 ; and that av 
is then joined with the particle (idv, rjv, av epic el ice, birorav, etc.) 
appears from m. 14. E. g. idv rt e^fiev, Scoaofxev, ' if we should 
have any thing, we will give it;' idv rk rwa rebv virapxovrcdv 
vofMcov jj,r) koXws e^eiv yyrjrat, ypacpeo-dco. iEschin. c. Tim. 4 

TOVTO iaV <T K07T7]T6, €Vp7](T6T6 } OTL TTaVTCOV CLpMTTCL €%€{,. 

25 Note 2. Yet it is not contrary to Greek usage, sometimes to omit this 
av, so that d stands with the Subjunctive. The case is essentially the same 
with the preceding; only the condition is then less dependent on casual 
circumstances, but is to be viewed as becoming definitely realized in the 
future. This construction is also not unknown to the Attics; e. g. Soph. 
OT. 873 vfipis, el 7roXk(ov vne p7r\r)(x6fj^ upovenv ds- dvdymv, a condition, 
the fulfillment of which is to be expected from the very nature of vfipis. II. 
198 reXei yap et n vvt- depfj, tovt' eV rjpap sp^erai. In epic writers the 
usage is less definite : II. a. 340. e. 257. See other examples in Herm. 
Opusc. IV. p. 97 sq. 

26 3. The condition is only the subjective supposition of a case 
possible indeed in itself, but for the present leaving wholly out 
of view, whether it will be hereafter realized or not : el with the 
Optative. The apodosis (see n. 5 below) has then commonly the 
Optative with av. E.g. et' Tt? ravra it parrot, /xeya p? av 
o)(pe\rj crete, ' if any one should do this, he would render me a 
great service.' Mem. 3. 7. 2 el -u? Bvvarb? wv rrjv iroX.iv av^etv 
okvolt) rovro irpdrretv, elfcorcds av Seiko? vofLityoiro. 

27 Note 3. For those doubtful cases, which in good Attic are very rare, 
where e. g. because of a preceding historical tense, idv is put with the 
Optative, see below in m. 68. In other instances, idv with the Optative 
(as being for d av) would make the condition dependent again upon another 
condition; as is clearly the case in e. g. Xen. Hipparch. 7. 4 r)v 8e f) p.£v 
7roAiy t piirr\rai irrl rd vavrtKa . ..Toys' 8e irnreas d^idxre te ra e/croy rov 
T€i)(ovs 8iacra>£eiVy ivravda dr/ rov "nntapyov hd (proTeTekeo-pivov avdpa elvai, 
where however a^icocrr) is also read. On the other hand, we oftener find d 
av separately with the Optative ; and then the av is to be drawn to the Op- 
tative (which for the most part is actually done, e. g. Cyr. 4. 2. 37), and 
thus forms the mood described above in m. 15. E. g. Dem. p. 196 d dUaid 
tis av (fi-qcreie 'PoSt'ou? TrenovOevai^ ovk eVir^Seioy 6 Kaipo? icprjadrjvai. Comp. 
Mem. 1. 5. 3. Cyr. 3. 3. 55 ; also below in lett. H. no. 2. 

28 4. Impossibility or disbelief, or in general the filling out of 
the relation specified above in m. 12. b. Here, in the protasis 
and apodosis there stands by rule : a) For the present time, in 
the protasis, el with the Indie. Impf without av ; in the apodo- 
sis the Impf with av ; e. g. el n el^ev, iSlSov av, if he had any 
thing, he would give it; where there is necessarily implied: 
' but he has nothing.' b) For the past time, in the protasis, el 
with the Indie. Aorist ; in the apodosis the Aor. with av, e. g. el 
ri ea^ev, eBco/cev av, if he had had any thing, he would have given 
it. c) Or the clauses refer to unlike times, e. g. el iirelaO^v, ovk av 
rjppdxrrovv, if I had obeyed, I should not (now) be ill. — Of coarse? 



» 139. B. THE MOODS. 371 

also, where a clause not conditional would have the Perfect, it 
passes over as conditional into the Pluperfect, just as the Present 
into the Imperfect ; e. g. Dem. 01. 3. p. 32 el yap avrdp/cj] rd 
\jr7)(f)LcrfjLa,Ta rjv, ovk dv ^tXfc7T7ro? roaovrov v/3pi/cec %p6vov. — For 
the omission of dv, see note 5. 

Examples: Mem. 2. 6. 26 iv to"ls dyacnv el e£-rjv toIs KpariaTots o~vv6epe- 
vovs (all at the same time) eiri tovs ^eipovs levat, navras dv Toys' dycovas ovtoi 
ivLKu>v. Plat. Apol. p. 31 el eyco 7vaXai ine^ei prj cr a Trparreiv to. ttoXl- 
riKa irpayjiara, ndXai dv dnoXcoXr] (§ 103. m. 12) <al ovt* av vp.ds dxpeXi") ktj 
DvSeV, out* av ep.avTOV. 

Note 4. When the apodosis is in the past, but is intended to express 29 
duration, it is put also in the Irnpf. with av. E. g. Thuc. 1. 9 ' Kyap.ep.vav 
3vk av ovvvrjcrcove^coTcovTreptoLKldaiv r]7reipd>Trjs &>v eKpdrei, el p.rj tl kcu vavri- 
<bv el^ev. Hdot. 7. 139 Ka\ ovtco av eV dp-cporepa r) 'lOXXds eyivero vrvb 
Hepo-rjai. Dem. Mid. p. 523 navr' av eXeyev ovtos Tore. 

5. In respect to the apodosis of conditional clauses in general, 30 
as an independent clause it is limited to no particular or fixed a 
construction. Consequently in clauses not dependent, the Opt. 
with dv may just as well follow after el with the Indie, or edv 
with the Subjunctive ; and again, after el with the Opt. it is con- 
ceivable that the apodosis may have the Indie, with or without dv. 

Examples : Plat. Apol. p. 25. b, noXXr) civ ns evhaip.ovla e'er] rrepl tovs veovs, 
el eh p.r)v povos avrovs bia(p6eipei, ol 8' aXXoi cocpeXovaiv. Comp. Hipp. Min. p. 
364. a. — Eur. Orest. 559 el yap yvvaiKes is rod' fj^ovcriv Qpdo-ovs dvbpas (povev- 
eiv, Karacpvyds Troiovp.evai is reicva — , Trap ovbev avrdls rjv av oXXvvai Troaeis. 
ib. 1130 el pev yap els yvvaXiza aoocppovecrrepav £i(pos pe6e1p.ev, $vcncXer)S dv r)v 
(pQpvos. Plato Prot. p. 334. b, olov ka\ r) Korrpos — , el edeXois em tovs nropdovs 
Ka\ tovs veovs zXcovas e7n(3dXXeiv] ndvra d7r6XXvcriv. Anab. 5. 1. 9 eav ovv 
tcaTa p.epos (pvXaTTcop,ev kcu o~Koircbp.ev, tjttov dvvatvT* dv r)pds Srjpav ol 7roXe- 
pioi, says Xenophon, in a discourse rich in instruction as to conditional 
clauses. 

Note 5. Only the fourth case above (no. 4) is of such a nature, that the 30 
protasis and apodosis are conditioned by each other; for were the apodosis b 
to have the simple Indie, without av, the first case would arise (m. 22). 
Hence the simple Indie, without dv can stand only in certain cases, either 
those specified above in m. 13, or such as can be explained from the nature 
of the clause. We may note e. g. the omission of av in these examples; 
Thuc. 3. 74 r) noXis eKivbvvevae 7tdcra 8ia(p6apr)vat, el dvepos eireyeveTO, 
since the danger at least was ever present. Plato Symp. p. 198. c, vir' 
ala^vvrjS dXiyov dnobpas to % 6 p. rj v, e'i nrj etyov, where dXiyov almost renders 
dv superfluous. Anab. 7. 6. 21 ovkovv alo-yyvr\ e^anaTcopevos ; va\ pa Ala 
A o-xvv6p,r)v p.evroi, el vrrb TToXep-iov ye ovtos e^rj7raTrj6r)v y because of the em- 
phatic affirmation. Other instructive examples are: Xen. Rep. Ath. 1. 6. 
Plat. Gorg. p. 514. c. Apol. p. 20. c. Legg. 9. p. 869. b ; in all which there 
is found at least an approach to the first case, in m. 22 above. 

B. Relative Clauses. 
1. To the relatives belong naturally also the pronominal ad- 31 
verbs, or the relative adverbs of place, as ov, oirov, etc. of time, 
as r)viica, etc. and manner, as &>?, ottois, etc. The relative clauses 
(from which the indirect interrogative clauses are to be well dis- 
tinguished, see in H below) are either construed as independent 



372 syntax. § 139. B. 

clauses ; or else as dependent, and then the very same construc- 
tions have place, which we have above developed in respect to 
conditional clauses. 

32 2. "We therefore only repeat here in particular : 1) That rela- 
tive clauses with the Indie, either refer back as matter of fact to 
a demonstrative expressed or implied ; or they may be of a gen- 
eral kind, with octtls, octtlovv, and then they correspond to the 
Lat. with quicunque. 2) That in relative clauses with the Sub 
junctive, av always connects itself with the relative ; and then 
the clause is always general. 3) That in relative clauses with 
the Optative, sometimes av is omitted, and then they are either 
of a general kind, or are intermediate clauses in sermone obliquo, 
see m. 69 below ; or sometimes av is inserted, and then it forms 
with the Opt. the ordinary (independent) mood, m. 15 above ; or 
it arises out of the change of construction from the Subj. to the 
Optative, see m. 68. 4) That in relative clauses the historical 
tenses in the Indie, with av stand just as they do in simple claus- 
es, m. 12. a, b. — All this will be apparent from the examples. 

Examples: Ae'^co a rjnovara. An. 6. 5. 6 edanrov, oiroaovs e7reAaju,/3tt- 
vev 7] arparla. Cyr. 3. 2. 26 dcocrco, oaov ti? drjTrore edioice. — Eur. Iph. T. 
Qv(£> ydp, 09 av Kare\6r) rrjvbe yrjv "EWtjv dvrjp. Id. Troad. 1031 vop,ov 3e 
rovbe tcus aXkaicri $er yvvaii-i, Qvf)(TK.eiv, tJtls av Trpodv ttoctiv. — Xen. An. 2. 
5. 32 ol imreis did rov TtehLov eXavvovres, cotlvi irvy^dvoiev "EXXrjvi, Trdvras 
eKreLvov (comp. m. 39). Cyr. 3. 1. 28 toiovtols ey&ye vttt] perais; ov? eldeirjv 
dvdyKr] VTrrjperovvTas; dr)d£>? av p-oi Sokco -feprjaOai. Hell. 2. 1. 32 Avo-avbpos, 
QiXoaXea epmrrjaas; 6? rovs 'Avdpiov? KaraKprj^vlaeie (a supposed case), rt et'77 
a^ios tradew, aTreacpatjev SC. rov «£. — Od. 1: 126 ouS' avbpe? vq&v %vi removes, 
ol K€ Kap-oiev vrja? evo-aeXpiovs, at Kev reXeoiev eKaara. Eur. Hel. 815 
/Lit" eariv ikiris, jj p,6vrj o~ a> 6 ei ft e v av. — An. 7. 6. 26 7jp.lv Be oitXitlkov p.sv rjv, 
<u to-coy av edvvdp.e6a alrov Xap.(Bdveiv ovbev tl aepdovov. 

33 Note 1. While in Attic prose, at least, the usage is constant, to connect 
av with the relative in clauses with the Subjunctive, the epic writers, on 
the other band, content themselves far more frequently with the simple Subj. 
e. g. II. a. 229 rj ttoXv Acoi'oV eo-rt . . . bap' aTroaipeladai ocrrtr aedev avriov e'i7rr). 
This usage the tragic writers sometimes imitate, comp. m. 25 ; e. g. Soph. 
Trach. 251 rov \6yov 6° ov xpr) (pBovov, yvvr), rrpoaelvai, Zev9 otov irpaKTiap 
(doer) <pavfj. But this is not done without some ground; as here, for in- 
stance, something definite is spoken of. 

34 Note 2. In relative (final) clauses, which at the same time express a 
purpose, or that something can or should take place, where in Latin the 
Subj. must necessarily stand, it is common in Greek to use the Indie. Fu- 
ture ; e. g. Hell. 2. 3. 2 eSo£e rco hr)p.cp rpiaKovra avbpas eXeadai, oi tovs Trarpi- 
ovs vopovs £vyy pay}/ ova 1, Ka6* ovs tvo\ it ever overt. Eur. Iph. T. 1180 
Ka\ 7rdXet Trefityov tiv', oans crrjp.ave'i. An. 7. 6. 24 dyopa 8e exprjerde, crirdvu 
exovres, orcoj/ o)vrjcreo-6e. So too the Indie, often stands after negative 
clauses, where in Lat. the Subj. is necessary; e. g. Hell. 6. 1. 5 nap ijxol 
ovbeis p.io~6o(pop€l, octtis p.r) inavos io-riv 'icra noveiv ip.0'1; and so in general 
often in the indirect style, see m. 69. — The further construction of relative 
clauses, so far as they mark a purpose, see below in E. 

35 Note 3. But relative clauses may have not only a final, but also a causal 
a signification. The most natural mood in such clauses is the Indicative; 

see below 111 D. In such clauses, consequently, oj, oi', stand for 6Vt eyco. 



! 139. C. THE MOODS. 373 

trv, rjfjieis; etc. that or because J, thou, etc. oios 1 for on toiovtos, 00-09 for 
on rocroOrof, o> ? for on ourcor, etc. 

Examples: Mem. 2. 7. 13 ^av/xaarrov 7roiels, or i?alz/ ou§ei> Si'Scor. Hdot. 

I. 33 (26Xcoi> Kpoioru) Kapra e'8o£e dfiadrjS ehai, oy ra Trapeovra ayada Merely 
ttjv reXevrrjv navTos xPW aT09 °P az/ eiceXeve. 1. 31 at 'Apyeiat ipaicdpi£ov rrjv 
ytTjTepa, oia>v retcveov eicvprjcre. Eur. Hel. 74 #eot a-', ocrov /-"u^' *X as> 'EXe- 
1/77?, a7ro7TTwaiei/. Plato Phsed. p. 58. e, euSaip,coi/ fioi ScOKpar^s" icpalvero, a>s 
d8ea>s /eat yevvaleos ireXevra. — Similar is the usage of oo~os and olos in Homer, 
in clauses like II. o\ 95 aKvp-opos S17 pot, re/cos, eaaeai, oV dyopeueis. Here 
the relative approaches nearly to the demonstrative in exclamations ; comp. 

II. x- 347 ota /x* eopyar. Od. 8. 611. II. p. 471, 587. ^sch. Prom. 915. 
Note 4. After a preceding demonstrative, as outgo? etc. the relatives have 35 

an ecbatic power, implying result or consequence; and stand then for wore; b 
see below in F. Such clauses also are construed only with the Indie, or 
other moods which stand for it. But the usage is not frequent. — For otoy 
and oo-o? c. inf. instead of coo-re, see in m. 57 below. 

Examples: An. 2. 5. 12 rt? oureo paiVerat, o arris ov o-oi /3ouXerat (ptXos 
elvai. Soph. Antig. 220 ovk eanv ovtcos jxwpos, os Savelv ipa. Plat. Rep. 
p. 360 ouSetr av yevoiro ovtoos ddap.dvTivos, or dv peiVetez> iv rfj diKaiocrvvt]. 

Note 5. In certain phrases, in consequence of sudden transition to a di- 3C> 
rect address, the Imperative also can stand after relatives; e. g. in tragic 
writers, in the phrases: oTaO* 6 Spdcrov, oto-0' cos Troirjo-ov, which are 
also explained by inversion : dpdaov olcrd' o, etc. Also in the 3 pers. olo-8a 
vvv a pot y€veo~d(o Eurip. Here we may compare the Imper. 3 pers. after 
on, see m. 61. Thuc. 4. 92 XPV oVt£at, on, fov \ikv eajUvrai, KTdcr6<£>o-av, 

Note 6. For the simple Subjunct. and other moods in indirect questions, 
see in m. 63. — For the Opt. with dv after an historical tense in the main 
clause, and for the Opt. and Indie, in intermediate clauses in serm. obliquo, 
see m. 68, 69. — For the Future with ne in epic writers after the relative, 
see m. 11. 

C. Clauses with Particles of Time. 

Particles of time are &>?, ore, oirore, eirel, iireihrj, eW, ef ov, irplv, 37 
eare, the epic ^to?, ocfrpa, evre, and the like. As they are them- 
selves mostly relatives, their construction accords essentially with 
that of relative clauses. "We therefore limit ourselves here to what 
is- special; and give, for the general usage, only the examples. 
The construction with the Subjunct. again connects av with the 
particle, as orav, eireihav, eco? av, etc. with the exception of go 9, 
which in this construction signifies as, or else is final ; see below. 

Examples: Ot 7roXe'piot, a>s eiSov tovs M-qdovs, ecrrrjerav. An. 3. 1. 9 
ei7re Se, on, in e 18 dp Tcr^ara f] arpareia Xrjgt], evdvs anone/x^i avrov. lb. 
3. 5. 18 7rapr}yyeikav, eVetS^ 8e i7rvr)0~e lav o~vvecrK€vao~p.evovs iravras dvanav- 
eaOat, koX eireo-dat tjvLk dv ns napayye IXtj. Plat. Phaed. p. 101. d, et 8e 
ns avrrjs rrjs vnodeaews exoiro, x a ' L P eiv ^VV? "" Kai °^ K diroKpivaio, ea>? dv ret aV 
eiceivT)? opfiTjOevTa (rice^ato. 

Note 1. Here too the remark holds true, as in the case of the relatives 38 
and conditional particles, that Homer more commonly omits dv or ne; e. g. 
dAX' ore yrjpdaKooat noXiv Kara cpvX* dvdpd>7T(£>v Od. o. 408, and often. See ex- 
amples from later writers in Herm. Op. IV. p. 103; e. g. Soph. Aj. 1182 
dprjyer, ear eya> /xoXw, where the mind is abstracted from every possibility 
of hindrance ; ib. 554. 

Note 2. After particles which imply a repetition, e. g. 671-0x6, the regu- 39 
lar mood is the Optative, even when the reference is to definite facts which 



/ 



374 SYNTAX. * 139. 0. 

have already taken place; less frequent is the Indicative. With the Sub- 
junct. again Snordv is used ; except that Homer sometimes puts Snore with 
the Subjunctive, see note 1. The reason of this lies in the nature of the 
moods ; since, e. g. in Snore ol noXepiot, enidoivro, ane^/opovvy the approach of 
the enemies is viewed as the subjective motive of repeated retreat, although 
it is a fact already specified. When, on the other hand, it is said : Snorav 
crrparonedevoovraiy rd<ppov nepiftdXXovrai, the whole is presented as a matter 
of experience, and every allusion to a subjective motive in the clause is ex- 
cluded. The far less frequent construction of Snorav with the Opt. may be 
explained from the nature of the particular examples: Cyr. 1. 3. 11 eld* 
orcorav r^Koi enl rb heinvov, Xeyoip civ, on Xovrai; or else from transi- 
tion, see m. 68. — In like manner, other particles, as el, a>s (oKcoy in Hdot.) and 
especially relative clauses, receive by means of this Opt. the sense of repeti- 
tion. E.g. TllUC. 7. 79 el pev enioiev ol ASnvaioi, vne^oapovv, el 8' dva- 
X&potev, iireiceivTQ. Hdot. 7. 119 okods 8e an licoiro tj arparirj, aKrjvr) pep 
ecr/ce nennyvla eroipn • o>y 8e delnvov ylvoiro &pv, ol pev e^eo-Kov novov • okchs 
be vvKra aydyoiev, dneXavveaKov, KrX. II. /3. 188. 198 ovrcva pev $ao~Ckr\a 
Ki^eir], rbv 8' . . . epr}Tvo~ao~K.e • ov 8' av drjpov r' avdpa Xdoi, fiootovrd r' 
ecpevpoi, rbv aKrjnrpco iXdo-acricev ktX. Comp. also § 103. m. 11. 

10 Note 3. The particle ecos (epic ocppa) with the Indie, expresses the time 
during which any thing takes place, and may be then rendered as long as, 
or in momentary actions, until, i. e. ' as long as until f e. g. Dem. 01. p. 15 
ea>9 earl Kaipos, avriXafieadai ra>v npaypdrcov. — But eooy av with the Subj. 
(also ear* av, epic elaoKe or eh ore K.e,) signifies until; and is distinguished 
from the simple Optative, in that in the former the occurrence of another 
action or of some event sets a limit to the main action, while in the latter 
this is done by the acting subject himself in the mode of presentation. 
E.g. Mem. 4. 8. 2 6 vopos ovk ea bnpoaia nvd dno6vr\o-Keiv, 6 coy av f) Secopla 
e< ArjXov enaveXdrj. II. a. 509 roeppa 8' enl TpcoeaoL riBei Kpdro?, oepp' av 
'A^atot vlbv epbv rio-acriv. An. 2. 1. 2 ebotjev auroly npoievai, ecoy Kvpeo 
crv ppi^eiav. Od. e. 385, of iEolus : a>po~e 8' eVi Kpamvbv ftopevv, ecoy oye 
$air]Keo-o-t piyeln. — For the Opt. with av after ecoy, see the example from 
Plato in m. 37 above, also in m. 68; and for the Subjunct. without av, se8 
above in m. 38. 

41 Note 4. The particle rrplv or nplv fj, before, sooner than, is construed with 
the Infinitive; but admits also the construction with the finite moods. 
Thus, where the reference is to definite facts which have already taken 
place, it is put with the Indicative; where something merely possible, sup- 
posed, or future, is spoken of, it takes the Infinitive, Subjunctive (with av), 
and Optative; but with this difference, that the Subj. with av (in the poets 
likewise without av, m. 38), and by rule also the Opt. without av (after 
historical tenses), are only. used, when the main clause expresses a negative, 
' not . . . before or until ;' while after a positive clause the Infinitive is em- 
ployed, l before, sooner than.' But the usage of the Infinitive is wider, since 
it can stand also after negative clauses ; and hence Homer uses both con- 
structions, viz. that with the Subj. or Opt. and that with the Infin. without 
essential difference and even united into one clause, II. p. 504. Od. /3. 373. 
The same poet inserts np'iv also in the first clause ; so that it then stands 
double. The epic ndpos before, wherever it is a conjunction, is put with 
the Infinitive; except II. n. 629. 

EXAMPLES. — Indic. Soph. OT. rjyoprjv 8' dvrjp dcrrcov peyiaro? rcov enel, 
np'iv pot rvyr\ roido* eneo-rrj. An. 3. 2. 29 ov npocrBev et-eveytzelv eroXpncrav 
npbs T)pd? noXepov, nplv rovs arrparnyovs rjptov arvveXafiov. — Subj. with av : 
Xen. Hier. 7. 13 o,ri av ns Xdfir] napa rov rvpdvvov, ovhels ovdev avrov vopi£et, 
nplv av egeu rrjs' rovrov eniKpare'ias yevrjrai, comp. Eur. Med. 277, 677, etc. 
Without av: Soph. Aj. 741 (dnr]v8a) prj e|co naprjiceLv, nplv napaw avrb? ri^Tl-. 
comp. Eur. Or. 1351. — Opt. 11. <p. 580 ovk edeXev cpevyeiv, nplv neiprjoair 



$ 139. D. E. THE iMOODS. O/O 

'A^iA^or, comp. Cyr. 1. 4. 14. (With ay Hell. 2. 3. 43, and comp. below in 
«3, 68.) — Infin. Plat. Prot. p. 350 {pi avOpoiiroi) QappaXeaTepoi elcriv eiretdav 
uddooo-iv, rj nplv p.a8tlv. After a negat. II. £. 19. Double : II. rj. 480 ovde 
rty eVA^ nplv ineeiv, tt p\v AeT^ai vTrepfiepei Kpovi&vi. So with ndpos : Od. 
a. 20 6 S' ao-7Tfpx^ y peveatvev 'OSucnji, ndpos fjv yaiav I kg a 6 at. 

D. Causal Clauses. 

1. Causal particles are on, $Lon, ovveica ; and several particles 42 
of time can also have a causal signification, as iirei, iirechr). They 
are construed either with the Indie, when the cause is something 
external or objective ; or with the Optative, when the cause is 
spoken of as subjective, that is, something in the mind of the 
subject acting or speaking ; consequently only in narration. 

2. The Subjunctive cannot be connected with these particles. 43 
Inasmuch as every causal clause (even when it refers to things 
future) specifies the cause of the action expressed in the main 
clause, it stands to this main clause in such a relation, that ex- 
perience has already decided in respect to it. Thus, e. g. i" write 
now, because he will soon come, is equivalent to, i because I know 
that he will soon come.' 

3. The Optative with av, and the historical tenses with av, are 44 
only modifications of the Indicative relation ; and are sufficiently 
explained from the general definition in h 139. 3, or m. 10 sq. 

Examples : Mem. 1. 4. 19 ScoKpar^y ipoi rovs avvovras ib6x.ei iroielv dne- 
Xeadai tcdv dvoaicov, ov p.6vov Snore vtto rcov dv0poo7rcov SpcpvTO (m. 39). aAAa 
<at 07rore Iv ip-qp.'t.q. eiev, eneinep rjyr) craivTO, p.rj8ev av Trore (m. 17), hv irpar- 
roiev (m. 32), Seov? Sia'Xade'iv. Other examples will occur in reading. — An 
example of the Indie. Aor. with civ, see in II. o. 228; of the Opt. with av, 
n Aristoph. Plut. 120. Xen. Mem. 3. 2. 2. — For relative clauses with 



E. Telic or Final Clauses. 
1. Conjunctions expressing end (re\o<z) and purpose are &>?, 15 
oVa)?, ha (epic ocfipa), and firj ; with which we may also reckon 
oVa)?, when it is to be rendered that, after certain verbs im- 
plying exhortation, care, endeavour, effort, etc. as irapaicaXeiv, 
cppovrl^ecv, (ftyXdrreaOac, bpav, liripieKeo-Qai, /jueXei fioi,, irpdrreLv, 
irapaa-Kevd^eaOai, and the like. And although the specification 
of end and purpose must always appear as the thought of the 
acting subject and wholly founded therein, yet the most natu- 
ral and frequent construction, often even after historical tenses, 
is that with the Subjunctive ; since for the most part this speci- 
fication is not meant to be merely something supposed or possi- 
ble, but the acting subject is at the same time eager and striv- 
ing, that his purpose may be realized, — that his thought may come 
forth into life. It is only where the end or purpose is expressly to 
be understood as a subjective thought, that the Optative is em- 
ployed ; and this even after the primary tenses, although seldom. 
Still, nothing is more common, (just as with relative clauses im- 



376 SYNTAX. § 139. E 

plying purpose, see m. 34,) than for this Subjunctive to alternate 
with the Indie. Future ; see no. 2 below. 

Examples: Mem. 3. 1. 8 iv peaco del tovs x €l P L(rT0VS Tarreiv, iva vtto pev 
tov ayovTai, vtto S' av tov codovTai. Thuc. 3. 4 ol Trpeafteis tov Muri- 
Xrjvaiov eTTpacrcrov, ottos tis [Borjdeia rj^ei. 1. 56 HepfttKKas is rrjv Aaicedai- 
fiova irepirov eirpaaaev, ottos iroXepos yevqrai rots- ' Adrjvaiois irpos HeXoTrovvr]- 
crlovs. 1. 65 'Aptorevr avveftovXeve toIs aXXois eKTrXevaai, ottos 6 ctItos clvtl- 
crXfl' Xen. Cyr. 4. 1. 18 6'pa, prj ttoXXov eK.do~To fjpov kcu ocpdaXpov kcu ^a- 
pov 8er]<rei. Xen. Hipparcli. 9; 2 Kpario-rov eort to oo~a av yvco (§ 129. n. 
17) dyaOa elvai eTTLpeXeio-Qai os av TrpaxOfj. II. 77. 339 nvXas Troirjaopev, 
oeppa 5' avrdcov 686s e'l-q. An. 1. 6. 9 avpfiovXevo tov av8pa tovtov eKTTo8ov 
TTOLeicrOai cos Tdxto~ra, cos prjKeri 8eoi tovtov <pvXaTTea6ai, dXXa axoXr] e'lrj 
ijfuv (al. dey and fj). Comp. Plat. Rep. p. 410. b. Aristoph. Ran. 24. 

4D Note 1. Here is to be noted the elliptical construction of ottos, where 
the verb implying exhortation etc. is to be supplied, and the clause with 
ottos is equivalent to an emphatic Imperative. In such cases also oVcoy is 
construed either with the Indie. Fut. or the Subjunct. E. g. An. 1. 7. 3 ottos 
eo-eo-Be av8pes agioi tt)s eXevdepias, i see that ye are men,' i. e. be men, etc. 
iEsch. Prom. 68 ottos pr} cravTov olktuIs ttotc. Cyr. 4. 1. 16 ottos prj dvaytcd- 
aopev avTOvs, dyadovs yevecrdai. Comp. Plat. Prot. p. 313. c.^ With aye 
preceding, Diog. L. 6. 2. 36. 

4 7 2. As to the usage of oVa)?, «?, and ha, it is further to be no- 
ted, that in construction with the Subjunctive, &>? and 07ra>? often 
take the particle av ; but ha, in the signif. in order that, is al- 
ways without av, so that tv av can only signify ubicunque. Nor, 
in the signif. in order that, can ha ever be put with the Indie 
Future. 

Examples : iEsch. Suppl. 937 aXX os av elbjjs, eweiro cracpecrTepov. Aris- 
toph. Plut. 1151 naTpls yap icrTi iraa', tv" av TTpaTTrj tls ev. See Herm. Op. 
IV. p. 121, 132. 

48 3. Bat all these conjunctions, after historical tenses (as also af- 
ter the hist. Pres.), can be construed with the Optative ; see m. 9. 

Examples: Xen. Lac. 2. 2 edoicev avro paaTiyocpopovs, ottos Tipopoli\ 
(tovs nalbas), el Scot. Plat. Rep. p. 393 dmevai 8e eneXeve (tov Xpvarjv) Kai 
prj epe8i£eiv, Iva aos oXica8e eXdoi. Cyr. 1. 4. 25 Kvpos eXeye, oti d-mevat 
(SovXoito, prj 6 TTaTrjp ti ax^oiTO, Ka\ f] ttoXis pe pcpoiTO a&TO. Comp. II. 
e. 1. t. 351, 347. 

19 Note 2. When to ottos and cos with the Opt. the particle av is subjoined, 
there is formed again the mood specified above in m. 15. Thus, e.g. An. 
1. 9. 21 (piXov oeTo belaBai, w? avvepyovs e'xoi, he thought himself to need 
friends, that he might have helpers ; but Cyr. 4. 2. 29 Kpolaos tc\s yvvalnas 
7rpoa7TeTTepylraTo ttjs vvktos, os av pqov TTopevoivro, in order that they might (per- 
il aps) travel more easily. 1. 2. 10 avros re Srjpq, ml tov aXXov eiripeXelTai, 

* Dawes, in consequence of too limited observation, proposed the rule, that in 
good Attic writers the particles oiras and ov fvf) never have the Subjunctive of the 
yirst Aor. Act. and Mid. but always instead of this the Fut. Indicative. This rule 
was found to be often confirmed by manuscripts ; and on this ground in modern 
editions a multitude of passages have been altered even without the authority of 
manuscripts ; since for the most part this required only small changes like crys into 
ffeis, croofiev into crofiev, etc. But it was soon found, that there would be no end of 
such corrections ; and also that some passages occur which cannot be easily so 
corrected ; as Eurip. Troad. 445 oirus yripdofxeQa. Plat. Rep. p. 609. b, ov yap Toye 
ayadhv pAita' 4 ti cbroAeV??. The canon of Dawes is therefore now given up. 



I 139. F. THE MOODS. 377 

oiras av Srjpaev, in order that they could hunt. Comp. Cyr. 3. 1. 1. II. r. 331. 
Eur. IT. 1025, etc. also m. 68 below. 

Note 3. Here too belong most naturally such clauses as express fear, anx- 50 
ietyj after beboiKa etc. where p,i), also O7rco? p.r), is rendered by our that, lest, 
(like Lat. ne,) and consequently p.rj ov by that not; see § 148. 4, and n. 7. 
The construction is wholly like that of final clauses; viz. the Subj. Opt. 
and especially the Indie. Fut. e. g. Soph. OT. 1075 deboix onus p,r) Ve ttjs 
o-icotttjs r?)o-S' avappr)£ei koko.. But the Greek has this advantage over 
the Latin, that it can also use the Indie, of past tenses in connection with 
these particles, in order to mark the object of fear as already existing ; e. g. 
Plat. Lys. p. 218 (£o/3o0/z.ai p.r) \6yois rial yj/evbeo-iv h>Tervyj\K.a\m>, vereor ne 
inciderimus. The Greek has more freedom in this respect also, that other 
particles and constructions can in like manner stand after these verbs, as 
the context in each case may require ; as el, on, and even &o~re and the 
Infin. E. g. Cyr. 3. 1. 1 icpofielro on 6(p8r)o~eo-dai ep,e\\e ra (3aaiXeia oIko- 
dofiwv. Eur. IT. 1391 qbofios 6° rjv, &are p,r) rey^ai noda. Hec. 756 7rarr)p 
viv ei-eTrepsty-ev oppaidcov Qavelv, ne periret. 

4. "When, finally, it is to be expressed, that a purpose was at- 51 
tained or had been attained, when something else took place or 
had taken place, in this case the Indie, of an historical tense is 
employed, but without av. 

Examples: Soph. OT. 1386 sq. where the blind CEdipus complains, and 
Would gladly deprive himself also of hearing: tv* rjv rv(p\6s re /cat kKviov 
HrjSev, that I were, etc. And further on: la> Ktdaipav, ri p.' ov Aa/3aw eicrei- 
vas evdvs, as e8ei£a p,rjTrore, evBev rjv yeycos. So too in Plato, Crit. p. 44 el 
yap a>(pe\ov oioi re elvai ol ttoWoI ra p-eyiara kokcl e£epyd£eadai, iva oiolre 
fjcrav av Kal ayaOa. ra p.eyiara • vvv be ovberepa oloire. Id. Meno p. 89 raw 
ve<£>v rovs dyaOovs av eqbvXdrropev . . ., 'iva firjbels avrovs bie<p8eipev. — Only when 
a conditional clause is also inserted, is av retained; e. g. An. 7. 6. 23 ebei 
ra ivexypa rore Xa/3eTi/, a>s firjbe, el efiovkero, ebivaro av ravra e^anarav. 

F. Ecbatic or Consequential Clauses. 

1. These express a result (erc/3acns) or consequence. The ec- 52 
batic particle coare is compounded from co? and re, literally and 
so; in which sense it begins a clause, and corresponds fully to 
the Lat. itaque ; e. g. Anab. 1. 7. 7. In the signification so that, 

it is put with the Indie, of all the tenses, when it can be inter- 
changed with and so ; and likewise, in general, when the result 
or consequence is presented as one not actually purposed, but only 
as de facto existing, and mainly external. 

2. On the other hand, ware (for which also we find &>?) is con- 53 
strued with the Infinitive, when the result or consequence is to 
be regarded as in itself necessary, either as a matter of purpose, 

or as implied in the main clause. See m. 56, and § 140. 4. 

3. Instead of the Indicative, cocrre can naturally also be put 54 
with the Opt. and av, and with the historical tenses and av ; for 
which the Infin. with av can likewise stand, see m. 17 above. 
These constructions are sufficiently explained by the general def- 
inition, $ 139. 3. 

Examples: An. 2. 2. 17 ol be icpavyr)v iroXkr)v erro'iow mXovvres dXhr)\ovs 
mare Kal rovs woXefuovs aKoveiv, a purposed consequence J ware ol p.ev e'yyv- 



378 SYNTAX. * 139. ft 

rara rcov TroXeplcov kol ecpvyov eK rcov aKr)v<£, t iaTcov, a consequence arising 
only out of the preceding purposed one. 3. 3. 14 rois Scots x^P iv - 0Tt °v °"^ v 
7ToXXtj pa/xi], d\\a avv oXiyois rjXQov (sc. oi TroXepioi) • coare (BXdijfai pev fir) 
peydXa, dr/Xcoaai Se, cov deopeda. Mem. 3. 1. 9 dXX' ovk e8i8a£jev • coare 
avrovs av rjpas beoi rovs re ayaOovs kcu rovs kclkovs Kp'ivew. Agesi. 1. 26 
Trdvres iroXepiKa onXa KareaKeva^ov, coare rrjv ttoXlv ovrcos rjyrjaco av noXepov 
epyaarrjpiov eivai. Thuc. 2. 49 tci 8e euro? ovroos emero, coare p,rj8e yvpvol 
ave^ecrOai, rjdiard re av es vdcop yjfvxpbv acpas avrovs pinreiv. Comp. An. 
5. 9. 31. 

4. After a preceding demonstrative, as outgj? etc. we find ware 
followed sometimes by the Indicative (or other forms expressing 
the same relation), and sometimes by the Infinitive ; according 
to the mode of presentation which the writer connects with the 
clause. 

Examples: Cyr. 1. 4. 15 'Aarvdyns ovrcos fjadr) rfj rore Srjpa, coare de\ 
avve^rjei rco Kvpcp. — Mem. 4. 4. 1 (2ooKp. dnedeLKwro rols ap^ovai) TreiOope- 
vos ourcor ? coo-re t)iddr]Xos eivat irapd rovs aXXovs evraxrcov. 

55 Note 1. The Subjunctive is never used in connection with coare • because 
the relation of cause and effect is not an uncertain one, as to which experi- 
ence has still to decide (comp. m. 43) — not even when the ecbatic clause 
contains a Future ; which again is to be explained in the manner specified 
in m. 43. Still more would the relation of cause and effect be done away, 
were we to connect av immediately with coare ; since just this relation must 
ever be regarded as remote from all accidental conditions.* For the like 
reason the simple Optative is also not admissible ; nor can an example like 
Xen. GEc. 1. 13 : e'l rts XP$ TO T< P apyvplco, coare naKiov rb acopa e^ot . . . ttcos 
av en rb apyvpiov airco cofpeXipov evrj : contradict the truth of this remark ; 
since here the Opt. still belongs as it were within the conditional clause 
expressed by means of the Optative. 

50 Note 2. In like manner 77 coare (less often 77 cos) after comparatives, is con- 
strued most commonly with the Infinitive; e. g. vecorepoi elaiv 77 coare elde- 
vai oiW irarepcov eareprjvrai, they are younger than that they could Jcnow 7 
Engl, 'they are too young to know.' Also with the Indie, and av; e. g. 
An. 1. 5. 8 Sdrrov rj cos ris av coero. Here it is to be noted, that, instead 01 
the comparative, the positive may be employed, and consequently the fj 
falis away before coare, and this without any change in the sense ; since 
the negative meaning of the whole necessarily follows in every case from 
the context. E. g. Plat. Prot. p. 314 veoi en eapev, coare roaovrov npdypa 
dieXtadai, i. e. ' we are too young to be able ;' not : { we are so young, that 
we can^ etc. Cyr. 4. 5. 15 oXiyoi eapev, coare eytcparels eivai avrcov. 
Mem. 3. 13. 3 yjsvxpbv coare \0vaaa6a1 lar'iv. Eur. Androm. 80 yepcov 
<eti/of, Care a cocpeXelv irapcov. 

Note 3. In the same manner with coare, is construed also e'0' core, see 
§ 150. m. 9. 

57 5. When an ecbatic clause is preceded by the demonstrative 
adj. pronouns tolovtos and roaovrov, the corresponding relative 
pronouns olo$ and ocros are commonly put instead of coare, and 
like it are usually construed with the Infinitive ; in such a way, 
however, that the relative always stands in the same gender, 

.* In Plato Crit. p. 45. b, \evoi ouroi eV0a5e eroipoi avakiffKeiv • Sxrre, oirep Xeyto, 
fjL-{}Te Tcrvra tyofioviievos airo Kaprj s aavrhv aSicrai, the Subj. tills the place of the Im 
perativo ; just as in Soph. El. 1171 Sicrre p.)) \lav areve. 



* Io9. G". THE MOODS. 379 

number, and case, with the preceding demonstrative ; that is, an 
attraction takes place. Comp. the relative after ovrm, m. 35. b. 

Examples: Plat. Charm, p. 156. b, ecrn yap roiavrrj (f) bvvapis), oia prj 
bvvacrBat rr\v KecpaXrjv vyid iroielv. Mem. 2. 1. 15 bovkos roiovros, olos prjbev\ 
bevTTOTr] \vo~ire\eiv. Hdot. 6. 137 ioovrovs be cpaac yeveaOai roaovrco tKelv&v 
avbpas dpelvovas, oa-<a, napeov dnoKrelvai, ovk edeXrjaai sc. a7T0Kre1vai. Also 
with the preceding demonstr. omitted: Plato Theag. p. 127. c, <po[3ovpai 
vnep rovrov, prj nvi aXkco (sc. roiovrco) evrvxrj, olco rovrov biacpdelpai. Thuc. 
1. 2 vevopevoi ra avrcov eKaaroi, ocrov cnro^fiv. — In this way olos with the 
Infin. becomes fully an adjective, such as, 'so constituted as, 7 like bvvaros; 
e. g. Mem. 1. 4. 6 ot TxpoaBev obovres navi £gools oloi repveiv elai, oi be 
yopcpioi (the back teeth) oloi napa rovrcov be^dpevoi \eaivetv, i. e. such as . . . 
to crush. 

Gr. Transitive Clauses with on, &>?, after Verbs of saying, etc. 

1. The English that after verbs of saying and the like, is ex- .*>*■ 
pressed in Greek, sometimes by means of the Infinit. with the 
Ace. or Nom. k 142. 2, in many instances also by means of the 
participle, § 144 ; and sometimes by means of the conjunctions 
on, W9, poet, ovveica, oOovveica. These particles are followed by 
the simple Optative, when the idea introduced by on etc. is to 
be regarded expressly as the supposition of the subject speaking 
or thinking ; otherwise, they are followed throughout by the In- 
dicative, or the moods which come in place of it, viz. the Opt. 
with av, and the historical tenses with av. — The Subjunctive 
cannot follow these conjunctions ; for the same reason as above 
under causal clauses, m. 43. 

Examples: Havre? opoXoyovcnv, cos j; dperr/ Kpdnarov eari. An. 4. 5. 10 
avrat qpcorcov avrovs, rives eiev • 6 be. eppevevs eiirev, on Trapa [Baaikecos Tropev- 
oivro rrpbs rbv aarpdnnv ai be arreKpivavro, On ovk evravBrj e'i-q Krk. Or 
alternately the Indie, and Opt. ib. 2. 1. 3 ovroi eXeyov, on Kvpos pev reQvrj- 
kcv, 'AptaToy be necpevycos e'i-q kt\. Also the Opt. with av) ibid, ko.1 Xeyot, 
on irepipeiveiev av avrovs KrX. Comp. Cyr. 1. 6. 3. ib. 1. 3. 13. 

Note 1. For the personal construction of certain phrases, as Xeyerai, 
(pavepov eariy with on etc. and for other like matters, see § 151. I. 6. 7. 

Note 2. The English that can also be given in Greek by ore, when, as, 59 
after verbs signifying to remember, know by experience, and the like; e. g. 
Thuc. 2. 21 pepvqpevoi kal HXeicrrodvaKra, ore elafiaXcov direx^prjo-e irdXiv, lit. 
remembering also PI. when he, etc. comp. II. o. 18, and the example in 
§ 131. n. 15. 

Note 3. The English that can also be expressed by el, if, after the verbs 60 
$avpd£a> to wonder, dyaivdco to be content, alcrx^vopai to be ashamed, 
and some other verbs implying an emotion of mind ; since the Attics 
preferred to avoid a decided tone, even in things quite certain (ra. 15). 
Yet this el can properly be translated by that, only when it is construed 
with the Indicative; Cyr. 4. 5. 20 ovbev &avpd£co, el Kvagdprjs oKvel rrepl 
fjpeov. Dem. Mid. 29 ovk r/o-yw^?;, el roiovro kukov endyet rg>, thai he brought 
such evil upon any one. iEschin. p. 537 ovk ayaTrq., el prj biKtjv ebcoKev, lit. 
that he was not punished. So too after x a ^ncds (pepto Cyr. 5. 5. 12. — But 
on can also be used, e. g. Dem. 01. p. 37. 

Note 4. We also find w even before the words of a speaker quoted 61 
without change, and therefore wholly redundant ; Cyr. 5.2.9 6 Kvpos 



380 syntax. § 139. H 

direKplvaro, on, ecprj, a> Ta>(3pva, o'lopai kt\. — When minor clauses intervene 
immediately after on and a>9, the conjunction may be repeated : An. 5. 6, 
19 Xeyovaiv on, el fir/ eKnopiovo-i (m. 23) rfj o-rpana pucrdov, on Kivdvvevcrei 
pelvai roaravTrj 8vvap,is. Or the two conjunctions may alternate; Cyr. 5. 3. 
30. Hdot. 3. 71. Or further, in the like case, after the intervening clause, 
the construction of the Ace. c. Inf. or that with the Participle, may be in- 
troduced; and then on again is redundant; Cyr. 1. 6. 18 Xeyetr av, ore, 
&cnrep ovde yeoapyov dpyov ov8ev o<fieXo?, ovruas ovde crrpaTTjyov dpyov ovftev 
ocpeXo? elvai. Comp. Thuc. 4. 37 (Particip.) and § 141. n. 2; see also 
above in m. 36. 

H. Interrogative Clauses, direct and indirect. 

fi ^ 1. A direct interrogation is usually introduced by an interrog- 
ative particle, especially by apa ; also by aWo ti tj, ap ov, ovkovv, 
or simply ov, Lat. nonne, all implying usually an affirmative an- 
swer ; by apa firj or simply firf, jjlcov, pcov fjurj, ovkovv, Lat. num, im- 
plying mostly a negative answer ; and in a double interrogation 
by TTorepov ...tf; see all these in § 149. m. 18. Further, sometimes 
by interrogative pronouns ; to which belong also the adverbial in- 
terrog. pronouns irov; irol; etc. Such clauses are in their own 
nature independent ; and are consequently so construed. Yet the 
Grreek is especially fond of employing in questions the subjective 
form of the Opt. with av (m. 15) ; as tv elVot? av ; 7rw? av oXolto ; 
— For the Subjunct. in questions of doubt, see § 139. m. 2. 

6? 2. Indirect interrogations are introduced, either by the parti- 
cles el (i]v) whether, el fxr) or simply firf whether not, and in double 
interrogations etre . . . etre, irorepov ...rj, el...rj, r\ . . . 77 ; or also by 
the indirect interrogative pronouns and adverbial pronouns, oaris, 
ottov, o7re»?, otttjXikos, in place of which also the direct interroga- 
tive pronouns, rfc irov, etc. are just as often employed. Their 
construction is that of dependent clauses, and has been therefore 
already explained in the preceding discussion ; see the examples 
below in n. 1. — ¥e further remark here only, that in the con- 
struction with the Subjunctive, the particle av does not connect 
itself with the interrogative particle, as it does with the relatives. 
Indeed, this construction is scarcely found except after negative 
or doubtful assertions (see n. 2) ; so that in this Subjunctive we 
may again recognize the Conjunct, dubitativus described above 
in m. 2, as will appear from the examples. 

Examples: Soph. OT. 1367 ovk old' oWr ae epeo (Be fiovXev or dat koXcos: 
Cyr. 8. 4. 16 ra 8e eKncopara, e(pt], ovk old\ el Xpvo-dvTa tovtco 85). Eur. Or. 
713 KovKer elo~\v eXnides; otttj rpanopevos Qdvarov cpvyco. 

84 Note 1. After affirmative clauses therefore, we find either the Indicative 
(or forms standing in place of it) ; or, especially after historical tenses, the 
Optative. E. g. Xen. An. 7. 3. 37 aKe^rai roivvv, el 6 'EXXtjvikos vopos koXXlov 
e^ei. Soph. Ant. 38 deigei? rd^a, eir' evyevrj? neepvKas, eir' eordXcov KaKt], 
Mem. 3. 12. 8 alo-xpov yrjpdaat, jrplv I8e7v eavrov, irolos av koKXio~tos yevoi- 
to. — An. 4. 8. 7 rjpcoTciv el 8olev av rovrav ra mard. 2. 28 epa>T£>o~iv et ns 
cBeXoi avp7ropevecrdai. Other examples will occur in reading. See also 
for the Indicative the general remarks below m. 67 sq. 



§ 139. H. THE MOODS. 381 

Note 2. That the Subjunctive also is found after affirmctive clauses (no. 85 
2 above), is to be explained from the circumstance, that there are certain 
affirmative modes of expression, in which the Conjunct, dubitativus is sup- 
posable ; e. g; in double questions: iEsch. Prom. 779 iXov yap, r) to. Xotnd 
aoi qbpdo-co, rj rbv eKXvaovr' ipe. Comp. II, v. 742. t. 701 ; or alternately 
with Subj. and Opt. II. or. 307. Or, as in Hdot. 1. 53 (comp. 2. 52) KpoTo-oy 
evereXXero eTreiparav ra xPV a " r ^lP ia > el orr parevqrat eVt Tlepaa? Kpotcror, 
' whether he might venture to make war against the Persians ;' and yet it is 
then said further: koL el nva crrparbv npocrdeoiTO o-vppaxov, i.e. a single 
question, and ivhether, if so, he might better secure allies. 

Note 3. To such indirect interrogative clauses, even when they are in 66 
the Subjunctive, Homer adds the particle ne, e.g. II. x- 244 ; especially in 
the apparently independent a'i ice or e'lice with the Suhjunct. e.g. II. e. 
279. a. 420 a'i ice rt^co/u, iziBr\rai, Od. a. 379 Seov? eirtfiaxTopai, a'i ice noOt 
Zev? dooo-t naXivTira epya yevecrdat. — In close connection with this is the pro- 
saic usage of eav after verbs implying to examine, see to, as o-KOTreh, opav. 
E. g. Plat. Gorg. p. 510. b, tnconet of), eav crot Sokcd ev Xeyetv, comp. Theaet, 
p. 192. e. So too elliptically, like the Homeric e'Ue ; e.g. Alcib. I. p. 122 
prjbe tovto fjplv apprjrov eorco, eav Trees a'tcrOrj ov el. 

Note 4. For other remarks upon the interrogative clauses, see § 127. 5. 
§ 151. I. 6, 7. 



General Remarks 
on the use of the Moods in dependent Clauses. 

Note 1 . The rule that the Subjunctive is used after primary tenses, and 67 
the Optative after historical tenses, we have found to be confirmed ; but only 
in general. Accordingly, the change of a primary tense in the main clause 
for an historical tense, must have an influence upon the mood of the de- 
pendent clause ; and particularly, in all cases where the Grammar makes a 
distinction in the double construction with the Subj. and Optative, the con- 
struction with the Subj. connects itself by preference with a primary tense, 
and that with the Opt. with an historical tense. E. g. the clause : tcai, eav 
tl e^co^ei/, dcooopev, if made dependent on eiceXevo-ev would read : ko\ fjpd?, el 
rt exotpev, eiceXevo-ev Sovvat. Or, the example in Dem. Phil. 3. p. 122, oi 
y A0r)valot eic6Xa£ov Ka\ enpeopovvro, ov? a'ioOotvro bcopoboKovvra?, if referred to 
the present time would read : oi *A$. KoXd^ovat ml Ttpcopovvrai, ov? av a'i- 
o-8iovTat dapoo'oKovvTa? ) and so vice versa. So too Isseus de Arist. Her. 17 
oi piv, orav irepX xprjpdrcov dvarvx^ari, rov? crcperepovs avrcov Tralda? eh 
erepov? o'iicov? elo~Trotovo~ tv, tva prj /xerao-^cocri rrjs rod ivarpb? artpia? • 
ovtoi Se apa el? vrroxpecov ovaiav /cat oiKodev elo~eTvoiovv trcpas avrov?, Iva koX 
to. vTrdpxovra it poo-airoXecretav. Still, as both the Opt. and Subj unct. 
depend wholly on the supposition which the writer in every case connects 
with the clause, and not alone on the preceding tense, there are examples 
enough of departure from the above rule ; e. g. 1) Where the Subjunctive 
folloivs an historical tense ; thus after the final particles (tva etc. m. 45), and 
with pfj after verbs of fearing, etc. see m. 50. We find also, just as often, 
idv, oo-Tt? av, ottov av, erretbdv, with the Subj. in narration, especially in the 
indirect style, when the same construction would have place in the direct 
style ; e. g. Xen. Hell. 2. 1. 24 Avaavftpos ra? vav? e/ceXevaev eneadat • eirei- 
bav be eic{3a)oiv, aTroTrXelv. 2) Where the Optative folloivs a primary tense; 
e. g. after final particles, and after pfj implying fear, anxiety. But also 
elsewhere; e. g. Dem. 01. 3. p. 38 ttjv avrrjv orvvragtv arravTcov (sc. Xeyco v. 
fiovXopat), 'tva tcov koivcov eKaaro? to pepo? Xapj3dvcov, orov beotro fj noXts, 
eh Tov8 y eroipos vTrapxy. See other examples in m. 64, 65. 

Note 2. In respect to the particle av, we have seen, that it often stands 68 



382 SYNTAX. § 139 

in dependent clauses expressed by the Subjunctive, while the Optative re- 
jects it. Nevertheless, the case is not infrequent, (although the learnej 
will do well at first to regard such cases rather as exceptions from the rule,' 
that, since in clauses with the Subjunctive the civ is always closely united 
with the conjunction or pronoun, when the construction passes over into the 
Optative, this latter retains the civ with the conjunction or pronoun, withoul 
forming the mood described above in m. 15. Hence examples are not seldom 
of oaris civ, ineiddv, ea>? civ, irpiv civ, oivorav, ott<£>? 'civ, even orav and edv, con- 
nected with the Optative; e.g. Xen. Cyr. 5. 5. in. eireo-TeXXev avrco rJKeiv. 
O7rcor crvp.(3ovXos yiyvoiTO, 6,rt av doKoirj Trpdrreiv. An. 7. 5. 8 ifiefxvijtc^ 
cos, eneiddv eVi SaXarrav drveXOoi, Trapaddxroi avrco ~Biadvdr]v. lb. 7. 7. 57 
ebeovro p.rj aTreXOelv, tt p\v av array ay ot, to arpdrevp-a kcu Qiufip&vi Trapa- 
doiT]. Comp. Hell. 2. 4. 18. ib. 5. 4. 47 'AyrjaiXaos eiceXeve cpykdrreiv, ecus 
av avrbs eXdoi. Dem. Mid. 5 ttjv napacrKevrjv, r/v av Tropic air 6 tis, ovk 
coecrde xPV vaL vj3pi£ea6ai. So after orav iE.sch.yl. Pers. 448; after idv Thuc. 
8. 27. Still, many of these instances are not sufficiently settled by the 
manuscripts; so that the editions often vary between the Subjunctive and 
Optative. See also Thuc. 2. 93 prj av. Anab. 7. 4. 2 oVcor av. 

69 Note 3. The usual mood in sermone obliquo, especially in narration, 
is the Optative ; and hence also the Optative is commonly found in inter- 
jected clauses in the indirect style; e. g. Xen. Agesi. 1. 10 Tio~o~a(pepvr}? a>p,o- 
aev, el o~7reicraiTO, ecos i'Xdoiev, ov? irep.Tvaeie irpos (BacriXea dyyeXovs, dianpdge- 
o-Bai ktX. But as the Greek language, in dependent clauses in general, 
employs the Indicative far oftener than the Latin, (e. g. after final particles 
and those marking consequence, comp. m. 34,) it also does the same in in- 
terjected (parenthetic) clauses in sermone obliquo. For as Greek writers in 
general are fond of a sudden transition from the indirect style to the direct, 
(e.g. Hell. 2. 1. 25 'AXKiftiddrjs ovk iv koXco e(pr) avrovs 6pp,elv, dXXd p,e6op- 
picrai es 2t)o-t6v naprjvei' ov ovres vavp,axr}0-ere, ecprj, orav (3ov\r)cr8e. Comp. 
Cyr. 1. 4. 28 extr. 5. 3. 54. ib. 8. 3. 3,) so too the Indicative is not sel- 
dom abruptly introduced, where according to all the laws of construction 
we should expect a dependent mood, and where too the Latin regularly em- 
ploys the Subjunctive. We give here a single example from Xen. An. 1. 3. 
14: Eiy 8e S?) elrre, aTparrjyovs p.ev eXeo~0ai aXXovs a>s ra^tcrra, el p-q (BovXe- 
rai KXeapxo? dirdyeiv ■ — iXOovras Se Kvpov alrelv nXola, cos diroTiXeoiev • edv 
de p,rj didco ravra (see m. 67), rjyep.6va alreiv Kvpov, octtis bid (piXias rrjs x<*>P as 
dird^ei' — neural SV, Ka\ TtpoKaTaXn^rop-evovs ra aKpa, onoos p.rj cpddo-u>ai (see 
m. 45) p-rjre 6 Kvpos p.r\re oi KiXiKes KaraXafiovres, hv noXXovs Kal noXXd XPV~ 
p.ara exop.ev qpiraKores. Comp. Cyr. 4. 2. 36. Dem. 01. 1. p. 12, etc. 

70 Note 4. Here also is to be noted, though not of frequent occurrence, the 
Optative without av in the indirect style, instead of the Indicative. This 
corresponds to the German Subjunctive in the indirect style ; and is found 
only when it forms the continuation of an indirect clause introduced by on, 
cos, or the Infinit. e. g. An. 7. 3. 13 eXeyov 7roXXoi, on rravrbs agia Xeyei 2eu 
6rjs • ^et/xwi/ yap e'i-q ko.\ o'Uade aTro7rXelv ov hvvarov e'lrj. Also Soph. Phil. 
615. Plat. Rep. p. 420. c, etc. 

71 Note 5. In conclusion of this whole discussion respecting the moods, it 
may be well to note here some especially instructive passages from the 
books most frequently read; e. g. Demosth. Phil. 3. p. 128. (14 ineivo ye 
alcrxpdv, varepov ttot elnelv ktX.) Xen. Cyr. 5. 3. 26-28. Mem. 1. 5. ib. 1. 
2. 55 and espec. 59 sq. ib. 3. 6. 16-18; also the continuation of the example 
in m. 69, An. 1. 3, 15 sq. 

72 Note 6. The syntax of the Imperative does not require a separate dis- 
cussion The single passages which treat of it are fully given in the Index. 



* 140 THE INFINITIVE. 383 

THE INFINITIVE. 
§ 140. General Construction. 

1. The Infinitive is that form of the verb, which merely ex- 
presses the idea of the verb indefinitely, that is, without any re- 
lation of person or mood. In this way, on the one hand, it ap- 
proaches the nature of a substantive ; as is shewn by its receiv- 
ing the article (no. 5), and by its position as subject or object in 
a clause. On the other hand, it retains its verbal character, in 
that it admits the distinction of tenses and the various verba] 
constructions. It is used wherever not only the Latin, but also 
the English, requires the Infinitive, either simply or with to; 
and frequently likewise where both these languages employ the 
Subjunctive. Thus it is found : 

a) As the subject of a clause, as in Latin, after the impersonal 
words and phrases Set, nrpoo-rjiceL, tcaXov ian, ayaOov ean, and 
many others ; e.g. Sec \eyetv • r)8v ^rrjpav. 

b) As the complement of an incomplete verbal idea ; and this, 
not only as in Latin after verbs signifying to be wont, to be able, 
to think of, to endeavour, etc. but also where in Latin a con- 
junction is employed (ut, quin, quominus), as after verbs of en- 
treating, commanding, exhorting, doubting, etc. E.g. oloar' 
elfu iroielv • Sio/ial gov nrapafieveiv • irapaivco \eyeiv, etc. 

c) After verbs which imply a reference to the future, (as pik- 
\eiv, eXiri^etv, avaftaXkeaOat, vTrLa^vetaOai, and the like,) the 
Grreek language fills out the idea by subjoining the Infinitive 
Future ; where in English we do it less perfectly by means of 
the Infin. Present. 

Examples: Dem. 01. 3. p. 31 et tis vpcov dvafidWeTcu Troiqore iv rot biov- 
ra y I8e7v iyyvOev fiovkeraL ret deivd. Cyr. 1. 6. 4 ekirl^eLS 1 rev^eadai coy dv 
hirj. Comp. also § 137. n. 11. 

Note 1. That instead of the Inf. Fut. we often find the Inf. Aor. and 
Pres. with dv, has already "been noted. § 139. m. 18. Still, not unfrequently 
the simple Inf. Aor. as an indefinite tense 3 fills the place of the Future; 
e. g. Plato Phsedo p. 67. e, e/celo-e ep^ovrai, oi dcpiKopevois thirls io~Tiv, ov did 
fi'iov fjpoiv, tvx*1v- So too with ace. c. infin. Cyr. 2. 4. 15 ikirifa, eW- 
vovs i\6elv irpbs ere pdXkov. See Heind. ad Plat. Phsed. 32. 

d) For the Infin. with purj, after certain verbs, see § 148. n. 9. 

2. Kindred with this is the Infinitive, which is put after an 
adjective (or also a substantive), either for completeness or for 
greater definiteness, like the Ace. described in \ 131. 7. Here 
the Infinit. Active is employed, not only where the relation is 
active, but also where it is of a passive kind, where the Latins 
put the Supine in u. Still, in such cases, the Infin. Passive is 
not unusual. 

Examples : imTf)8eio$ ttoieiy ti. — ov deivos eon XeyeiK, aXX' dbvvaros crtyav, 
— Eur. IT. 1002 deival yvvaiizes evplarKeiv Tej(pas. — rjdv duoveiv, suave auditu 
—Saviia IbeoOai, mir^hile visu, Horn. — pddtos vorjaai. — 7roXty ^aAe^ Xa/3«z>. — 



384 SYNTAX. t 140 

to. deovra dnt.v, dicenda, Dem. — Plut. Thes. 23 veavio-Kos SrjhvcpavrjS 6(p0r)vai, 
as in Horace ni'jeus videri. — a{-ios [xiaeiaOai iEschin. p. 67. 

Note 2. By means of a certain syntactical license, this Infin. of comple 
ment is sometimes put epenthetically after a word, on which other noun- 
adjuncts already depend ; or, these noun- adjuncts are made to refer to the 
other word rather than to the Infinitive. E. g. Plat. Crit. p. 52. b, ovk eVt- 
6vp.ia ae £\\r]? 7rdXecoy ovd' aWcov vop.cov ekafiev elbevai. Legg. 1. p. 626 
donel? fioi rr)s Seov eTroovvpias a£io9 elvai pdXkov err ovo p.d£eo- 6 ai. Soph. 
Phil. 536 rrpos ri p.evovp.ev Trpacrcreiv. Comp. II. co. 35 rov vvv ovk erX-qre 
aacoaat fj r' ako^co Ideeiv kclI p,r)repi ktX. 

3. The Infinitive is put also after a complete predicate-idea, to 
express purpose or result ; where the Latin employs either con- 
junctions, or the construction with the G-erund or Particip. Fut. 
Passive. 

Examples: edooKev airo dovXco (poprjcrat,. — 6 avdpanros necpvKe (pikelv. — Plat. 
Apol. p. 33. b, Trape^co ep.avrdv epcorqv, 'that they should ask me.'— Ittttov 
Trapeze rep dvdpl dvafirjvai. — Xen. Ages. 4. 3 'Ay. ray avrco ^aptrar {gifts) dcpet,- 
Xop.evas rfj TTCLTpLbi KapTvovcrOai rrapedioov. — Anab. 2. 2. 3 ep.o\ Svop-evco levat 
irri rov fia<ji\ea ovk eyiyvero rd lepd, as I sacrificed in order to go against the 
king, the sacred rites were not favourable ; and further on: levai 8e rrapd tovs 
Kvpov (piXovs, Trdvv Kakd rjp.lv ra lepd rjv, but to go with the friends of Cyrus 
the sacred rites were altogether favourable ; taken from the common phrase 
eKaWiepee ravra rroielv e. g. Hdot. 6. 76. — Mem. 3. 6. 15 'Adrjvaiovs rravras 
vopi^eis dvvrjaecrdai woir/crca neldecrdai aoi ; — Plat. Prot. p. 329 apuKpov rivos 
evderjs elp.i rravr e^eiv. 

4. When the Infinitive expresses a result or consequence, it 
usually takes coare before it, and less often &)?, as has been already 
noted ; see in § 139. F. This occurs always in prose, when a 
demonstrative of degree (ovrcos, e? rocrovro, etc.) precedes ; often 
likewise after certain verbs, as 7tol€lv, hiairpdrreaOai, irelOeiv, ^rr]- 
tyfyadai, av/jicpepeiv, o-v/jbfirjvai, and the like ; also after adjectives, 
as ifcavos, ahvvaros, etc. — For the Infin. after olos, ocros, see § 139. 
m. 57 ; and for the use of this coo-re with finite tenses, see § 139. F. 

Examples: Mem. 1. 2. 1 'ScoKpdrrjs rjv Tverraihevpievos ovrcos, coo-re Trdvv 
pqoLcos ex eLV dpKovvra. — Cyr. 3. 2. 29 cprjalv Treipdcreadai 7roir)o-ai, (bare ae 
vo/xi^etv Ka\a>s fiefiovkevadai. — Hdot. 6. 5 'larialos ovk erreide tovs Xiovs 
coo-re ecovrco dovvai veas. — Plat. Gorg. 478 'Ap^eAao? d ierr pd£aro chare pr)re 
Ko\d£eadm p.r)re didovcu 81kt)v. — Thuc. 5. 14 £vve(3r) coare 7ro\ep,ov pL7)8ev en 
a^-aadai p-rj^erepovs. — Plat. Prot. p. 338 ddvvarov vplv coo-re IJpcorayopot 
ao<pa>repov riv ekeaOai. 

Note 3._ The omission of coo-re before the Infin. after a preceding demon- 
strative of degree, is poetic; e. g. iEschyl. Ag. 490 ris code cppevcov KeKop,p.e- 
ves, dXXayq \6yov Kap.elv. See the example from Eur. Or, 559, in § 139. 
m. 30 a. So too the omission of ofor (ib. m. 57): II. £. 463 XV T€ '^ toiovo* 
dv8po9, (sc. olov) dpivveiv dovkiov f)pap. Compare the use of the demon- 
strative before the Infin. in § 127. 1. e, and § 132. n. 22. And following 
the same analogy, ovrcos is found sometimes, though not often, in prose, as 
redundant before the Infinitive, or preparing the way for it; e. g. Cyr. 8. 
7. 10 eTratdevdrjv ovrcos 1 vtto rrjs Trarpidos, rols Tvpeo-fivrepois vrr eiKeiv • koX 
vp-d? 8e ovrco? erraldevovj rov? pep yepairipovs tt ponp-av, tcov be vecorepcov 
irpoTeriprjcrdai. 

Note 4. The Infin. of some short parenthetic cla.uses may be referred to 
the preceding constructions ; e. g. drfkcos elrrelv to speak briefly, in short. 
So too efjtoi SoKelv it seems to me, in my opinion ; okiyov v. paKpov delv, it 



$ 140. THE INFINITIVF. 885 

wants little, almost, nearly; ttoXXov Sea/, it wants much, not by a great deal. 
For the i^ersonal construction of such verbs, see in § 151. 1. 7. So too the 
[nfin. often stands after as, oaov, in parenthetic clauses ; e. g. <»r awTopcos 
sljreiv, ws arvvehovTi elirdv (for which also simply orvveXovn can stand, comp. 
§ 145. n. 3), so to speak briefly ; oaov y' ip.e dbivai so far as I know; a>v twos 
elrrelv so to speak; as elicdo-ai, etc. See Heind. ad Plat. Hipp. maj. 11. 

5. The Infinitive also takes the article to, and thus is capable 
of declension ; as has already been noted, in § 125. 8. It admits 
likewise therewith the nearer adverbial and objective adjuncts ; 
as to fcaXcos airoOavelv, to tovs (f>l\ov<; ahi/celp, to vtto toov (pl\rov 
dhucelcrQat, etc. The article is commonly prefixed, whenever the 
Infinitive fills the place of a substantive and can readily be ex- 
changed for one. This occurs in a threefold way : 

a) When the Infin. is the subject of a clause, and the clause 
contains a general sentiment ; e. g. ^aXeirov to iroielv, to he /ce\ev- 
o~ai pahiov. 

Note 5. If the clause contain no general sentiment, the article is not in 
se/t^d ; e. g. Hdot. 3. 71 inel fie is Aapelov cnri/cero yvcopuqv aTroCpaiveadac. 
eXeye roidbe. We must distinguish between r)hv to Srjpdv and r)8v Srjpav. 
Also after a preparatory demonstrative in the main clause (§ 127. 1. e), the 
article is commonly omitted; since the former supplies its place; e. g. Eur. 
Hipp. 470 iv aocpolcn yap rdfi' e'crrt SvrjTeov, \av8dv€Lv ra p.r) naXd. Eur. 
Or. 1161 fidpos tl Kav r«uS' e'crnV, alvelcrdai Xlav. Comp. § 132. n. 22. 

Note 6. But when the Infin. stands as if in apposition with the subject- 
noun, the article is inserted; e. g. Time. 1. 41 77 evepyeaia r) is 2aplovs, to 
t>C rj/jids UeXoTTOvvqcriovs toIs *2ap,iois p,r) (3 or) Or) o~ at, ixapeo-^ev vp.lv tt)v ^aplodv 
Kokaaiv. Cyr. 7. 5. 52 rjXdev r) heivr) dyyekia, to TvdvTas dvdpdnrovs i(f> r)p,ds 
avWiy eadat. 

b) Yf hen the Infin. is the object of a clause ; and consequently 
depends on verbs which govern the Accusative, or also the Geni- 
tive of object. Here the Infin. must be regarded as the real ob- 
ject of the action expressed by the principal verb, and conse- 
quently as a substantive. 

Examples : Cyr. 1. 4. 21 coenrep kv&v yevvaios (pepeTau npos Kairpov, ovtoos 
6 Kvpos icpeptTO, novov opa>v to Traieiv tov d\io-Kop,evov. Dem. Phil. p. 41 
ctkottwv to re Tikr)8os tt)s 8vvdp,ec£>s ml t 6 To. ywp/a rravra oV o X co X e v a i TTj 
rrokei. Mem. 4. 3. 1 to p.ev ovv XeKTiKovs kal TtpaKTiKovs yiyveaBai tovs avvov- 
Tas ovk eo-nevdev. Comp. Hdot. 9. 79. 

Note 7. So soon however as the Infinitive is only the complement of the 
idea expressed by the governing verb, and consequently combines with this 
into one predicate, it admits no article ; since it then is taken merely in a 
verbal sense. E. g. (3ov\op.ai \iyetv, also ivudvpLG), napacvS), /ceXet><y Xe'yeiy, etc. 
Here again we must distinguish between Hell. 1. 6. 10 Kvpos del dz/e/3aAXerd 
pot. diaXe^drjpaL, and Mem. 3. 6. 6 to p.ev irhovcnaTepav ty)v ttoKiv ttol€iv dva- 
$a\ovp.e6a. 

c) More especially the article stands before the Infinitive, when 
the latter depends on a Preposition, or the construction requires 
it to be in the Genitive or Dative. By means of this mode of 
construction, which is especially frequent in Greek prose, the 
Infinitive was used to express, not only very many adjuncts 
which in other languages require a whole clause with a conjunc- 

Bb 



386 SYNTAX. § 140. 

tion ; but also abstract nouns. But here, any adjunct which 
might stand in the Grenitive with such a noun, must with the 
Infin. be put in that case which the verb requires. 

Examples : 'Adrjvd eppi-^re tovs 1 avkov? 8id to ttjv o\J/lv avTjjs Troielv cipop- 
(pov, because ) etc. — to pev ovv eirlopKov KuXelv tivol avev tov to. rrenpaypeva 
deiKvvvai, \oiodpla eaTiv, without shewing, etc. — to likovreiv ecrriv iv tg> XPV~ 
adai paWov i) iv rco KeKTTJadai. — Dem. 01. p. 16 to yap ev irpdrTeiv napd ttjv 
d£iav dcpopp.rj tov kcikcds (ppovelv roTr avorjTois yiyveTai, SidVep 7toWo.kis 8oK.el 
to <pv\d£ai t ay a 6 a tov KTrjcracrOai ^aXerrcoTepov eivai, i. e. to keep property 
is more difficult than to acquire it. 

Note 8. On the other hand, the article is not inserted, even after a sub- 
stantive, wherever the Infin. expresses only a filling out or complement of 
the idea on which it depends (see no. 2. b, and n. 7), or the governing noun 
with its verb combine into one predicate-idea. This may be seen in the 
following examples : Isocr. p. 349 ol prjTope? tov? aWovs 8 id do- k eiv t^x vj ] v 
e%ovo-i, equiv. to iniaTavTai. Time. 1. 16 iireyeveTo aWois re aXXodi kcoAv- 
/xara p.rj av^rjdrjvai, i. q. eicoAvovTO. Comp. Xen. Mem. 2. 1. 25. So after 
adjectives : Soph. Ant. 1173 t^Qvoxtw ol 8e favTes cutioi Savelv ; see above- 
in no. 2. — But when the article is wanting after a preposition, or, generally, 
wherever the Infinitive is taken substantively, this is a freer or poetic usage ; 
e. g. Eur. Ale. 11 irah Qtpnros, bv Savelv ippvo-dp.rjv, i. e. from death. 
Hdot. 1. 158 'ApiaTodiKos eVye p.r) TToirjarai Tavra Kvp.atovs. (Contra, An. 
3. 5. 116 do-K.6? 8vo avdpas e^ei tov p.rj KaTa8vvai, i. e. from sinking, so as 
not to sink.) Hdot. 1. 210 av, a> (3aai\ev, dvTi p.ev 8ovXiC>v iffoirjaas e\ev6e- 
pov? Tlepaa? elvai' dvr\ 8e apx^o-Qai vir y aX\<x>v, apx^v dirdvTcdv. 

Note 9. Sometimes the Infin. with to (Acc.) is found, where the con- 
struction strictly requires the Genitive. E. g. Thuc. 3. 1 tov opuXov e tpyov 
to prj to. iyyv? ttjs 7r6Xecoy naicovpyiev. Comp. 2. 53. Plat. Lach. p. 190. e. 
See also the next note. 

Note 10. The Infinitive with the article in the Genitive sometimes ex- 
presses a purpose; but commonly only in entire clauses ; e. g. Thuc. 1. 23 
gvveypayjsa tci? dtacpopds, tov p.rj Tiva ^nrrjerai iroTe, e£ otov toctovtos 7roAepor 
KaTeo-Tt], that no one may ever have to inquire; comp. Cyr. 1. 3. 9. It is 
usual here to assume an omission of evetca ; § 132. 8. — The poets in this sense 
can even put to before the Infinitive : Soph. OT. 1416 napeo-d' ode KpeW,. 
to it pdo~ creiv Kal to fiov\eveiv. Eur. Ale. 710 av y' ovv dvaidas; 8iep.d- 
X<JV to firj S-aveiv. See Exc. 11 ad Dem. Mid. 

Note 11. There is still another Infinitive with tov, the explanatory or 
cpexegetical Infinitive, so called, which serves to explain an abstract noun, 
where we should expect rather the case of the preceding noun. E.g. Dem. 
Pac. p. 62 \a(3e1v rj(3ov\eTO tt)v 86 ^av tov rroKepov, tov 8oK.elv 6V avTov 
Kplcriv elkrjcpevai. Plat. Legg. 2. p. 657 rj ttjs rjdovrj? Ka\ Xt^r ^Tncri? tov 
(rjTetv del Kaivf] povaiKrj xpW@ al KT ^- Phsed. p. 97 f) £vvo8os tov TrXn- 
a iov d\\r]\a>v TeOrjvai. 

6. Between the article and the Infinitive, there may be inter- 
posed not only near adjuncts of the Infinitive, but also entire sub- 
ordinate clauses. 

Example : Mem. 1. 2. 4 (2a>KpdTn?) to p.ev ovv vrrepeadiovTa v-nepnoveiv 
dTceooKip.a(e [he disapproved) , to 8e, ocra y' rfieoo? fj yfrvxrj 8ex €TCtl > ra ^ Ta iKavcos 
eKnovelv, edoKip.a£e. Comp. CEc 13. 6. 

7. The Infinitive often stands wholly independent, instead of 
the Imperative of the second person. In this case, the subject 
(if expressed), and all the declinable adjuncts belonging to it, re- 



? 141. THE INFINITIVE. 38 



main in the Nominative ; comp. § 141. n. 6. Hero it is usual 
(though unnecessary) to supply ^efiv^ao or the like. 

Examples: II. p. 692 JXXa crvy' aty 1 'A^tX^t, $e<j>v enl vrjas 'Axaiav, 
elrrelv. — Plat. Soph. p. 218. a, av §' apa ti tQ> prjKei ttovcov a^%, prj e/xc 
atTiao-dat tovtcov. See Heind. ad Plat. Lys. 18. 

§ 141. The Infinitive with its Subject. 

1. When the Infinitive has a subject of its oivn, that is, a dif- 
ferent one from that of the main sentence, the fundamental rule 
is, that this subject, with all its declinable adjuncts, whether 
substantives, adjectives, or participles, is then put in the Accu- 
sative. Thus with the Infin. introduced by the article, to, tov, tS : 

Examples : Soph. Trach. 65 to ere Trarpos pr) nvdecrdai ttov 'gtiv, alcrxyvrjv 
(pepei sc. croi. Plat. Symp. p. 218 epol ovdev earn TtpeafivTepov tov <yy /3e'X- 
tlcttov ipe yeveadai. Dem. 01. p. 29 e* tov Trpbs 1 x ( *P LV Srjprjyopeiv evlovs 
eh Tray TrpoeXrjXvde poj(6r]pias tcl rrpdypaTa. Xen. Apol. 14 aTrcaTovai r<5 epe 
TeTipijo-dai v7ro daipov&v. Pint. Mor. p. 223 K.Xeo/xeV^s' "Apyou? a7TcVecre, 8u\ 
to ray yvvaltcas 07rXotf clvtov apvveo-Qai. 

When also the subject of the Infinitive is not separately express- 
ed, or is left indefinite, the declinable adjuncts belonging to it are 
still put in the Accusative ; provided always, as before, that this 
implied subject is different from that of the main sentence. Thus 
again with the Infin. introduced by the article : 

Examples: Plat. Crit. p. 49 ovberroTe 6p6oiS e^ei to kclkcos tt a. o~ ^o v t a 
apvveaOai clvt id pcovTa kciko)?, that one suffering evil should avenge himself 
by returning evil. — Cyr. 5. 4. 19 to apapTaveiv avd pcoTtovs ovtcis ovdev 
SavpaaTov. — Dem. 01. p. 20 ovk eaTiv abiKovvTa kcu emo pnovvTO. duva- 
uiv fiefia'iav KTrjcraadat.. 

2. In G-reek, as in Latin, we find especially what is called the 
construction of the 

Accusative with the Infinitive, Accus. cum Infin. 
This occurs when after verbs, and particularly verbs with the 
general idea to say, to believe, there follows a dependent Infini- 
tive-clause having its own subject in the Accusative, as above in 
no. 1. E. g. ol fjbvdoXojoL <fiao~i, tov Ovpavov hvvacrTevcrai Trp&TOv 
tov ttcivtos, mytholo gists say, Uranus first ruled over the uni- 
verse. This construction is used especially, when whole sentences 
are expressed in sermone obliquo ; where in English we employ 
the simple Indicative as above, with or without the conjunction 
that. 

Note 1. As in narrative the historical Present often takes the place of 
the Aorist, so in the oblique style the Infin. Present does the same. E. g. 
Plat. Symp. p. 175 pera raGra i'epr) acpa? pev benrvelv, tov be Sco/cpar?/ ovk 
elaievai. Comp. Hdot. 6. 137. Xen. Mem. 2. 6. 31. 

Note 2. Along with the construction of the Accus. c. Infin. there altern- 
ate, without any difference of signification, clauses with Conjunctions (otl, 
o>r, etc. § 139. G), often in one and the same sentence ; e. g. Xen. Hell. 4. 3. 1 
ayyeXXet AepKuXXtSar, on viKaev re AaKedaipoviot, koi avT&v pev Tedvdvai 6kto>, 
rcov Se rto'Xepicav irapTrXrjde'i?. Indeed, by means of a certain anncoluthon x 



388 SYNTAX. § 141. 

{he two constructions pass over the one into the other ) see ar example 
above. § 139. m. 61. Xen. Hell. 6. 5. 42 iXiri^eiv xpfy "$ av8pa? dyadovs 
pdXXov i} kcikov? avTovs yevrjcreo-dat. Comp. Cyr. 2. 1. 23. Hdot. 7. 226.— 
From the converse of this relation has probably arisen the very extensive 
usage, that the subject of a dependent clause introduced by a conjunction, 
is put with the verb of the main sentence in the Accusative ; e. g. aicovco 
avrov, as a77fe)Xero. See more on this construction in § 151. I. 6. 

Note 3. Through a want of syntactical exactness, we sometimes find, 
even in the direct style, main clauses with the Accus. c. Infin. This arises 
from an almost involuntary attraction towards some preceding verb of 
speaking, etc. and the clause appears grammatically incomplete. E. g. 
Hdot. 4. 5 cos Se 2,Kv6at \eyovai, vecorarov cmavT<i>v iQveuov elvat to crcpeTepov 
(as if preceded by : 2k. Aeyouo-i). 95 6)S eyco irvvBdvopai tovtcov, tov ZdXpo^iv 
dovXevaai iv 2dpcp. Comp. also Xen. An. 6. 4 (2). 18 cos eya> fJKovo-d twos, 
otl KAecu'Spo? /liXkei rj^eiv. 

3. When the subject of the Infinitive is one and the same with 
that of the main sentence, it is not expressed ; not even after 
verbs which are usually followed by the Ace. c. Infin. e. g. ecprj 
<nrovha%ew s dixit se festinare. The learner in such cases must 
not be misled by the Latin idiom, to supply the Lat. se {me, te) ' 
of the subject by eavrov etc. — The same rule holds good, when 
the Infinitive-clause depends on a conjunction (as irpiv, ware), 
and the subject remains the same. 

Examples: An. 1. 3. 1 ol aTpaTLcoTai ovk e(pacrav Uvat tov 7rpocra> • vnco- 
tttcvov yap eVi fiao-iXea iiycw pio-8a>6rjvai Se ovk irri tovtco ecpaaav ktX. Cyr. 
2. 2. 10 nidavoX ovTOiS elai Tives, aiare, irplv eldevai to npocrTaTTopevov tt poTepo* 
Trtldeo-dai. 

Note 4. A deviation from this rule is rare, at least in good prose ; e. g, 
Plato Charm, p. 173 olpai p.ev Xnpdv /xe, and often after olp.ai, Legg. p : 
&60. c. Soph. p. 234. e. In strictness such a deviation can only have place ' 
1) When some special emphasis requires the express repetition of the sub- 
ject in the dependent clause; see the examples. 2) When still other sub- 
jects are introduced in the dependent clause ; but then the Nominative also 
can stand with the Infinitive. On the second point see more in $ 142. n. 3, 
and comp. § 144. n. 8. 

Examples under 1. Hdot. 2. 2 ol AXyimrioi £v6p.i£ov iavTovs 7rpu>Tovs 
yevecrdai ttcivt&v dvOpooncov, that they themselves, etc. 1. 34 Kpolcros ivopi^e 
iiovTov elvai dvOpcoircov andvTcov dXfticoTaTOv, coinp. 1. 171. — Plat. Apol. p. 
36 rjyrjadpevos epavTov too qvtl emeiKecrTepov elvat rj waTe els ratir' Iovtci 
aoo(eadai. Isocr. Paneg. p. 58 (ol irpoyovoi) e<pikov'iKr}o-av, ovk ix^povs dXX' 
dvTay(£>viaTas acpds avTovs eivai vopi^ovTes. Comp. II. n. 198. v. 269. — 
For examples under 2, see § 142. n. 3. 

Note 5. In the use of the Infinitive for quoting the language of another, 
or in any other dependent discourse, the Greeks go further than the Latins, 
in this respect, viz. that they more frequently employ this construction with 
relative and other minor clauses. E. g. Plat. Alcib. I. p. 123 ecp-q napeXdelv 
X^pav . . . fjv KaXelv tovs enix^piovs £eovr)v, 'he said he had passed by a 
country, which the inhabitants call the zone.' Hdot. 1. 86 a>y 8e cipa piv 
irpoo-Tr)vai tovto, dvao-Tevd^avra is Tpls uvopdo-ai 20AQN, 'as this presented 
itself to his mind, he groaned three times and pronounced the name Solon :' 
comp. 6. 137. Thuc. 2. 102. Xen. Mem. 1. 1. 13 2ooKpaTns idavpaaev, el flfj 
(pavepov avTOis io~Tiv, oti Tavra ov bwarov £o~tiv dvOpco-rrois evpelv • eVel kcu 
tovs piyiuTOv <p povovVTas €tt\ tco nepl tovtoov Xeyeiv ov tclvtci do£d £eiv 
dXXrjXoLs. This takes place less frequently in conditional clauses, and not 
at all in final clauses: Hdot. 3. 105 elvat Se TaxyTr]Ta ovhevX fTepw opolov. 



$ 142. THE INFINITIVE. 3S9 

OVTCO &CTT6, el fJL T) 7T p o\ CL [I (3 d V € I V TYjS 6boV TOVS ^uboVS 1 , ev &> TOVS 1 pvpprjKCtS 

crv^Xeyeadai, ovbeva av cr^ecoi/ airocroi^eaOai. 

4. For tlie personal construction so called after Xeyerat, Bokel, 
BrjXov €<ttl, 7rpe7T€L, and the like, see fully in § 151. I. 7. 

Note 6. Finally, the Infinitive with the Accus. can stand entirely inde- 
pendent, to express wish, entreaty, command; where we may supply some 
verb, as KeXevco. Such a clause stands in the place of an Imperat. 3 pers. 
Comp. § 140. 7. 

Examples : II. y. 285 el pev Kev Mevekaov 'AXe£az/§po? KaTcnrecpvr], avrus 
e7rei6 y t ~E\evr)v e^erco etc. el be k' *A\e£avbpov Kreivrj £av6bs Mez^eXaoy, 
Tpcoa? en-eid* 'EXevrjv airobovvai. Comp. also II. v. 79 with £. 92. Hes. 
e. 391 yvpvbv aneipeiv, yvpvbv be fiocoTeiv, nudus ara, sere nudus, Virg. where 
the subject is left indefinite, and the indef. tIs may be assumed. Or im- 
personal, e. g. Hdot. 5. 105 go Zed, eKyeveo-6ai poi 'AByvaiovs TiaacrOai, 
' may it be permitted me,' etc. 

Note 7. The same construction, with and without to, sometimes serves 
as an exclamation of wonder, surprise : <re ravra bpacrat, that thou couldst do 
suck things! Arist. Nub. 816 to Ala vo/xigeiv, ovra TrjkiKovTovl, that thou at 
such an age canst believe on Jupiter ! Comp. Xen. Cyr. 2. 2. 3. iEsch. Eum. 
801 epe TraOelv Ta.be, (pev, epe koto, yav ol<elv. 

§ 142. The Infinitive ivith Adjuncts. Attraction. 

1. "When the subject of the Infin. has other adjuncts, whether 
attributes or predicates, in the form either of substantives or of 
adjectives, it follows of course, that where the Accusative of the 
subject is expressed, these adjuncts are also put in the Accus. 

Examples: "Ajravres vopi^opev tt]v yrjv o~(pa7pav eivai. — Od. a. 173 ov ae 
ne£bv 6'iopai evOab* iKecrdai. 

2. Whenever the subject of the Infinitive is not directly ex- 
pressed, but the same has been already mentioned in some pre- 
ceding clause, there takes place a species of 

Attraction, 
peculiar to the Greek language ; that is to say, these adjuncts 
are not put in the Accusative, but, in the absence of the subject- 
word, are in a certain sense attracted by the next preceding verb. 
This takes place in two ways : 

a) "When the omitted subject of the Infinitive is at the sa are 
time the subject (Nominative) of the preceding finite verb on 
which the Infin. depends, the adjuncts connected with the Infin 
must in like manner stand in the Nominative. E. g. 

6 'AXe^avSpos ecfyaa/cev elvai A cos vlos, 
Lat. dicebat se esse Jovis filium. This holds true also when the 
subject is not expressed even with the first verb. 

Examples : ecpaaices elvai beo-norr]?. — eireiva avrovs, elvai $ed?, I persuaded 
them, that I was a god. — evopi^ovro ovb' avTol aoaBrjcreaBai. — II. b. 101 ev^eo 
'AttoXXooi/i pe^eiv eKaropfi-qv o'Uabe voaTrjcra?. — Xen. An. 3. 2. 39 oo-tls vpoov 
tovs olnelov? ernOvpel Ibelv, pepvrjo~8(£> avrjp ayaQbs elvai. 

b) "When the omitted subject of the Infin. stands with the pre- 
ceding verb only as an immediate or remote object, the adjuncts 



390 SYNTAX. $ 142 

connected -with the Infinitive must in like manner stand in that 
oblique case in which their subject thus stands as object. Thus 
in the Genitive : 

iSeovro avrov elvai irpoOv/JLov, they besought him to be o) 
good courage , Xen. Hell. 1. 5. 2. 
Or in the Dative ; e. g. 

etjearl fioo <yevecr6ai evhat/iovi, Dem. 01. p. 35, 
as also hi Latin, licet illis esse beatis. — Or finally in the Accu- 
sative, where it again coincides with the general rule ; e.g. 
fcekevo) ere elvai irpbQv^ov. 

Examples : Isocr. Pan. p. 60 rals iroXeo-i XvaireXel pdXXov e£ avBpcoTT&v 
G^>avicr6rjvai, 77 8ovXais 6(p6rjvai yevopevais. — Time. 7. 77 avayKalov eanv 
vfj.lv dv8 pacriv ayaOols ylyveo~6ai. — Hdot. 1. 176 rcov Avklcov (papevcov Sav- 
6 lav elvai oi ttoXXo'l elai eTrrjXvdes. — Plat. Apol. p. 21 r/XBov en'i riva to>v 
8oKovvTiov cro(p(ov elvai. 

Note 1. That however this attraction is not absolutely necessary, is 
shewn by the many examples where it is neglected, even after a Genitive 
or Dative expressed ■ and where consequently the adjuncts of the dependent 
clause, both predicates and participles, stand in the Accusative ; comp. 
§ 144. n. 12. 

Examples: Hdot. 6. 100 'Eperpiees 'Afyvaitav e8er]Br]o-av acpicri j3onBovs 
yeveaBai. — Isocr. p. 297 8eopai vp&v, aKpodcraoBai t&>v Xeyopevcov, evBvprj- 
Bevras on ktX. — An. 3. 2. 1 e8o£ev avrol? 7rpo(pvXaKas Karaarrjo-avras 
o~vyKaXei~v tov? arpaTicoras. — Mem. 1. 1. 9 e(prj 8elv : a pev paBovras ivoielv 
edcoKav oi Seo\, pavBdveiv. Here after edoncav we must supply roly dvBpa- 
ttois, and yet the Ace. paBovras appears; but comp. below, in § 144. n. 12, 
the similar clause from the same passage, where dvBpomois is expressed, 
and the attraction (paBovcri) takes place. 

Note 2. In like manner after npeTrei, Trpoo-rjicei, egeari, orvpfialvei, 
and the like, the predicate-adjunct often stands in the Accusative by the 
side of the preceding Dative, especially after efecrrt. More commonly how- 
ever the person follows after, and passes over in like manner into the Accu- 
sative ; so that such verbs are then construed simply with the Ace. c. Infin. 

Examples: Xen. Lac. 13. 9 e^eari r<5 veco kuX (paidpov elvai koi ev86- 
Kipov. see the example in § 139. m. 28. — Plat. Ion. p. 539. e, ovk av irpeiroi 
e 77 i\i]o- pova elvai av8pa payjsepdov. — Cyr. 1. 6. 17 ovnore dpyelv Trpoarj- 
Kei err pandv. 7. 5. 83 ov rbv ap^ovra tcov dpxopevoov rrovq pore pov 
Trpocrr]Kei elvai. 

3. The same attraction takes place, when the clause with the 
Infinitive has the article (to, tov, tS) before it. 

Examples: npo? to ervpepepov (a>o-i 81a r6 qb IXavroi elvai, they live only 
for profit , because they are selfish. Dem. Cor. p. 262 ArjpoaBevrjs aepvvverai rco 
ypacpel? arrocpvyelv, Demosthenes is proud, that being accused he was acquit- 
ted. — ov yap etcnepTTOVTai ear! rcu 8ovXoi, aXX iiii rw opoioi rols Xenrope- 
voi9 elvai. Aristot. Eth. 3. 5 e(/>' ijplv eari to emeiKeo-i /cat (pavXoi? 
elvai. — So too the Accusative, referring to a preceding like case : Isocr. Ar. 
p. 154 enedei^e to.? koXcjs TroXirevopevas noXirela? Trpoe-^ovo-as r<5 8 iKaiore- 
pas elvai. Comp. iEschyl. Prom. 235. 

4. In like manner, in the construction with ware, the Nomin- 
ative stands with the Infinitive, when the preceding clause re- 
quires it. 

Examples : Dem. 01. p. 34 ov yap ourcor clcppcov elp\ eyoo, wore a.TT€)(ddv£~ 



« 143. THE RELATIVE. 391 

v$ai fiovXeo-dat pndev iacpeXelv vopl^wv, i. e. thai I should be willing to incur 
hatred, not expecting to do any good. Also the cause ib. p. 32, made inde- 
pendent, would read : prjdels rnXiKovros ecrrco rrap vplv, aare rovs vopovs 
Trapafias pr) dovvai dUvv, let no one be so powerful among you, that having 
transgressed the laws he cannot be punished. See note 3. 

Note 3. According to § 141. 3 and n. 4, when the subject remains the same 
in the dependent clause, it either must not be expressed in the dependent 
clause, or must be put in the Accusative. Hence in the phrase vTreo~x STO 
avrbs Troirjaeiv, the pronoun avros is not the subject, but only a qualifying 
adjunct belonging to the omitted subject : se ipsum facturum. But when, 
in a dependent clause, there are introduced other subjects besides that of 
the main sentence, and. consequently for the sake of antithesis a repetition 
of the subject in the dependent clause seems necessary, a twofold construc- 
tion may take place, viz. either all the subjects are put in the Accusative ; 
or the repeated subject stands alone in the Nominative antithetic to the 
others in the Accusative. 

Examples : a) With Accus. Xen. Hell. 2. 1. 26 ol arparnyol dmevai avrov 
eKeXevcrav • avrovs yap vvv arparrjyelv ovk enelvov. Plat. Hipp. M. p. 282 
olpai ipe nXeico xpi)para dpydadai r) dXXovs crvvbvo. Comp. Charm, p. 195. e. 
Euthyd. p. 305. d. Amat. p. 133. b. Gorg. p. 452 t'i eari rovro, o cpfjs av pe- 
yiarov dyaObv eivac koI ere bnpiovpybv elvai avrov ; b) With the Nominative : 
Dem. Mid. p. 579 epe o'ieo-6' vplv elo-olcreiv, vpels de vepelaBai; do ye sup- 
pose that I shall always contribute, and ye always consume ?■ and further on : 
vopl£eis rjpds pev d7TO\lfn<fiielo-dai y av 8e ov rravveQ-Qai. — Hdot. 7. 136 {Eeptjns 
ecpn) AaKedaipoviovs crvy^eat to. navreov dvdpooncov vopipa, avrbs de ravra ov 
7Toir]o-eiv. Thuc. 8.76 in the indirect style : rovs pev r)paprr)Kevat, rovs irarpl- 
ovs vopovs KaraXvaavras, avroX de o~a>£eiv (sc. rovs vopovs) j also ante: dvva- 
ra>repot elvat (repels e^ovres rds vavs 7ropt^ea6aL ret e7rirr)deia rcov ev rfj 7rdXei, 
i. e. than those in the city. Comp. also Xen. Mem. 2. 3. 17. Cyr. 2. 4. 25. 
Plat. Agesi. 10. So likewise after axxre : Thuc. 7. 6 (ecpdaaav) coare pr)re 
avroX K(£>Xveo~6ai, eKelvovs re a7rearepr]K.evai kt\. Cyr. 6. 1. 14 (dvaKopl^ovrai 
rd enirrjdeia), axrre avroX pev eyeiv, rjpds de pi) bvvacrBai Xapfidveiv. — Also in 
later writers: Muson. ap. Stob. p. 167 2ooKp. ecpn robs pev noXXovs (fjv Iva 
io-QloicnVy avrbs de eadleiv Iva £ij. (Contra, Diog. L. 2. 34 avrov de eadi- 
uv.) — Comp. further § 144. n. 8. 

Note 4. When after the verbs mureveiv nvi, TreiBecrdat nvi, there 
follows an Infinitive-clause, the subject of which is the remote object (Da- 
tive) of those verbs, the pronoun avros being omitted, the simple Infinitive 
is put instead of the Ace. c. Inf. E. g. Plat. Charm, p. 161 c Opi)pa> m- 
o-reveis KaXoos Xeyeiv. Phffidr. p. 271 pi) rreidcoped' avrols, reyyr\ ypdcpeiv. — 
Whatever belongs to the omitted subject is likewise put in the attraction ; 
«. g. Xen. Cyr. 3. 3. 55 ovd' dv rovrois erriarevov e pp.6vois ecreadai. 

§ 143. Construction of Relative Clauses. 

1 Of all minor clauses, those with Relatives present the great- 
est variety of construction and idiom ; and thus form a very im- 
portant portion of the Greek Syntax. It will be the object of the 
present section, to bring these together and exhibit them in their 
proper connection. For the relative pronoun (o<?, rj, o) separate- 
ly, see § 126. § 127. 6. 

The nature of the construction with the relative properly re- 
quires, that with the verb of the main sentence there should stand 
a noun or pronoun {the Antecedent), and with the verb of the de- 
pendent clause the corresponding relative, each in that case which 



392 SYNTAX. » 143. 

its own clause demands. E. g. ovtos iariv 6 avrjp, ov etSes* — 
fjiereScoKev rjfilv ttuvtcdv, ocra irapr\v ' — (ptkov ovtc e^co, Stlvl irtcrTev- 
a-at av Bvvalfirjv. — For the exceptions and departures from this 
rule, by attraction etc. see below, Text 12 sq. 

2. In relative clauses which refer back to pronouns of the first 
and second person, the verb must stand in the same person, as in 
Latin. 

Examples: Eur. Suppl. 1094 ovk av ttot' els too' rfkdov, els 6 vvv kcikov, 
octtls (tov viov) err e pia ko pai. Od. /3. 41 ov% Picas' ovtos avrjp (i. e. iya>) ; 
os \abv fjyeipa. Her. 2. 115 iyoo av ere iTiardprjv os epyov dpoatcorarov ipyd- 
aao, § 139. m. 35 a. Here "belongs also Eur. TA. 991 olx.Tpa -nenovOapev, ?*; 
Kevrjv Kareo-xov i^nlda, by § 129. n. 14. 

Note 1. When the relative clause refers to a Vocative, it must of course 
stand in the second person; as II. k. 278 k\vul pot, Aios re/coy, rjre pot ale\ 
7rapio-rao-ai. The following passage can he regarded only as a very rare 
exception : II. p. 248 d> (ftCkoi, 'Apyeicov rjyrjTopes r]8e pedovTes, otre Trap 1 'Arpei- 
$t]S brjpia ttiv ovcriv, kcli at] patvovo'iv \aols. 

3. When a relative refers to several single objects, the same 
rules hold good in respect to it, as in k 129. 4, 5, 10. 

Examples : Isocr. Panath. p. 278 ravra S' elnov^ ov npbs tyjv evaefieiav oioe 
irpbs rrjv biKatocrvvqv ovoe 7rpbs ttjv (ppovrjcnv d7ro^\e\j/-as, a, cry dirj\des. De 
Pac. init. fjKopev eKKkrjcridcrovTes 7repl jroXepov kcu elprjvijs, a peyLarrjv e)(£i bvua- 
pi> iv T(5 /3t<w. Od. j3. 283 ovbe tl Xaacriv S-dvarov Ka\ Krjpa pekaivav, os of] crept 
cr^eSo'f ecvTLv. Dem. p. 274 Ka\co tovs Qeobs TrdvTas, /cat ndcras, ocroi e^ovcri 
rrjv 3 Attlkt]v. Is. p. 163 ttjv ttoKlv oiKrjcroprjv, diraWayevTes iroXepow /cat Kivhv- 
vcov kcu TO.payrjs. els fj v vvv Kadecrrapev. 

4. Further, according to the analogy of § 129. 12, when in a 
relative clause the predicate is expressed by a substantive, the 
relative agrees with this latter, and not with the antecedent 
noun to which it strictly refers. 

Examples: Plat. Legg. p. 699 6 <po/3or, tjv alow iv toIs avu e'iiropev. — 
Crat. p. 405 tov ovpavov, ovs hr\ irb\ovs kclKovctiv. — Phileb. p. 40 \6yoi pf]v 
elaiv iv e/edcrroir fjpcov, as i\nldas ovopd£opev. — Contra, Legg. p. 629. d, 
to pev, o Kakovpev ardcrtv. 

5. The construction Kara c-vveaiv, ad sensum, {k 129. 11,) 
is also here very frequent, as follows : 

a) The general indefin. relative (octtls, o? civ) in the Singular 
often refers to a Plural antecedent ; since the idea of the Plural 
is already implied in the unlimited nature of this relative. 

Examples : II. r. 260 (Qeoi) dv6 pan ovs rivvvrai, oris k iniopicov 6p6ao-rj. 
Plat. Rep. p. 566 irpocryeXd /cat dand^eraL iravras, cp av TrepiTvyKavrj. 

b) Vice versa, the relative can stand in the Plural, when the 
antecedent idea is a collective. 

Examples: II. tt. 368 ("E/crcop) Xelne \abv Tpouicov, ovs deKovras rdeppos 
epvaev. Plat. Phsedr. p. 260 (6 prjTcop pavOdvei) ret 86£avra av 7rKr]6ei, olnep 
8indo-ovo~i. — Freer or more poetical are the following: Od. p. 97 ktjtos^ a 
pvpia /Soo-Kei dydo-Tovos 'ApcptrpiTt], comp. II. £. 410. Dem. Cor. p. 328 
dvdpl kuXco re Kayadai, iv ois ovdapov av (pavrjaei yeyovcos. 

c) The relative often accords with the natural gender of its 
antecedent. 



* 148. THE RELATIVE. 393 

Examples : II. e. 638 oldv nvd <paai fiirjv 'HpaKArjelrjv (i. e. Hercules him- 
self), os ktA. ib. x- 87 4>iXov -$aAor (Hector), bv reaov avrfj. Comp. the ex 
ample Od. £. 156, in §129. 11. 

d) The relative sometimes refers to an antecedent, whicL u 
only implied in the sense of the main sentence. 

Examples : Thuc. 6. 80 dno UeXowovvrjo-ov ivapeurai axpekia, ot (sc A 

HoCpdXeiav (pepovres) rcbvSe Kpeiaaovs elal ra TroXepaa. Eur. Hec. 420 qwp r, 

awp-evaios, hv (sc. vp-evalcov) p? exPV v rvxelv. ^o ^ 00 ^ ne P ron - demon r. 

Thuc. 1. 36 6 QepiaroKkrjS cpevyei es Kepicvpav, cbv avroiv (sc. KepKvpai v) 
evepyerrjS. 

6. That the postpositive article sometimes retains its original 
demonstrative power, has already been shewn in § 126. On the 
other hand, the usage so common in Latin, that a relative clause 
comes in place of a subjoined demonstrative clause and conse- 
quently stands independent, is far less frequent in Greek ; aad 
has for the most part a colouring of emotion, or belongs to 'die 
poetic language and especially to the dramatic dialogue, or ialls 
within a later Latinizing period. 

Examples: Plat. Apol. p. 35 el ovv ol doKovvres biacpepeiv tolovto rovrai, 
alcrvpbv av e'lr). . . . ot epol doKOvcriv aio~yyvr)v rrj noXei Trepidnreiv. S h. OT. 
723 roiavTCL (prjpai p.avTLKa\ oicopio-av. a>v evrpenov av prjdev. Eu Or. 424 
(in dialogue) MEN. TJaXaprjbovs ae rip-ccpel (povos. OP. ov -y' ov <tt}v po» ■ 
tia rpi&v 5' anolChvpai. — Apollod. 1.1.3 lipovos Trpcorrjv pev'Earia Kareiru , 
elra Arjprjrpav kcu "Hpav, fie^' as UXovrava koX Tloaeidava. 

7. "When two successive co-ordinate relative clauses both r< 
fer to one and the same antecedent, but each of them r< quires u 
different case of the relative, there arises a twofold construction, 
viz. a) Either the relative stands only in the first clause, in the 
case required by it ; and then serves at the same timo for the 
following clause, b) Or instead of the relative in tl 3 second 
clause the demonstrative [avrov, avrco, Horn, e, ol, fj.lv, c te.) is in- 
troduced, in the required case. 

Examples: a) Plat. Alcib. I. p. 134. e, w yap av e^ovala /, ; § iroielv <? 
(BovXerai, vovv be per] exiJ, rl eluos avp(3aiveiv; PllEed. p. 82. d. 'fcelvoL ols ri 
p.eXei Trjs eavT&v yj/vx^s, dXXa pr) acop.ara TrXdrrovres £coo"i, ra rj] rpenovrai.. 
II. a. 162 <p em tvoXX ep,6yqaa, 86aav be pot vies 'A^atco*/. Plat. Prot. p. 313. 
b, Hparayopas, bv ovre yiyva>aKeis 7 ovre bieiXe^ai ov8e7ra>nore. b) II. a. 79 
AyapLep-vcov, bs peya 7rdvro>>v 'ApyeLoov Kpareei, Kai o I ireiOovrai A^atot. Plat. 
Meno. p. 90. e, napa rovra>v, ot prpre Trpoanoiovvrai bibdaKaXoi elvai, p.f)T* 
earlv avrwv p.adr}rrjs p-rjbeis, see § 148. 2. e. Dem. 01. p. 35 ot rrpoyovoi, ols 
ovk exapiCovO* ol Xeyovres, ovo' icpiXovv avrov s coanep vpas ovroi vvv, tS>v 
'EWrjvvv rjpgav. Comp. Thuc. 2. 74. Od. a. 70. j3. 54, 113. 

8. When to a relative clause another minor clause is subordin- 
ate, in which latter there would naturally be a demonstrative 
referring to the main antecedent, but in a different case from the 
relative, the two clauses flow together into one relative clause, 
in which the relative takes the case of the demonstrative, and 
the demonstrative falls away.* See also k 127. 1. d. 

* We find the like construction in clauses with yap, especially in Herodotus ; 
e. g Hdot. 2. 101 t«c &7\Acov flao-iXecov ov yap eXeyov ovdepiav epyav airSoe^Lf, 



394 SYNTAX. & 14^ 

Examples : Isocr. de Pac. p. 168 avropoXol eltri, ol?, onorav ti? bibio 7i-Aeio) 
fiicrdov, per eKeivov e<£' fjpd? a.Ko\ov8r)crovaiv, instead of ol, onorav avrol? kt\. 
— Dem. Phil. 3. p. 128 noWa av elirelv e^oiev 'OXvvdioL vvv, a tot' el npo- 
eibovTo, ovk av dircokovTO. — Plat. Rep. p. 466 ol cpvkaKe?, ol? e^bv navra 
£X €Lv Ta tcdv 7ro\iTcbv, ovbev e'xoiev, see § 145. n. 10. 2. 

9. Every relative clause, in order to be complete, must have 
in it a finite verb. Yet the omission of the copula is not unus- 
ual. Comp. § 129. 20. 

Examples. II. rj. 50 TrpoKakecro-ai 'Aya£coi> oo-tls apio-To?. Eur. Phoen. 746 
ekov irpoicpiva? o"mep akKip.coTa.Toi. Plat. Rep. p. 466 at-ovcri tcov Traibcov el? 
tov TToXepov ocroi dbpoi Sometimes, though very seldom, the Subjunctive 
copula is thus omitted : ib. p. 370. e, Kopi£ovTai, hv av avTols xP*' La > 

Note 2. A like omission of the copula occurs also in the very common 
attraction with the relatives olos, oaos, ffktKos, etc. for which see below, no. 
16, and § 151. I. 5. 

Note 3. When the predicate of a relative clause would be the same with 
that of the main clause, the predicate may be omitted in the relative clause, 
in order to avoid repetition; e. g. Od. A. 413 ktclvovto ave? c%? dypiobovTes, 
ol pa r' ... r) ydpcp 7} ipdvco sc. KTeivovTai. For this elliptical usage, which 
occurs also in other minor clauses, (e.g. Xen. Hell. 1. 7. extr. naTekOcov. 
ore ml ol €K Heipatco? sc. KaTrjXdov,) see more in § 151. IV. 5, and comp. 
§ 150. m. 8. 

10. As to position, the relative clause may naturally also stand 
first; e.g. Cyr. 1. 6. 11 o,tc S' av \a/i/3dvrj Tt?, %apiv tovtcov 
et/co? el&evcLL t£> BlBSvtc- — For the frequent omission of the corre- 
sponding (antecedent) demonstrative, see § 127. 1. d. 

11. When the relative clause thus stands first, it is a very 
common and peculiar usage in Greek, (as also partially in Latin,) 
that the following clause does not grammatically fully correspond 
to the preceding relative clause, but takes some other turn. Such 
clauses are of many and various kinds in Grreek writers, who so 
often sacrifice strict grammatical accuracy to other considera- 
tions, e. g. to symmetry, ease, and vivacity. All this will be seen 
in the examples. 

Examples : Mem. 2. 2. 6 a pev av avrol evcocnv ol yovel? dyaBa npos tov 
(3lov, diddo-Kovari tov? 7ral,ba? • a S' av o'icovTai aWov licavcoTepov eivai bibdtjai, 
TTtpnovo-i irpb? tovtov. Plat. Euthyd. init. o be av epcoTa?, ttjv aocpiav av- 
toIv, a> Kptrcoi/, Tidvaocpoi are^z/cor. Xen. An. 6. 1. 29 6 §' vpel? evvoelre, oti 
tjttov av ardai? e'lrj evb? cipxovros rj noXXcov, ev lore on kt\. Hell. 2. 3. 45 
a 8' av einev, cor eyco elpi oios peTafiaXkeadai, KaTavorjaaTe kt\. Luc. Deor. 
Cone. 5 koX b ndvTcov yeKoioTaTov, K.a\ tov Kvva ttjs 'Hpiyovrj? dvtjyayev. In 
this last case a clause with ore or yap can immediately follow: Plat. Rep. 
p. 491 6 irdvTcov SavpacrTOTaTOV anovaai, oti ev eicaarov hv eTvrjveaapev tt)s <pv- 
Greco? d7r6X\vo-t ttjv yjrvxw. Dem. Mid. 2 a §' ev vplv eaTiv \mokonra, oaco yap 
TrKelocriv ovros ^i/coyX^cre, ToaovTco pdXKov eXni^co to binaiov e£eiv. Comp. also 
$ 151. IV. 10. 

12. In G-reek, as well as in Latin, it is very common, that the 
noun (antecedent) to which the relative refers, is omitted in its 

tear ovDev eivai \ap.7rp6Tr)Tos, instead of tovs aWovs [SatriXeas, ov yap avT&v eA. 
kt\. — Thuc. 8, 30 rots 'AQrjvaiois Trpotra.cpiyiJ.evai yap ficrav a\Kai in^es, Tr&tras 
JivvayaySvres c&ovXovto ecpoppelv, instead of ol 'A0. tfaav yap avTols kt\. 



j 143. THE RELATIVE. 395 

own (the main) clause ; but is then inserted in the relative clause 
and in the same case with the relative. E. g. instead of outo? 
ecrriv 6 clvrjp, ov elSes, we find : 

ovtos ecrriv, ov elSe? avSpa. 
In such a construction it is to be noted, that the substantive thus 
transferred often loses the article, and is not put immediately 
after the relative. And not unfrequently, for the sake of empha- 
sis, the latter clause thus formed is placed first : 
ov elSes dvhpa, ovtos icrriv. 



Examples: ouk ecrriv, fjvnva ovk rjp^ev ap-fc-qv, there is no public office, 
which he has not administered. II. i. 131 ray pev oi Saxroo, perd §' eaaerai. 
f)v tot CLTrrfVpmv Kovprjv Bpiarjo?. Plat. Phsed. p. 61 ov? npoxeipovs ei^ov 
pvOovs tovs AIctoottov, rovrcov iiToir]cra {versified) oi? 7rp<arois iverv^ov. An. 1. 
9. 19 Kvpos, e'i TLva opcorj KaracrKevd^ovTa, rj? ap^oi -^dopas, ovk clv dcpeikero. 

13. Here also there occurs an Attraction, similar to that in the 
construction with the Infinitive, § 142. 2. "When the relative, 
in respect to its own verb, would stand in the Accusative, but 
the antecedent stands in the Genitive or Dative, and has with it 
no demonstrative pronoun (as ovtos, e/ce^o?), the relative is then 
attracted by the antecedent, and takes the same case, instead of 
the Accusative. E. g. 

/xeraSlSa)^ avra> rod crlrov, ovirep avrhs e^ei^, thou sharest 
with him the food, which thou thyself hast ; 
where ovirep, because of the Gen. crirov to which it refers, stands 
also in the G-enitive, instead of the Accus. ovirep which the verb 
e%eiv requires. So likewise 

ev irpocr^eperai, roh cfiiXois, oh e-^ei, he meets with kindness 
the friends, which he has. 
So when the proper Accusative would strictly express only a re- 
mote object ; e. g. Dem. Mid. 35 Bl/crjv oov civ aoi/crjOj} rt? Xa/ju- 
ftdveiv, from the expression a dBiKov/jiai, l as to which I am of- 
fended.' Plut. Mor. p. 334 tov jmgOov &v erepire^ cnreXa[A(3aves 
avTirepiropbevo^, [ the wages for that by which thou didst delight 
me.'* This attraction naturally takes place only when the relative 
clause contains a near and almost adjective qualification of the 
substantive ; consequently not in clauses like this : iirrjveOri viro 
TTcivrcov t6)v eavrov iroXirwv, ot)? jjiejdXa G)(p€\7]CT€v. See \ 151. I. 2. 

Examples: II. a//-. 649 ov ae X^co riprj?, qsre p' eoiKe reriprjcrdai per 
'A^aioTf. — Hdot. 7. 164 Kddpo? Kcoos eKpdrrjcre peydXoav ^p^^arcoz/, rwv oi Te- 
\<av eireTpcLTreTo. — All. 1. 3. 16 rco yyyepdvi iriarevaopev, a av Kvpos o\3. — Cyr. 
3. 1. 33 ^prjpara crvv rols Q-qo-avpols, oi? 6 narrjp KaTeXnrev, earl raXavrz 
Tpiar^iXia. 

Note 4. The ear having once become accustomed to this construction, it 
became usual, even where the corresponding demonstrative was expressed 
in the first clause, to let the relative still follow in the same case; e. g. 

* An example with the Nominative is very rare : Hdot. 1. 78 vwipivavTO raiha, 
}b§4v kc»> ddSres r&v ?jV irepl 2ap5is. Comp. Thuc. 7. 67. 



396 SYNTAX. k 143. 

Plat. Gorg, p. 452. a, ol drjpiovpyol rovrcov, hv iTrrjveaev 6 to o~ko\i6v ttoitj- 
aas.^ Xen. OEc. 2. 1 imo ye toi'tcoi/, cov o~v deanoLvcou naXels, ov KooAuopat. 
This last is at the same time an example, where the Accusative-predicate, 
which is dependent on the second clause (8eo~7roii>as), is also drawn into the 
attraction. 

14. Along with this Attraction there can also be connected the 
usage described in no. 12 above ; so that the antecedent or noun 
of the first clause is transferred from that clause to the second in 
such a way, that, together with the relative, it remains in the 
case required by the word on which it depends : 

fieraSiBa)^ avrcp ovirep avrbs e^et? cr ltov 

ev irpoo-^eperaL o 1 5 eyei <£ / X o 1 9. 
It sounds still more strangely to us, when to all this is added the 
inversion of the clauses : 

oh e%ei (plXois ev 7rpoa(f>eperaL. 

Examples: dnoXava) hv e^oo dyaOcov. — Dem. 01. 3. p. 35 roVe p.ev koXcos 
ei^e ra irpayjiara eKelvois ^pcopevocs, ois eiirov 7rp o crrarair. — An. 1.9. 14 
Kvpos, ovs ecopa eBeKovTas Kivbvveveiv, cip^ovras inolei rj s Kareo-rpecpeTO ^ cop as. 
Soph. OC. 333 rfkdov £vv cpnep efyov oiKercov ttlcttco pdfco. 

15. When the antecedent would express no definite idea, or 
has been already once mentioned, it is often omitted ; and then 
the relative stands alone in a case not properly belonging to it ; 

/jL€/jivr)[ievo<; &v eirpa^e, 
instead of fiefivrj/jbivo^ rcov ir pay pudrcov, &v eirpa^ev, and this 
for a eirpa^ev. — And with the inversion : 
oh e%co yjpoi\xai. 

EXAMPLES : heivoTepd io~TLv a peAAco \eyeiv hv (i. C tovto>v a) e'tprjua. — Hell. 
3. 5. 18 Avcravdpos i-vv ois et^ev ijet npos to ret^oy. — Eur. Or. 564 e<p' ols 
S' d7retXety, cor 7rerpco#?pat pe del, aKovaov ktK. — Plat. Apol. p. 30 ederjdrjv vpa>i> 
pf} Sopvfieiv ecp' ois av Xeyco. — Soph. OT. 862 ovbev yap av irpd^aip! dv cov ov 
aoi <pi\ov, i. e. tovtcov a epe npa^ai ov croi (piXov Ictt'iv. 

Note 5. The attraction extends so far as to include relative adverbs; 
comp. § 151. I. 8. E. g. Thuc. 1. 89 ol 'AOrjvalot bteK.opi(ovTo evdvs o6ev vn- 
e^eSevTo naldas kou ywcuKas, instead of exeldev, otvov. Comp. Soph. Trach. 703. 

16. In one instance the Nominative of the relative also suffers 
this attraction, viz. where in a complete sentence, the Nomina- 
tive of the relative ohs {ocros, fjklicos;) would stand with the verb 
elvai ; e. g. Xen. Mem. 2. 9. 3 irdvv r)8ecos yapiCpyrai dvSpl roiov- 
T(p, ohs av el, l very gladly do they gratify such a man as thou 
art. 1 Here not only the demonstrative, but also the verb elvai 
is omitted, and the relative olos etc. is then so attracted by the 
main clause, that together with its adjuncts it assumes the case 

* It is usual to make this form of the sentence, as being the most complete, the 
basis of the doctrine of attraction, but improperly. Only the omission of the de- 
monstrative could cause the relative to be construed with (i. e. attracted to) the 
antecedent substantive, and thus the whole to be rounded off; comp. 8 above. For 
the sake of emphasis, the demonstrative could then be still further added. 



§ 143. THE RELATIVE. 397 

of its antecedent, and is even inserted before the same ; e. g. it aw 
>;Sea)? yapi'CpVTai olw crol avhpi In such instances too the noun 
itself often falls away ; c. g. Plat. Soph. p. 237 %aX€7rbv r/pov kcll 
oXcp ye ifiol airopov, 'thou askest something difficult and not 
to be answered, at least by such an one as J.' — And further, as 
the whole expression (oi<p croc, ottp ifioi) has the same relation as 
an adjective to its substantive (avSpl), it can therefore, like every 
other adjective adjunct, take with it the article in the same case. 
E. g. rep olcp dot dvSpl] or without a subst. tols oiois tj/mv, tovs 
o'iovs vpicLS, i. e. tolovtov; oloi vpuel^ ecrre. 

Examples: Time. 7. 21 npbs av8pas roXprjpovs, olovs kcu 'A&rjvaiovs, ovk 
avTCTokfiSxrt. Cyr. 6. 2. 2 oi 8e oloi irep vp,els tivdpes ra l3ovXevopeva tcara- 
p.avddvovacv. Hell. 2. 3. 25 yiyvooaKopev, rols otois rip.1v re kol vplv x a ~ 
Xenrjv elvai 8rjpoKpariav. — Other more or less varying examples of this verv 
common attraction with olos, baos, and rjXUos, are the following : Od. k. 112 
ttjv 8e yvvaiKa evpov barjv r' opeos icopvcpfjv, Kara §' earvyov avrrjv. — Arist 
Acharn. 703 einbs av8pa Kvcpov, tjXIkov Qovkv8l8t)v, e^oXeadai. — Hdot. 1. 16( 
7ra.peo~K€va{ovTO en\ picrOca bo- a 8rj. — 1. 157 Ma^dprjs rov crrparov p.olpav bcrrji 
drj Kore e^coy eXavvei enl 'Sdpdis. — Plat. Symp. p. 220 Sco/cpdr^s, tcai 7tot£ ovros 
Tvdyov otov btLvordrov kcu Tvavrosv ovk etjiovraiv, bp.a>i ££rjei. — Apol. p. 39 (fir) pi., 
&j av8pes, TLp,c£>plav vp.lv rj^etv ^aXeTrcorepav f) otav epe aneKTOvare. — Arist. 
Acharn. 601 opwv veavlas, olovs crv, 8ia8e8paKoras. Comp. Dem. Androt. 
extr. Hell. 1. 4. 16. 

17. When, vice versa, the antecedent is attracted by the case 
of the relative, (which of course remains in its own proper case,) 
this is a species of Anacoluthon (k 151. II), or departure from the 
construction as begun. E. g. Xen. Yen. 1. 10 Mekeaypos he ras 
T(/ia?, a? eka(3e, (fiavepal, instead of at rtfial, a? M. e\a(3e, etc. 
This more commonly takes place, when instead of a substantive 
the antecedent is a general pronominal idea, (as aWos, rh, ere- 
pos, iras,) which may be readily connected with the relative. 

Examples: Plat. Meno. p. 96. a, e'xeis elnelv aXXov brovovv irpdypa- 
ros, ov oi (pdcrKovres 8i8do-KaXoi elvai bpoXoyovvrai ovk iir'io~Taa6ai to Trpdyjxa] 
comp. ib. c. Hdot. 2. 106 rds be crrr]Xas rds tara 2ecrcoo-Tpiy, at p.ev TrXev- 
ves ovKeri (paivovrai TrepLeovaai. Dem. Cor. p. 230 ere pa o oroo kcikov ti 
8d>crop,ev £rjrovpev. Hell. 1. 4. 2 KaKe8aip.6vioi Trdvrcov hv 8eovrai neTrpayo- 
res elaiv. (Such examples therefore do not need to be explained by an in- 
version : orcp 6° erepa>, hv 7rdvT(£>v.) — II. cr. 192 aXXov 8 , ov rev ol8a, rev av 
kXvto. Tevxea 8voo. Here rev (for rivos) stands where we should expect rov 
(ov), and has arisen out of the simple thought : ovk olda, rivos aXXov reuyea 
8va>. 

Note 6. The same occurs again here, as in note 5, with adverbial cor- 
relatives ; e. g. Plat. Crit. p. 45 noXXaxov p.ev yap koL aXXoae ottoi av 
d(piKT], dyanrjo-ovcrL ere, instead of dXXaxov ottoi, ktX. 

Note 7. The same takes place in the phrase ov8eh oari? oi, nemo non. 
i. e. every one, which is declined like a simple word ; see more in § 148. n. 8. 
—Similar is the phrase often used by Plato, oy (3ovXei, Lat. guivis, i. e. 
each, every one, which also is declined : brov fiovXei cujusvis, wvtlvcov [3ovXei, 
etc. E. g. Plat. Crat. p. 432 avrd rd 8ex.a rj oar is fiovXei aXXos dpi6p.6v, 
Comp. Ion. p. 533. a. 

18. A relative clause becomes more complex and difficult of 
translation, when it stands in connection with other construe- 



398 SYNTAX. § 144. 

tions ; e. g. with that of the Ace. c. Infm. as ovtos eariv, ov fyruit 
elvai ifcav&TtiTov. So with the participial construction, se*c $ 144. 
4 ; with interrogative clauses, see $ 127. 5, and n. 8. 

Note 8. For relative and other minor clauses in the Ace. c. Infm. see 
§ 141. n. 5. 

19. Finally, it is to be noted, that relative clauses often take 
the place of other minor clauses. Thus we have already seen 
them as final clauses, as causal clauses, and as ecbatic clauses ; 
see $ 139. m. 34, 35 a, 35 b. We may here further remark, that 
as el tls, rjv res, often stand for octtls (§ 149. m. 5), so also vice 
versa octtls, o? av, are sometimes put where we should naturally 
expect clauses with el tl<s, etc. 

Examples : Cyr. 1. 5. 13 6 n yap prj tolovtou aTro/S^o-ercu nap vp&v, el? 
epe to e'XXet7rov fj£ei. Soph. Trach. 905 e/cXcue §' opydvcov orov yj/avcreie.: 
Comp. also the first example under no. 11 above, and Plat. Euthyphr. p. 
3. c. Time. 3. 45 /cat ttoXX?;? evrjdeia?, o err is oi'erat kt\. 

§ 144. Construction with the Participle. 

1. The Participle expresses the idea of the verb adjectively. 
It is therefore, like an adjective, put in connection with a sub- 
stantive ; and then stands between the article and substantive 
($ 125. 1), or else after the substantive with the article repeated 
(§ 125. 3). "With, the article it may also stand as a substantive ; 
comp. § 123. 5. But it everywhere retains likewise its verbal 
nature, in the same manner as the Infinitive, in that it admits 
the distinction of tenses and the construction with cases. 

Examples : \vko? Xipoorrow • ol viYdp-^ovres vopoi, or ol vdpoi ol vTrdpxovrt? ' 
ol did tovto avrco ^vyycvcpevoi (piXoi • 6 ^iXtap^or 6 rds ayyeXia? eiaKcpi^aav fj 
cIkuiv tj vtt : ' KireWov ypacpeicra • tcov cpikcov ol napovres • rd rrpoo~fjKovra, rd ep<\ 
TrpoarjKOvra, kt\. 

In the further usage of the participles, so far namely as they 
are substituted for ivhole minor clauses, or at least ar^ so trans- 
lated by us, we may note a threefold distinction, in that they 
stand : 1) Instead of a relative clause. 2) Instead of a minor 
clause with a conjunction, e. g. as, because, after that, if, etc. 
3) As the complement of another verbal idea. — In tli3 last two 
cases the participle cannot take the article. The same holds also 
in the first case, except when the participle stands as a substan- 
tive, i. e. when it is to be translated by is qui, talis qui, he ivJio, 
etc. while, on the other hand, those relative clauses for which 
clauses with a conjunction can be substituted, are expressed by 
a participle without the article. 

Examples: Mem. 4. 2. 28 ol pev eiSorer o,n noiovo-iv. eV irvy^dvnv- 
re? (7/ they attain to) hvirpaTTOWiv, evdo^oi re K.a\ Tipioi ylyjovrai • ol tie prj 
ei Sorer c,ti ttoiovcti, ois av emx^ipwoiaiv aTTOTvyxdvovres ddo§ovo~t did 
ravra, koI K.ar a<f> povov pevoi koi an pa £6 pevoi (cbcriv. — Dem. 01. p. 31 
ovx evpr]TST€ tov y pd-^rovra a cru/xepepet, Sta to 7ra8e7v tl kukov tov ei776v- 
ra Kal yputyavra. See also $ 124 n. 6, and no. 3 beJow. 



J 144. THE PARTICIPLE. 399 

Note 1. When the participle as substantive is intended to mark an in- 
definite person or thing, the article must be omitted. But since it is by the 
article that participles become substantives, without the article they would 
assume again their verbal character ; thus rj\6ov ayovres can only mean : 
they came bringing. Hence in such a case, either the indef. pron. r\s must 
be inserted with the participle ; or else the article must remain, wherever 
the mind anticipates (as it were) some definite object, without being able 
or willing to name it expressly: that is, marks as it were the class 01 
genus; see § 124. 1. 

Examples: rjk8e ns \eyoav, there came one saying, one who said. Here 
the English idiom is the same with the Greek. Hell. 7. 5. 24 ^aXe7roz/ ev- 
pelv rovs ede\r]crovras ptevetv, e7rei8dv ni/ar (pevyovras rwv eavrov 6pa>- 
<jl. Dem. Phil. 1. p. 45 elalv oi irdvr e^ayyeWovres eKeivco n^etovs rov 
beovros. Is. Areop. p. 144 ^a\e7rcorepov rjv ev eKeivois rols XP° V019 efyjeli/ rovs 
(3ov\o \xevovs ap^eiv rj vvv rovs p.r]8ev deo p.evovs. Plat. Menex. p. 236 
iJKOvcre yap on p.ekkoiev 'Adrjvcuoi alpelaOai rov e povvra, one who should 
speak. 

Note 2. Nevertheless the article can be omitted and yet the participle 
not lose its substantive character ; when namely it cannot he confounded 
with any verbal construction, and the insertion of rls or of the article is 
impracticable. This may "be seen in the following 

Examples : Cyr. 6. 2. 1 at the beginning : rjkBov napd rod 'LvSoi) xPW aTa 
ayovres ml drrrjyyeiXav, where there can be no subject but ayovres. Isocr. 
p. 360 acpiKvovvrai airayy eWovr es on 6 narrjp acpetrai. Hdot. 1. 42 ov 
yap avp-cpopfj roijjde Ke^p^e'i/oi/ olnos eari es opL-qXiKas ev Trprjaaovras levai, 
general indeed, but yet with evident reference to Adrastus, and hence the 
addition of rivd avoided. An. 6. 5. 9 oi 7ro\ep.iot epTriirrovo-iv els rerayp,e- 
vovs kol attepaiovs. Plat. Legg. p. 795 diacpepei 7ro\v p,a6oov p.rj p.adovros 
Kai 6 yvp.vao-dp.evos rov p.r\ yvpvao-ap.evov, here without any perceptible differ- 
ence. 

2. Where perspicuity is not thereby affected, minor clauses in- 
troduced by a conjunction may be expressed by a participle, 
whenever the subject of such a clause has been named in con- 
nection with the preceding verb ; and the participle is then put 
in the same case with its subject-word. Such clauses especially 
may be thus expressed, which include a relation of time (as, 
when, while, after) ; a cause or reason (since, because) ; a con- 
dition (if); a limitation (although, see note 15); & purpose (that, 
in order that, see Text 3 below). The different relations of time 
regulate the choice among the different participial forms. 

Examples: "''Eireo-Ke^dp-qv rov eralpov voaovvra, 'I visited my friend who 
was ill, or also when or because he was ill.' — r<3 fteyaAa) fiaaiXel ov ndrpiov 
ecrrtv dvdpbs aKpodadai prj tt pocr kvvt) cravros. — Mem. 1. 4. 8 to aapa crvvrjp- 
pLoarai crot, puKpbv p.epos \a(36vrt eKaarov. — Dem. Phil. p. 44 ovra> 8el ras 
y'voopas e%eiv, cos, eav derj, rrkevareov els ras vavs e p. /3 a a i v, that, if necessary, 
we ourselves must embark and set sail. 

Note 3. In all participial constructions, there strictly lies at the "basis a 
relation of time; i. e. the action of the participle, in whatever connection it 
may stand with that of the other verb, is almost always to be regarded 
either as antecedent, cotemporary, or future, in respect to that other ; and 
is put accordingly in the required tense. But in viewing this relation, a 
mode of conception is often possible, different from that which is familiar 
to ourselves ; and hence it happens, that we often find in writers the Part. 
Aor. where we should expect the Part. Pres. and vice versa. E. g. in the 



400 SYNTAX. $ 144. 

Homeric e Q,s elnoov corpvve p.evos ml Svpov emaTov, we should expect the 
Present \eyav ; for in that he so speaks, by his discourse, the leader en- 
courages Ins troops ; hut he must also already have said something per- 
suasive, when they "become moved. So also in Xen. Mem. 3. 6. 2 roidde 
Kegas mreo-x ev avrov. — But the Part. Pres. can stand, when "both actions are 
conceived of as continued or constantly repeated; e. g. Xen. Mem. 1. 2. 61 
(of Socrates) /3eXrtouy yap noiav tovs avyyiyvopevovs aTreirefXTrev. Here 
iroirjo-as would refer only to a single instance ; but the meaning is, 'he 
made (customarily, every time) those who came to him better, and then 
sent them away.' — The Part. Pres. stands also for many actions which are 
necessarily connected with, or presupposed by, the following one, and must 
almost be conceived, of as one with them, as to go, run, lead, bring, etc. 
comp. § 150. m. 33 sq. E. g. II. a. 179 oi/caS' Icbv Mvppidoveo-aiv avaaae, 
' go home and rule — ;' II. p. 707 o-rrj de Seav, 'running he placed himself;' 
Od. a. 127 ey^os ear^ae cpepuov npos Kiova, 'bearing the spear away he placed 
it by the column;' Plat. Charm. 2 mi /xe mdi£ei ayoov, 'he leads and seats 
me;' Hdot. 8. 118 tovs 8e npoo-Kweovras eKTvqbeeiv — , because the genu- 
flexion is conceived of as inseparable from the act of quitting the royal 
person. — Other instances are to be explained from a peculiar signification 
of the Aorist, by means of which it marks the beginning of an action. Thus 
crTpaTrjyrjcras, (S aa i\evcras, ap£as eiroiei, may indeed mean : as gen- 
eral, king, ruler, he did so and so ; literally however : having become gen- 
eral, king, ruler, etc. See Kruger de Auth. p. 8. — Finally, it is not at all 
unusual to subjoin to an Aorist a cotemporary action in the aorist participle; 
where then by way of explanation the participle can be changed into the 
Indicative of the same tense and connected by kciL E. g. Cyr. 1. 3. 8 
(ecpacrav) 'AcrTvdyrjv o-Kco^ravTa dire'iv. See Herm. ad Vig. note 224; also 
below in note 6, \av6dveiv. 

.3. Especially do the Greeks employ the participle of the Fu- 
ture to express a purpose, where we employ a clause beginning 
with that, in order that, or the Infinitive with to, in order to. 

Examples : ravra p.a6cbv 6 Kvpos znepj^e tov Tcofipvav ziro-fyopLtvov, 'Cy- 
rus sent Gobryas to see, or that he might see. 11 Plat. Gorg. p. 478 tov ddi- 
kovvtcl rrapa tovs bimo-Tas ayeiv Sei biKrjv ddxrovra, in order that he may be 
punished. Dem. 01. p. 14 tovs avpijiaxovs del ad>£eiv, mi tovs tovto rvoir\- 
o-ovras arpaTicoTas eKirepneii/ (see no. 1 above), 'and to send out soldiers in 
order to accomplish this? 

Note 4. As the Present likewise often implies a purpose [de conatu § 137. 
n. 10), the same idea can also be given by the participle of the Present, 
whenever the context readily suggests the sense. E. g. eVe/^ey avrov 
dyyeWovra, in order to announce. Plat. Euthyphr. p. 8. ndvTa noiovai 
ml \iyovo~i (pevyovres ttjv dikrjv. Hdot. 8. 143 Seolcri avp-jxaxoiai TTiavvoi 
p,iv ine^ip,€v ap.vvo pievoi. 

4. The Greeks can interweave into one clause what in English 
we express in several clauses ; and this without confusion, in that 
they connect the participial construction with that of the relative 
and that of the Infinitive ; insert also interrogative words ; and 
even make one participle dependent on another. In this last case 
the participle cannot be connected by /cat. 

Examples : 'Eneha p,6vov Sie^ei, a tovs Idovras rjyelro TedvrjKevai, where we 
say : ' he narrated only those things, as to which he supposed, that they who 
saw them were now dead.' Dem. Mid. 42 ri/xare avrco ovk. ekdaaovos, rj ocrov 
<aTa8e\s TvavaeTai rrjs vfipe^s, lay upon him no less a punishment, than one 
tshich having suffered, he shall cease from, his insolence. II. cr. 372 tov S' 



$ 144. THE PARTICIPLE. 401 

evp* IdpcoovTct iXiao-6p,evov nepl (pvaas; where the first participle is ex 
plained or qualified by the second. Od. e. 374 auro? de np^yris. &\l icd7nrecre, 
X^lpe Trerdo-a-as vr}yt\L£vai p.ep,ad>s. Comp. Eur. Suppl. 231. Iph. T. 
714 [696]. For interrogative clauses in the participial construction, see 
\ 127. 5, and n. 8. 

Note 5. With the participle also, the constructio ad sensum (Kara o-vveaiv) 
is not unfrequent ; this here takes place not only in respect to number and 
gender, e. g. Cyr. 7. 3. 8 a> dyadr) ^v^f), o'ixn §j) cnro\nTa>v f]p.ds) (other 
examples see in $ 129. 11 :) but also in respect to case, in consequence of a 
change of construction mentally. Thus the participle is put in the Nom- 
inative both before and after a noun or pronoun in the Dative; as Plat. 
Apol. 6 ml dia.Xeyop.evo? clvtw, edo£-e p.oi ovro? 6 dvrjp eivai aocpos, i.e. 
4v6p.i£ov tov avbpa ktX. comp. Legg. p. 811. d. — Thuc. 7. 42 ml roly 2vpam- 
criois mTarvX^^is ovk oXiyq eyevero . . . 6 patvTes; i. e. KaTenXdyrjaav^ After 
the Accusative: Eur. Hsc. 964 at'Scor /a' ex ft » *v T(58e norp-to Tvyxdvovo*', 
tv elp.1 vvv ktX. i. e. aldovpcu. After the Genitive: Hdot. 4. 132 Aapelov rj 
yvd>p.rj %r]v . . . eiKa£cov, I.e. Aapelos ttjv yvcop.rjv eiye. Comp. Eurip. IT. 
680 o-coOel? 8i ktX., So too the Dative after the Genitive : Thuc. 1. 61 rjv 8e 
yvd>p,r) tov 'ApioTecoy, to p.ev p.e8* eavrov o~TpaT07re8ov e^ovri, eTnrrjpelv ktX. 
—Comp. further, $ 145. n. 1, 2, 4, 8. §151. II: 

5. By rule the main action should always be expressed by a 
finite verb ; and the minor circumstances by participles. But 
the Greeks, and especially the poets, could sometimes reverse 
this construction, at least according to our ideas, in order to give, 
more peculiarity to the expression. 

Examples: Soph. OC. 1038 x a P^ v airetXei vvv, i. e. begone with thy 
threatening ; for afterwards it is said : av 5' rjp.1v eicrpXos avrov p.lp.ve. Plat. 
Gorg. p. 486 rbv roiovrov ei-eariv enl Kopprjs tvtttovto. p,rj didovai dUrju, 
where evidently the idea tvtttciv depends on egeern : such a fellow one may 
cuff without being punished. II. t. 540 mm irokX epdeanev edav. This us- 
age is imitated by the Latin poets, especially Virgil. 

Note 6. Hence may be explained a usage, which is very current in prose 
also in a certain number of verbs. These, which according to our ideas 
would express only minor or adverbial circumstances, take in Greek the form 
of the main verb ; while that which with us is the main action is express- 
ed by a participle dependent on that verb. Such verbs are the following. 
tv yxdveiv and in the poets Kvpelv, happen, come to pass : a>y §e r}Xdov, eru- 
%ev dnioiv, as I came, he ivas by chance going away. Similar is 
V7rdp%e iv : Dem. 01. p. 30 vnrjpxov oi 'OXvvBioi dvvap.lv Ttva KtKTrjpevoi, 
they possessed at the time a force. 
Xavddveiv be hid, concealed: tclvto. TroLrjaas 1 eXadev vrre K<pvyd>v, having 
done this he fled secretly, unperceived. Or the reference may be to 
the subject itself: tov cpovea Xavddvei (36a kg v he nourishes uncon- 
sciously his murderer; eXade neo-cov he fell unawares, which phrase 
belongs to the anomaly mentioned in note 3 ; because the Part, stand-- 
in the Aorist, while the verb itself is also an Aorist. So too Xdde /3tto- 
aas c live unnoticed.' But also vice versa, oXto Xa8oov II. p.. 390. 
(pOdveiv anticipate, come before: ecpdrjv dcpeXcov I took it away just be- 
fore. See further among the phrases in § 150. m. 37. 
biareXdv continue: StareXa napav, he is continually present. Dem 
Lept. 4 ol 'Adrjvaioi vnep do^rjs to.? Idia? ovaia? irpoaavaXicrKovTes Sterc- 
Xovv. So too dtdyeiv and dcaylyveadai. E. g. Mem. 4. 8. 4 2coKpd- 
tt)? ovdev aXXo 7tolcov biayeyivqTaL r) n paTToav to. dUaia ml twv db'iKcov 
d.7rexdp.evo?. Similar is : Xeyeov Starpi/3a>, I speak long or too long, 
Dem.Ol.p. 11; also Xiirapelv in Herodotus, e.g. 3.51 eXindpee tcrro- 
o(.i.ov, he narrated per severingly ; comp. 1. 94. iEs. Fab. 131. 

Cc 



402 SYNTAX. $ 144. 

oT^ojuai, go, am gone, often serves for peripnrase, in that it takes with it 
the main idea expressed by a participle ; e. g. oo^ero cpevyav v. drricov, 
he is fled and gone ; o^erai Savoov, he is dead and gone. 
For the omission of Sv with such verbs, see in note 7. — In like manner the 
verbs ^capeti/, dyanav, fjbea8ai, ax8ea0ai, (sec Text 6,) when followed by a 
participle, may often be translated gladly, sadly, or the like : e. g. Eur. 
Hipp. 7 ol $eo\ Tipapevoi x a lpovcn dvdpwTrcov vtto. Soph. Phil. 673 ovk a^Oo- 
pai o-' Ideov re ml \aj3oov cpiXov. — Comp. e#e'Aco in § 150. m. 36. 

6. Not unfrequently a clause which is the complement of a 
verbal idea, and which in English we introduce by the conjunc- 
tion that, is in Greek expressed by a participle. Here, as in other 
participial constructions, such a participle, considered as a verb, 
either has the same subject with the preceding verb, and conse- 
quently stands in the Nominative ; or it has a different subject, 
and stands consequently, with the same, as a near or remote ob- 
ject of the preceding verb, in one of the oblique -cases. 

Yet this construction with the participle can only take place, when the 
latter can actually stand from its own nature, i. e. when it can be resolved 
into a clause with in that, while, as one who, etc. Where this is not the 
case, the Infill, is used ; which indeed not unfrequently occurs in place of 
the participle; but never vice versa* The difference between the two 
constructions may be clearly seen in the following examples: cpalvopai 
o)i/ apparet me esse, cpalvopai eivai esse videor; — pavddvco Sv I learn thai 1 
am, pavddvco elvai I learn to be j — ov Trepiopco ere tovto iroirja-avra I do not 
overlook it that thou didst this, ov 7rep. ere tovto iroirjcrai I do not allow thee to 
do this. In like manner, pepvrjo-Qai: pepvnero avOpumos a>v. Plat. Charm . 
p. 156 pLep.vrjp.ai eycoye Kpirm Tcode ^vvovra ere. Apol. p. 27 {/pel? de. « 
avdpe?, pepvnerde poi pr) 3-opv(3elv. — a I cr^uj/ecr 8ai : Cyr. 5. 1. 21 x^P iv vf JL * v 
d7ro8i86vat o#7rco d^iav bvvap.iv e^etz/ poi Sokco, Ka\ tovto pev ovk alvxvvopai A e- 

* The difference between the two constructions is founded on the difference of 
the two verbal forms. The participle namely, as is shewn by its more definite sys- 
tem of endings and declension by number, gender, etc. is a verbal form susceptible 
of a far greater number of relations, than the Infinitive ; since this latter expresses 
the idea of the verb only in the most indefinite manner, and admits at the most 
only a distinction of time. Consequently, when one action (or condition) comes to 
stand in a clear and definite relation towards another, — a relation limited by a 
reference to place, time, or other circumstances, — the participial construction will 
naturally be preferred and applied. E.g. An. 1. 8. 16 6 Se fropvflov rjnovcre Sia riav 
rd^euv Iovtos, kou V\peTo ris 6 fropvfios etn, i. e. he hears the clamour (himself) and 
follows its course (as it were) through all the ranks. Also Xen. (Ec. init. Iikovw 
ZcoKpaTovs TOLavTa SiaAeyopevov, i. e. ' I follow the discourse of Socrates.' Con- 
tra, Mem. 3. 1. 1 clkovw aWiv els rr}v tt6\lv 7\Keiv, i. e. 'I hear (from others) thai 
he has come to the city.' But on the other hand again : Cyr. 2. 4. 12 6 'Appevios 
KO.Ta(ppove? crov, oti cucovei Tubs TroAepiovs it po cr i6vto,s icp' rjpas, where aKovco in- 
deed also implies 'to learn from others;' but the approach of the enemy stands in 
emphatic relation to the subject or person hearing; comp. Cyr. 1. 3. 1. Hence it 
is not a mere accidental construction, when verbs of internal and external percep- 
tion (espec. of seeing), of learning, of knowing, and of an emotion of mind, are con- 
nected with a participle far more frequently than with the Infinitive ; while on the 
other hand those verbs which express mere belief, opinion, conjecture, and all those 
which include a reference to the future, (as those of hoping, promising, etc.) are 
oftener connected with the Infinitive. Hence, further, verbs of speaking and nar- 
rating could take either construction ; but QtAnnros ayyeAAeTai t)]v"OAvvQov noAiop- 
kwp is manifestly more emphatic than tV "OA. iroAiopxeh. The Infin. names an ac- 
tion generally; the participle describes it. — Finally, we may also hence see, how 
the Jntin. as a more general verbal form may often come in place of the participle, 
but not vice versa. 



\ 144. THE PARTICIPLE. 403 

y co v • to 8e, rjv pevrjre nap epoi, anoocoaco, ev 'tare on ruvro alcrxyvoiprjv civ 
elneiv. — yiyvcotr Keiv : TllUC. 7. 77 yvcore [know) dvaynalov bv vplv dvdpd- 
(Tiv ayaOols yiyvecrdai. Hell 4. 5. 5 6 cV fA-y^criAaoy) eyvco (determined) napa- 
dovvcu avrov? rols cpvydai, ru cV aXXa ndvra npaQrjvai. For aKoveiv see also 
note 6 above. — Since therefore there is no particular class of verbs, with 
which this construction with the participle is specially connected, but it 
depends in every case simply on the nature of the whole clause; it will 
be sufficient here to point out with what verbs by preference this construc- 
tion may be employed. These are the verbs of physical and mental per- 
ception; of an emotion of mind (either of joy or sorrow) : the ideas of being 
and making public ; of being full; of permitting, persevering, beginning, 
ceasing, doing wrong, and many others. 

a) Examples of the Nominative, where also the proper subject of the 
participle can be omitted, as in the construction with the Infinitive : ol 
avviecrav p.arr)v novovvres: — Hdot. 3. 1 8 iaj3e /3 X 77 p.evos' ov p.av6dveis ; — 
Eur. Med. 347 ev rcobe SVi|co npcora pev o~o(pbs yeycos, eneira craxppcov, elrd ctql 
p,eya? (pCXos. — Plat. Gorg. p. 470 p.r) Kciprj? (pfoov dvdpa evepyercov. p. 489. 
b. ovrocrl dvrjp ov navcrerai (pXvapcov. — Xen. CEc. 1. 23 at iniOvpiai aiKi£6 p.e- 
vai tcl acopara rcov dvdpconoov ml rets -^v^ds ovnore Xrjyovat, ecrr' dv apxcoaiv 
avrcov. — Plat, ev y inol-qaas dvap,vr)cra? p.e. — Thuc. 1. 53 a§i/cetre, co dvdpes, 
noXepov apxovres ml anovod? Xvovres. — Also with civ, see § 139. m. 17 • 
Isocr. p. 311 aK.07rovp.evo? evptcrKov ovdap.co? av ciXXcos tovto o lan pa£dp.evos 
i.e. 'I found that I could by no means accomplish this differently.' — Hence 
also with Passives, arising out of the next following construction in lett. b : 
Demosth. 6 &LXinno? e^eXr]XeyKrai ndvr' evem eavrov noicov. So likewise 
with the phrases oyXos v. <pavepos elp.i v. noicov, etc. which have an 
analogous construction; see § 151. I. 7. 

b) Examples of the Accusative: Cyr. 1. 2. 2 ol Uepcrai biap.vqp.ovevovcri 
rbv Kvpov rocavrrjv e^ovra (pvcriv ktX. — II. e. 895 dXX' ov p.dv <r' en drjpbv 
dveijopai ciXye e^ovra. — Soph. Aj. 134 Te~Xap,covte nal, ere p.ev ev npdcro-ovT* 
{ntyaipat. — Phil. 1314 rjadrjv narepa rbv ep.bv evXoyovvrd ere. — Dem. oida 
trvvolcrov rco to. ^eXriara elnovn. See also note 8. 

c) Examples of the Genitive and Dative: Mem. 4. 4. 11 jjadrjaat nconore 
(jlgv rj \lrev8op,aprvpovvros rj ciXXo ri u8lkov n pdrrovros 1 ; — iEsch. Ag. 
281 ev yap (p povovvros op.p.a crov mrrjyope'i. — ovdenore p,erepe\rjae p.01 a 1- 
yrjaavrL, <p6 ey £ap.evcp 8e noXXaKt?, an apophthegm of Simonides. — Plat. 
Legg. p. 857 ovdev diacpepei rco KXemovri, p.eya rj crp.iKpbv vcfieXo p,evco, 'that 
(whether) he has taken much or little.' 

Note 7. The participle cov, b'vra. etc. is sometimes omitted, so that then 
the predicate-noun stands alone in the required case. 

Examples : Plat. Alcib. I. p. 130 oi8ev dXXo 6 dv6pcono$ crvp.fiaivei 7) •v/n^ 1 ? 
sc. cov. Soph. OC. 1210 crwy "ivQi, from olha. Soph. OT. 576 ov (povev? dXa>- 
cropai. Eur. Hipp. 1090 rob' epyov ae p.-qvvei KaKov. — So too very often with 
the verbs in note 6 ; as Hell. 2. 3. 25 ol |3eArtcrTot del avmaTol SiareXolev. 
Soph. El. 313 vvv dypolcri rvyx^vet. sc. ccv. 

Note 8. When the subject in the participial clause remains the same as 
in the main clause, it is by rule omitted. It can however be inserted, a? 
with the Infinitive (§ 141. n. 4), for the sake of special emphasis; but the 
construction then immediately passes over (as there also) into that of the 
Accusative. 

Examples: Cyr. 1. 4. 4 Kvpos ovxi « Kpeiaacov fjdei a>v, ravra npovKa- 
Xelro tov? avvovTas; dXX' arrep ev //Set eavrbv rjrTova ovra. Soph. Trach. 
708 opco be p? epyov detvbv e^eipyaap-evrjv. — Dem. Phil. p. 70 dpcporepa oloc, 
Kal eavrbv vp.lv emfiovXevovTa ml vpd? alo~8avopevovs. 

Note 9. After verbs which have with them a reflexive pronoun in the 
Dative, (e. g. avvoida ep.avra I am conscious to myself,) this participle can 
stand in either of the *wo cases belonging to the verb ; e. g. oi're p,eya ovre 



404 SYNTAX. 1 144. 

crfxiKpov ^vvoiba ep.avrco aocpbs cov Pla,t. Apol. p. 21 J and also: ^vvoiha 
ip.avrto ovbev eV tarapevcp ib. p. 22. So too we find avyy iyvu) cricei v con- 
strued with both cases; Hdot. 5. 91 avyyivcoaKopev avroiai fjplv ov 7rou']o~ao~i 
opdcos. Lys. p. 164 avveyvccaav avroi crcpicnv cos ^81/07/coresv Comp. Soph. 
Ant. 926. — An example of Sfioios elfit with the Nom. is Xen. An. 3. 5. 13 
opoioi rjtyav $avp.d£ovres. 

7. All the declinable adjuncts of the participle naturally pass 
over with it into the same case in which the participle stands ; 
and this not only with elvai, but also with such verbs as icakei- 
(jQai, vofjLi&G-dcu, etc. 

Examples: vpiv 0€ ovcriv 'Ad-qvaiots ov 7rpenei. — Xen. An. 7. 5. 12 eVo- 
pevovro did rcov MeX lvo cpdycov KaXovp-evcov Qpancov. — Hdot. 6. 140 evopeco 
vpiv ovk otourl re ecrop.evoicTi iroXepeeiv Sep^j], — Cyr. 1. 6. 14 e<eXevads pe 
ro7s arparr/yiKols vop.i£op.evois dvdpdai diaXeyeadai. 

Note 10. The participles KaXovp.evos and ovop.a£6p.evos receive in 
connection with a substantive and the article the signification of our so 
called; they take entirely the position of an adjective, that is, between the 
article and substantive; and arc regularly declined. E. g. al KaXovp.evat 
prjrpai, reus KaXovp-evais prjrpais. 

Note V. With the participial construction is connected also the attrac- 
tion with the Infinitive, § 142. 2. b. E. g. Plat. Apol. p. 22. fjo-66p.r)v avrav 
nlopevcov crocpcordrcov elvai dv6 pcorrcov. 

Note 12. A more complex participial construction takes place, when the 
participle suffers attraction. Thus the clause : dixavrcovi evQdhe fiovXevcro- 
pevoi, when made dependent becomes: eXprjTai avroi? dnavrav evddhe /3ou- 
Xevcrop.evois, it has been notified to them to come together here in order tc 
take counsel, Aristoph. Lys. 13. So too Xen. Mem. 1.1.9 (comp. § 142. n 
1) a rols dvOpconois ebcoicav ol Seol paQovvi biaicpLveiv, what the gods have per- 
mitted to men to decide by their own learning. Here paOovai does not belong 
immediately to dvOpcbnots, but to 8iaKpivet,v, though it stands in the Dative 
on account of dvOpconois. Bern. p. 241 o-vpfiej3rjK.e rols rdXXa 7rXfjv iavrovs 
ircoXeiv olop-evois irpcorovs iavrovs tt err paKoa iv jjo-Orjcrdai, which has arisen 
out of: alcrddvovrac irpcorovs iavrovs TreirpaKores. — An. 3. 1. 5 ^coKpdrrjs orvp.- 
ficvXevei rco Aevo(pcovrt, iX66vri els AeXcpovs 'dvaKOivdocrai rco Seep TtepX rr\s 
Trope las. 

8. Particles are also frequently employed in connection with 
participles ; as appears from the following notes. 

Note 13. For the sake of emphasis, where the participle precedes the 
other verb to which it belongs, the particle our coy or eireira, or also elra, 
is inserted between the two, as if to mark a resumption of the participle. 
E. g. Dem. Mid. p. 536 e\pr]v avrov, rd ovra dvaXiaKovra, coenrep eyco, ovrco 
pe dcpaipelaOai rrjv vUtjv, it w-as necessary for him, in that he expended what he 
had, like myself so (i. e. through this expenditure) to deprive me of the vic- 
tory.^ — Xen. Hier. 7. 9 orav ol avOpcorroi avbpa r)yr)crdp,evoi evepyerelv inavbv 
elvai, eixeira rovrov dva arop.a e^coaiv enaivovvres, . . . tov ovrco rip.cop.evov 
p,aK.api£(S>. — An. 1. 2. 25 ov hvvdp,evoi evpelv ras odovs, eira 7rXavcop.evoi. dirco- 
Xovro, not being able to find the way, they thus perished in wandering about. 
— For the particles eneira and elra, see further, § 149. m. 19. For p,eragv 
and ap,a, see $ 150. m. 27, 29. — In like manner phrases with prepositions, 
as p.erd ravra, did rovro, 4k rovrov, are put after participles ; see Kriiger de 
A.uth. Anab. p. 55. 

* In a manner entirely analogous, when the participle stands with the article, 
and consequently instead of an adjective (relative) clause, the pron. ouros is in 
liie manner inserted and in the same case with the participle; e. g. Hdot. 9. 67 oi 
irp nrjdi^ovres rwv ®r][3aici)u, ovroi elxov Trpo9vpir]v ov« r,\iyr)v. Comp. Cyr. 4. 2. 39. 



fc 144. THE PARTICIPLE. 405 

Note 14. The particles are, ola or olov, are often connected with par- 
ticiples, when the latter express a cause or reason as real and objective. 
On the other hand, cos or cocmep is employed, partly when a cause oi 
reason is presented as existing in the mind of another (see more in § 145. 
n. 7), and partly in order to express an appearance, quasi, as if. More 
especially the participle of the Future with. cos is used to express the purpose 
of an action (no. 3 above) as it exists in the mind of the subject. 

Examples: Cyr. 1. 3. 3 Kvpos, are ttols cbv kol (piXoKaXos kcu cpLXoripos, 
rjBero rfj arokjj. lb. 2, K. eldvs, oia dr) reals (piXocrTOpyos cbv cpvaei, r)arrd(ero 
tqv Ticm-nov. Plat. Rep. p. 329 dyavaKrovcriv cos peydXcov tlvcov dneare prj- 
pevoi. Soph. OT. 955 (f]K€i) rrarepa rbv aov dyyeXcbv cos ovk er' ovra, dAV 
oXoiXora. Cyr. 8. 1. 42 ol 8e ov peTecrrpecpovro eir\ Qeav oiuevos, cos ovdev 
Qavpd^ovres. An. 1. 1. 11 Kvpos Upo^evov e<eXevae irapayeveo-Qai, cos en} 
TleLcridas (BovXo pevos aTparevecrdaL, cos repay para rrapexdvTcov neicrtScov 
TTj iavrov x™P a (comp. the cases absol. § 145. n. 7); and thereupon, 1. 2. 1 
rrjv irpocpacriv enoLelro cos UeLaidas [3ovX6 pevos eK(3aXelv i< rrjs -^copas. — So 
too cos with Part. Fat. Hell. 4. 2. 5 ol pev 8r) %vveo~Kevd(ovTO cos aKoXovdrj- 
crovTes- 6 Se 'AyrjcrCXaos rvpoelne Kai rols Imrdpxois, octtls evLTrTrordrrjp Ta^iv 
Trape^otro, cos kcu tovtols vcKrjrrjpiov dcocrcov. — Also with civ, An. 1. 1. 10 
* ApicTTiTnros alrelrai Kvpov els oWy/Xiou? ^evovs, cos ovrco rre p lyevo pevo s av 
tcov noXeplcov. See § 139. m. 17. 

Note 15. Where a participle serves to modify or limit the sense, the 
particle Kaiirep is by rule put before it; less often ko.lt ol, Plat. Prot. 
p. 339. c; also simply Kai, or poetic nep enclitic. Here also the peculiar 
usage is to be noted, that the particle opcos tamen, which belongs to the 
main verb, is often placed in immediate connection with the participle : 
Eur. Or. 669 Kayco o~' Uvovpcu kol yvvr) irep over' op.cos. — Plat. Phsed. p. 91 
6 Lippias <pofia.Tai, pr) r) "^OXV o ft cos kcu Seiorepov ov rod aebparos npoa—oX- 
Xvrjrai. Comp. further Reisig Enarr. ad Soph. OC. 659. 

9. Finally, as in all languages, so in Greek, the participle 
serves for various periphrases of the simple tenses ; as is seen in 
the following notes. 

Note 16. This takes place mostly in connection with the verbs elvaL, 
ylyvecrdai, as auxiliaries ; and in prose writers by rule only when those 
verbal forms are to be supplied, which are unusual or wanting; see § 98. 
1, 4. s s 137. n. 12. § 138. 4. The poets employ such periphrases without 
similar reasons, in order to introduce emphatic or peculiar turns of expres- 
sion; e.g. Soph. Phil. 1217 eyco pev fjdr] rrdXai crret^coi/ av rjv, el pr] . . . 
eXevcraoprjv, instead of eareL^ov. id. Aj. 588 'iKvovpal ere, pr) rrpobovs rjpas 
yevr], instead of rrpodcos. Comp. Plat. Legg. p. 908. b, piaovvres ylyvovrai 
tovs kokovs. Also in Herodotus often : rjcrav levres, divapveopevos ecrriv. 

Note 17. Less frequent is the connection of a participle with the verbs 
el pi, epxopai, as if in order to form a new Future; compare peXXeiv c. 
Infill. E. g. Soph. Phil. 1197 ovdeTTOT' lo~6i rod* epnetjov, ovd' el nvpepopos 
darepoTrrjrrjS fipovrds avyals p* eitri cpXoy i£cov. Compare also with the 
English and French idiom the following: Hdot. 1. 194 to 8e andvTcov Scbvpa 
peyia-Tov poi ecru, epxopai eppdercov. Comp. Plat. Theag. p. 129. a. 

Note 18. An idiom very current in the tragic poets, and approaching 
nearer to our own usage, is the periphrase for the Perfect (i. e. completion 
in the present), by means of the participle of a preterite and the verb e^eti/. 
This usage has arisen out of certain turns of expression, in which the verb 
e^eti/ to have yet retains itk full signification; e.g. Hdot. 1. 28 tovs aXXovs 
Ttdvras et^€ KaTatTTpe-ty-dpevos Kpolcros. Mem. 2. 7. 6 covov pevoi dv- 
BpcotTovs exovcriv. On the other hand, the proper signification of e^eiv re- 
cedes more in Soph. OC. 1140 ndXai Savpdcras e^co. El. 590 tovs naldas 
fKj3aAot)cr' eyris. Antig. 32 TOLavrd (pacn Kpeovra kt] pv ^avT* e^e6i'. 



406 SYNTAX. • § 145 

Comp. Plat. Pliaedr. p. 257. c. Also with Part. Pres. Eur. Tro. 318 tov 
SavovTO. 7rarepa Karacrrevov cr' e^eis. 

Note 19. There are still a number of participles in established use, which 
according to our ideas are pleonastic or redundant, and which we translate 
for the most part adverbially or in some other like way ; such are ap^o/xevor, 
reXevT&v, e^coj/, etc. See note 3 above : and see more on these participles 
in § 150 m. 31 sq. 40 sq. 

§ 145. Cases Absolute. 

1. In the constructions described in the preceding section, the 
participle is everywhere dependent on some noun connected with 
the principal verb ; and it therefore stands in the same case with 
that noun. If now some other person or thing is introduced as 
a new subject, this is put with the participle in a case independ- 
ent of the principal verb. This is called the Case Absolute. 

2. The Genitive is more commonly employed in this construc- 
tion ; and these 

Genitives Absolute 
are precisely the same as the Latin Ablativi consequentice. 
Their original signification refers to time ; since (by h 132. 14) 
the Genitive serves to mark a relation of time. Hence, accord- 
ing as the reference is to time present, future, or past, the parti- 
ciple is put in the present, future, or preterite form. But here it 
is to be noted, that (according to § 137. 6) in the narration of 
past events, the participle of the Present is also introduced to 
mark cotemporary and continued actions. — For hri as put with 
this G-en. see note 5. 

Examples: HdvToav ovv ai(x>-rd>VTcov elne rotdbc. — Plut. Per. 29 /zero ravra 
KVfxalvovTos rjbrj tov ILeXo-rovvrjcriaKov 7roXep,ov UepiKXrjs eneicre tov drjfxov, Kep- 
KVpaiois aVocrreiAat ftorjdeiav. — Thuc. 1. 105 noXefiov Ka.Tao~Ta.VTOS npbs Alyt- 
vrjTas 'ABrjvaLOis vavpaxLa yiyveTai peydXt]. id. 2. 2 ol Q-qfiaxoi r}(3ovXovTO ttjv 
liXcLTaiav €tl iv zlpr}vrj re na\ tov TroXep.ov p-rj-rai (pavepov KadeaTcoTOS; npoKaTa- 
Xafie'tv, ktX. 

3. But this construction serves also to express many other re- 
lations or connections, such as we express in English by if, ivhen, 
since, because, in that, etc. or by our Nominative absolute. "We 
may here remark in general, that in consequence of the greater 
number of participles Active, the instances of the Gen. absol. 
Pass, are much less frequent than in Latin. 

Examples : Thuc. 3. 82 ndv to 'EWijvlkov eKivrjBrj, diacpopcov oiaeov eKacrra- 
\66ev. 5. 116 ol MrjXioi elXov ttjv ttoXlv, napovTav ov ttoXXcdv tcov (pvXaKoov. 
ko\ ikdovo~r]s o~Tpa.Tias vo~Tepov aXXr]?, yevopevrjs /cat irpohoo'las Tivbs d(p' eavTOiv, 
£vve)(a>pr)o~av. — Mem. 3. 1. 3 'OXt]? ttjs noXeids iv roTy -roXep.iKo'is Kivdwoi? eVj- 
Tp€7ropevr]$ rc5 crTpamya, p-eydXa to. re dyaOd, KaTopOovvTO? avrov, Ka\ Ta icaicd, 
diapapTdvovTO?, cIkos yiyveadai, ktX. An example of the Part. Fut. see in 
note 7. 

Note 1. Not unfrequently, however, even when the subject of the par- 
ticipial clause is already contained in the main clause, the construction of 
the Genitive absolute is admitted, contrary to grammatical rule. This 
takes place, e. g. when the participial clause precedes the main clause, and 



5 145. CASES ABSOLUTE. 407 

the effect of the latter is thus less prominent ; hut more especially in the 
participial construction introduced hy as, for which see note 8. 

Examples: Cyr. 1. 4. 20 ravra elnovro? avrov, eSo£e tc Xeyeiv r« 
'Aarvdyei, instead of Nom. elncov. — Hdot. 9. 99 ol 2dpioi, d7riKop.ev<av *&6-q- 
vaiatv alxfxaX&TOdv, . . . tovtovs \vcrdpevoi iravras an oirepiv overt, instead of the 
Acc. 'Adrjvaiov? air. So too even when the subject of the participle precedes 
in another case; Thuc. 2. 8. ib. 3. 24. — Thuc. 1. 114 dia^e^rjKoros 77877 Ilepi- 
kXcovs; r)yye\8r) avra, instead of the Dat. biaQefirjKon II. 

Note 2. It is an Homeric usage, already referred to in § 133. n. 9, that 
when the Dative of a pers. pronoun is put instead of the Genitive, the par- 
ticiple follows in the Genitive : e. g. Od. t. 458 r<5 Ke ol eyKecfiaXo? ye . . . 
Qeivop,evov paioiTo npbs ovde'L Comp. £. 156. p. 231. 

4. "When the subject is obvious from the context, the participle 
can stand alone in the G-enitive. 

Examples: napovra top yyepova rjdovvro, cltvovtqs §e r)o~ekyaivov, i. e. l he 
being absent.' Plat. Menex. p. 243 (in this war) eKCpavrj? 8e eyivero f) rr/s 
nokeas aperf) • olofievodv yap rjdr) (i. e. the Lacedemonians and barbarians) 
rrjv Tiokiv KaTaTre7ro\ep.rja8ai, ol 'A6t]va2oi ipfidvres . . . ivitcqaav. See also 
Anab. 1. 2. 17. ib. 2. 1. 24. — So too all verbs which are used impersonally 
can pass over into a simple participle in a case absolute ; for the details 
see below in notes 9, 10. 

5. The Dative absolute is used, though seldom; partly in 
specifications of time, and partly in a mode of speech arising out 
of the Dat. Instrument!. Comp. h 133. n. 8. 

Examples: Xen. Hell. 3. 2. 25 irepuovr i ra iviavra naXtv (pcuvovai 
(ppovpav em rrjv T HAiz/ ' the year drawing to a close, they again announced,' 
etc. Xen. Agesi. 1. 2 m kcu vvv to\s Tvpoyovois dvop.a£op.evois divo- 
fiop.vr]veverai ottoo-tos afft 'Hpcackeovs eyevero, i. e. by naming his ancestors. 

Note 3. Further, according to § 133. n. 8, the Dative of a participle ap- 
parently absolute may be put in connection with the main verb, where we 
translate by if or when one, etc. Here the subject implied in the participle 
is the indef. tU or some person not expressly named along with the main 
verb. 

Examples: Thuc. 1. 24 'E7rt§a/j.z/oy earn noXts iv §e£ia ecnrXeovTi tov 
'Iovlov koKtvov, to one (if one is) sailing into the Ionian gulf. 2. 49 to pev 
e£<x>6ev &7TTO p.ev<o acop-a ovre Seppou rju ovre ^Xcopdv. Comp. Hdot. 2. 29. 

Note 4. Cases absolute, in the strict sense of the word, are properly only 
Nominatives absolute ; for since the Nominative, in respect to the verb, can 
be only subject or predicate, it follows, that when a Nominative, in respect 
to the verb with which it stands, is neither of these, it must stand for itself 
alone, or absolutely. This however can take place only by an interruption 
of the sense ; and all Nominatives absolute therefore belong more or less to 
the Anacolutha, § 151. II. But there is no fixed general usage in regard to 
them; and the particular examples are susceptible of easy explanation. 
E. g. Xen. Hell. 2. 3. 54 eKelvot, 8e (ol eudem) elcre\66vres avv to7? vttti- 
pe'reus", fjyovpevov avrcov Sarvpov, eiirev 6 Kpirlas — , where this construction is 
preferred, in order to avoid a double Genitive absolute. Ib. 2. 2. 3 eKeivrjs 
Trjs pvktos ov8eh eKoiprjdr] (i. e. all kept awake), ov povov rov$ drroXooXoTas nev- 
Bovvres; dXkd kcu vop.i^ovres kt\. where as well nevdwv as irevOovvrcov would 
have been unnatural. See other examples in § 144. n. 5. — To poetry espe- 
cially such constructions impart a peculiar charm, as the expression of un- 
restrained and vigorous nature, to which language so readily sacrifices 
grammatical exactness. So the Homeric phrase : II. o. 267 6 §' dyXatrjcpi 
Tr€7roi8a>s; 'Pipcpa i yovva cpepei p.erd r rj6ea kcu vop.bv "nrmov, comp. e. 135. 
Also with the like case in the main clause: II. y. 211 ap.<pw 8' e^op.evcc 



408 syntax. 4 145. 



TOV 



yepapwrepo? rjev 'OSi/crcreuy. k. 224 avv re 8v* ipxop.evco kcll re irpb 6 
ivo-qvev. Comp. here the usage with oi p.ev, ol §e, in § 132. n. 4. 

Note 5. The other three cases can never in this sense become cases ab- 
solute. In all the above instances, they express rather, strictly considered, 
only remoter objects and relations of the verb with which they stand; just 
as (according to § 130. 4 ) the oblique cases are employed by themselves to 
mark not only time, but also causal and other relations. It was therefore 
very natural, in certain instances where the relation of time was to be made 
specially perceptible, that prepositions should be employed by way of dis- 
tinction from those more figurative constructions. And as (according to 
§ 147, under eVi) the Gen. of an historical person with eVi serves to name 
a period of time after that person, (e. g. eVi Kettpoiros in the time of Cecrops,) 
there was also often added to this expression, especially in the documentary 
style, a participle of the Present; thus, Dem. p. 266, 282 eVt apxovTos 
Evdvickeovs, 'HponvOov, at the beginning of public decrees ; comp. Thuc. 2.2. 
Further eVi with the Dative (§ 133. 4. e) : Hdot. 2. 22 inl x 10 "^ Keaovo-n ; 
also p.erd with the Ace. (§ 147) : Hdot. 1. 34 //.era So'Xeom olxop.emy. In like 
manner, in order to express an immediate succession of time (so soon as), 
a p. a is often connected with a participial clause in the Dative; e. g. ap.a 
tco rjpi apxop-ivco Thuc. and further p,eTa£v with a Gen. absol. in order to 
mark what is simultaneous or parallel in time, while, as p.eragv crov Xe- 
yovros- See further in § 150. m. 27. 

Note 6. Sometimes an adjunct or supplementary qualification is ex- 
pressed by means of an Accusative or Nominative absolute. E. g. Hdot. 2, 
41 rovs j3ovs Sdnrovcrt, ra ice para v7repex oVTa ("W"itli) the horns projecting. 
ib. 133 iva oi (to him) dvco8e<a erect avrl e£ erecov yevnrai, a I vvKTes rjp-epai 
7roi€vp,evaL, the nights being made days. Comp. Cyr. 8. 3. 12 app.a egi'iyero, 
oboLVLKLai. KaraTreTrrap-evoL ol tWot. The comparison of such instances shews, 
that strictly there is here a partial apposition : for rjp-epai. stands in the Nom. 
on account of yez^rat, and Kepara is to be regarded as Accusative because of 
&a.7TTovo-i. — What is elsewhere taken as Ace. absolute, (e. g. II. p. 489 ovk civ, 
ecpop p-t]6evre ye v&l, rXaiev ivavrifiiov ardvTes p-axeaaadat " Kprfi. Soph. 
OC. 1120 p.rj Qavp,a£e, TeKV* el (fiavevT* aeXirTa prjKvvco \6yov,) may bet- 
ter be regarded, according to § 131. n. 7, as real objects, dependent as to 
sense upon the main idea ; or else as resulting from a sudden change of 
construction or Anacoluthon, as Cyr. 2. 1. 5 tovs pevroi "EXk-rjvas kt\. 
Comp. k 141. n. 2. 

Note 7. In one instance only is the construction of the Ace. absolute in- 
terchanged with that of the Gen. absolute without essential difference. As 
we have seen above in § 144. n. 14, when by means of a participial adjunct 
a cause or reason is presented as existing in the mind of another, the par- 
ticle oby (cbo-rrep) is put before it ; and this can take place with all cases, ac- 
cording to the nature of the main clause; e. g. the Nominative : Plat. Rep. 
p. 329 ayavciKTovcnv cos ueyaXcoy tivcov aTjeaTeprjp.evoi . The Genitive: Soph. 
A.J 281 tt>r cob' exdvTcov Tcovd' e7ri.0-Ta.adai ere XPV- Cyr. 1.6. 11 a>y epov p.rj- 
$£77\ re dpeXrjcrovTOS (tcov (fclXcov), ovrcos e^e ttjv yvcoprjv. The Dative: Soph. 
Phil. 33 crTeirrrr] ye (pvXXcis a)? evavkit^ovri tco. .ZEsop. Fab. 181 eXacpos eVt 
roTy 7joo~\v rjx@ eT0 <° s Xe7rroIy overt Kal dcrBeveo-iv . The Accusative : Soph. Phil. 
415 cos finker ovra Keivov ev cfrdei voei. Now the same thing also takes place 
when the construction requires a case absolute ; most naturally with Geni- 
tives, e. g. Plat. Phffid. p. 61 ernKeXevei povaiKrjv Troielv, cos <piXoo~o(pias p.eyi- 
o-tt)? ovo-T]$ p.ovcriKT)s. That however so often, instead of the Genitive, Ac- 
cusatives are introduced, arises only from the circumstance, that a cause or 
reason presented as in the mind of another seems to depend on a verb of 
thinking (sentiendi) implied; e. g. ecricorra, cos iravras el dor an, he was si- 
lent, as if all knew, i. e. because he thought all knew. Mem .1.2.20 oi narepei 
ctpy overt tovs vlels citto tcov novrjpcov dvdpconcov, cos ttjv tovtcov opiXiav Ka^dXvan 



S N 145. CASES ABSOLUTE. 409 

■ivaav tt]s aperr}?, as convinced that their intercourse is the destruction of vir- 
tue, ib. 2. 3. 3 rwv ddeXcpcov dpeXovaiv, coanep ck tovt&v ov yiyvopivovs <pl~ 
Xovs, as if of these none became friends. Of such participial clauses thus 
introduced by cos the Greeks, and especially the tragic poets, often avail 
themselves, as imparting to style a greater vivacity as well as brevity of 
expression. 

Note 8. Here too, as in note 1, the construction with the case absolute 
is often employed contrary to the general rules. The occasion of this may 
be seen in the particular examples, as follows : 

Examples : Cyr. 6. 1. 37 ol <fii.Xoi o-vpfiovXevovaiv eKirobcov %x eLV epavTov, 
ixr\ ti kcu rrddco vnb crov, a>s rjdiKr) kotos ipov fieydXa, where the parti- 
cipial-clause, although grammatically referring to the subject of nddco, is yet 
put in the Genitive as expressing what is in the mind of the friends. Plat. 
Charm, p. 165 av pev, cos cpdcrKovTos ipov eldevcu, npoacpepr] npos pe, kcu 
opoXoyrj aavros o~oi. Still more free, Hdot. 1. 84 M^A^r Kcm^oy^cre rov- 
tov (tov rei^eos), a> s i 6 1> apaxdv re kcu diroTopov. 

Note 9. Every impersonal verb, properly so called, i. e. one which has 
only an indefinite subject unexpressed (§ 129. 17, 18) may pass over, as a 
case absolute, into the Genitive Sing, of the participle. E. g. aaXniCovTos 
1 the trumpeter sounding ;' vovtos ttoXXco (from vet noXXa sc. opfipep) ' it rain- 
ing heavily J Xen. Hell. 1.1.16. So Plat. P^ep. p. 381 ourcoy exovros. Aris- 
toph. Eccl. 401 irtp\ aarnpias npoKeipevov. Soph. Ant. 1179 as o>S' exdvrav. 

Note 10. Those- Impersonals or impersonal constructions, where in strict- 
ness the clause dependent on the verb (commonly an Infinitive or clause 
with on, etc.) is the real subject of the verb (§ 129. 10), are treated as cases 
absolute in 'two different ways : 

1) When the mere relation of time is to be expressed, the Genitive is em- 
ployed. This occurs chiefly with the Passives of verbs signifying to say, 
announce , etc. and then it is usually the Genitive Plural, where r&vde from 
rdde can be mentally supplied. E. g. 6 HepiKXrjs c£x €T0 e7r * Kawou, icray- 
ye\3evTOiv ore &oiviao-cu vrjes eTnnXeovacv, 'it (these things) having been 
announced, 7 Thuc. 1.116. So o-qpavQivrozv Cyr. 1.4. 18 ; dnXadivTos Thuc. 
1. 74; but also in other verbs : ovrco yiyvopevav Cyr. 5. 3. 13. 

2) In all other connections the Accusative Neuter is employed. Thus 
elpT] pevov (from eipnTai) it having been notified ; ix poo~Tax0ev it having 
been commanded, Lysias; i£6v (from e£ecmv) it being permitted; irapexov 
it being in one's power Hdot. also ev, koXcos napderxov it being well in one' s 
'power, a good opportunity, Thuc. 1. 120. ib. 5. 14; xpecoy, tt pocrr^Kov, 
deov, it being needful ; rvxdv, Traparvxdv, it happening; doKovv, do- 
^ai/,* it seeming; peTapiXov it repenting him, Plat. Phsed. p. 113; pi. 
Xov it being for care. E.g. Aristoph. Cyr. 13 elpnpevov avrols irapeivai, 
oi>x fJKovai ' it having been notified to them to be present, they yet do not 
come.' Cyr. 7. 1. 42 aipovvrai vpds aacrcu, i^bv diroXeo-cu, it being permitted 
to slay you, i. e. although they could. Epict. ap. Arr. 3. 26 aneipi irdXiv, eW- 
va boKovv (sc. ipe dnievai) ' I will go away again, since he thinks it prop- 
er.' Plat. Phajd. 235 8\s kcu rpls rd avrd e'lpvKev, cos ov irdvv e&nopoov, r) tcrcos 
ovdev avTco piXov tov tolovtov. — Even adjectives, as bvvaTov, alcrxpov, dnop- 
pnrov, are thus found, the Participle ov being omitted : Plat. Rep. p. 519. d, 
7rotr}aopev x e ^P°v £f] v i Swcitov clvtoIs cipeivov (sc. grjv) 'we shall make them 
live ^orse, it being possible for them to live better.' See also Cyr. 2. 2. 20. 
Soph. Ant. 44; and Herm. ad Vig. not. 214. 

* Also with a pronoun subjoined in the same case ; as S6£av T\plv ravTa (froru 
tavT e5o£e An. 4. 1. 13) ; also Plur. S6£avTa Se TavTa KaX -xepavdivTa Hell. 3. 2. 19. 
JJut also in the Genit. ^avTos tovtov, hol&vTtav tovtcov, Hell. 1. 7. 32. ib. 1. 1. 3Q, 



410 SYNTAX. § 146. 

THE PARTICLES. 
§ 146. Adverbs. 

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives by means of the ending ws, 
have the same syntactical relations as their adjectives ; e. g. a%i- 
a>? rjfjicov 7ToX€fjLrjao/i6v, i in a manner worthy of us ;' 6/jlolcqs tlvl, 
etc. In like manner, adverbs which admit of comparison, even 
when there exists no corresponding adjective, have the connec- 
tions of the Comparative and Superlative ; e. g. fiaXio-Ta ttclvtwv 
most of all ; ol irevrjres tcov evSacfiovcov [xaXKov hvvavTai ecrOieiv re 
real KaOevheiv, i. e. better than the rich. See § 132. 10. b, 11. 

2. We have already seen, that some adverbs serve at the same 
time as adjectives, e. g. ifK^albv earl, alyd eari, \ 129. 13 ; also 
that vice versa an adverbial sense is often expressed by adjec- 
tives, k 123. 6 ; and further that, by prefixing the article, parti- 
cles become nouns, § 125. 6, 7. 

3. To the adverbs belong strictly also the Prepositions ; since 
they all are of adverbial origin. To the latter, according to the 
definition, ought also to belong all those primitive adverbs (i. e. 
not derived from adjectives) on which a substantive depends in an 
oblique case. Nevertheless, the Greek grammar reckons among 
the proper (or primitive) prepositions only such as are employed 
in composition, i. e. loose composition, § 121. 2. All the rest re- 
tain the name of Adverbs, even when they strictly, according to 
the definition, have become prepositions. These last also can only 
be connected with one case, the Genitive, (except a/ia or 6/iov 
and a>9, see note 1,) while the primitive prepositions are construed 
with one, or two, or all three of the cases. 

Note 1. Of the two adverbs just mentioned, a\ia (6 pod) is also connect- 
ed as a preposition with the Dative, and then marks more strongly than 
avv a direct and close conjunction in time or place ; as ap.a rfj f]p>epq, ap.a ra> 
77X10) together with the sun; ocraoi a\i 'ArpeiBys vtto "XXlov rfk6ov Horn. — On 
the'other hand, «y is put as a preposition of place with the Accusative, in 
answer to the question whither; but always referring to persons alone.* 
E. g. elo~rj\6ev o>? ipi he entered to me; avrj-^drjcrav a>? t6v fiacriXea. 

4. Of those adverbs which are construed with the Genitive, 
and more or less occur only so (i. e. strictly as prepositions), are 
to be noted : 1) Those which are derived from the primitive 
prepositions by means of an adverbial ending or by composition. 
2) Those which are formed in any other way ; of which also many 
are strictly prepositions according to the definition. 

Under no. 1 belong, with the endings in co : ava>, euxo>, e£co, Karoo, 7rpoo~co; 
in or : €vt6s, euros', ill £ez>, #e : rrpocrOev, e'fnrpoo-dev, vnepOev, Kadvnepde, dno- 

* The instances where ws does not refer to persons, when such passages occur 
in good writers, are, as has been shewn by modern criticism, most probably cor- 
rupt ; and instead of it, els should everywhere be read. 



S 146. ADVERBS. 411 

rrpodev (also -S-i), dtidvevBev, TrpoTrdpoide ; further aWa, avrlov, dvria (see avri), 
dvriKpv (KaravTLKpv), ap(pt'r, fxeragv. 

Under no. 2 belong : avev, arep, sine; irX-qv, voo-<piv, x^P^y ^ l 'x a » prater ', 
extra; irepav, irepa, trans; eveica, ^apii/, causa; biicqv instar ; Kpvcjia, Xa- 
6 pa, clam; pe^pt, a^ph usque ad, terms ; evQv, Wvs, obviam; oTnadev pone; 
so too the ideas near and far from, as ay^t, eyyvs, neXas, rroppco, e/cay, r^Xf, 
with all their forms of comparison and derivation, as aaaov, eyyvrara, tt{X6- 
6i, and the like. 

Note 2. Of the preceding adverbs, a p. (pis, asunder, apart, is construed 
with the Gen. only in epic usage; e. g. dp.<fils 68ov out of the road II. \js. 393 : 
Aids dp,(pis, #. 444. Different from this is dp.(pls, when in Homer especially 
before vowels it is only a secondary form of the preposition djx(pi, about, 
roundabout; e. g. II. e. 723. X. 633. £. 374 Kpovov dp.(pis. — -Krep is a poetic 
form instead of avev, and is by rule put after its substantive, arrjs arep ; 
while avev very rarely has this position, and only in poets and after a rela- 
tive : hv avev. — Ii\r]v is used also without any construction with a case,' 
like our except ; that is, it is put adverbially before every case at pleasure : 
ovk dcpiKvelrai, 7tKtjv rj tqv (piKocrocprjaavTos (sc. ^vx*]) ) iravrl brjXov nXrjv ep.oi 
Plat, ovk e§(£>Kev limreas ttXtjv fierpiovs rivas Xen. Further, it also connects 
whole clauses, and thus becomes a conjunction, and then stands often in 
connection with other conjunctions, as irXrjv el. — "Eveica (§ 117. 2) stands 
sometimes before and sometimes after its substantive. Originally it signi- 
fied in respect to, ratione habita alicujus rei; as Hdot. 1. 42 dnrjfxova rov cpv- 
XdcrcrovTos e?venev Trpoadoica tol aTTovoo~Tr\o~eiv {irdiha) ; comp. 3. 122. In con- 
nection with ye it receives a peculiar modifying power: Plat. Charm, p 
158 e'l aoi (piXov, edeXco o~Konelv, el 8e fir), eav. 'AAXa rravrav p.dXio~Ta, e(pr], 
(piXov, &are tovtov ye evem a/conei, as it respects this indeed, so far as respects 
this. Mem. 4. 3. 3 el p,rj to (pas e'lxofxev, 6p.oi.oi rols rv(pXols dv rjp.ev, evexd ye 
rS)v rjixerepav 6(p6aXp.cov . Comp. Plat. Phsed. p. 85. — Aiktjv is often used 
by some writers, e. g. iEschylus, Plato, as a periphrase for the more usual 
cos; as Agam. 3. kvvos dUrjv. Phsedr. p. 249 opvidos hU-qv (SXeinov uvea. — 
Xdpiv stands almost always after its noun, and is in like manner most 
used by the poets. As being originally a noun, like the Lat. gratia, causa, 
it is put with the possessive pronoun in the same case, thus : ep.r)v x&P Lv i ah v 
xdpiv, on my (thy) account ; and in a similar way Euripides writes even 
7rarpcoav x^P lv -> x - <!• rvarphs x^P lv f Heracl. 241. — Me^pt is used in prose, 
sometimes as a preposition with the Genitive ; sometimes as a conjunction, 
until, donee, where it strictly should read in full: p-expis ov, An. 1. 7. 6. — 
"A^pi (s) is not found in good prose; and occurs also very seldom in Homer 
and Hesiod. 

Note 3. When eyyvs, neXas, and other adverbs, e. g. eWoScoj/, ep7ro8coi>, 
etc. are connected with the Dative, they are not so construed as prepositions, 
but form then with the verb (elvai, yiyveardai, to-raadai, etc.) a predicate- 
idea, to which the Dative belongs. E. g. Cyr. 2. 3. 2 6 pe> dycov eyyvs 
■f) p,7v, sc. ecrrt. Eur. Phoen. 40 rv pdvvois itcTrodcov [xedio-Taao. Hel. 783 
quels efnTobcov epois yapols. 

5. Other adverbs refer to verbs, and in this way connect two 
clauses together. So especially relative adverbs ; e. g. irapecrojjiaL 
oirore /ceXeuei?, I will be present whenever thou shalt command. 
This is the origin of Conjunctions ; for the construction of which 
with the different moods, see § 139 ; and for then further usage, 
M 149, 150. 



412 syntax. § 147. 

k 147. Prepositions. 

1. Besides the adverbial prepositions mentioned in the preced- 
ing section, the following are the ordinary primitive Prepositions 
{) 115. 2) with their cases; expressing originally the most simple 
and general relations of place : 

dvri, airo, ef (eVc), irpo, govern the Genitive ; 
iv, avv, the Dative ; 
avd, ek, the Accusative ; 
hud, Kara, virep, the Genitive and Accusative ; 
dfJL(f>t, eiri, fierd, irapd, irepl, 7rpo?, u7ro, the Genitive, Dative, 
and Accusative. 

2. The use of the prepositions is very various and peculiar, 
for these reasons : 1) In many instances the preposition is in- 
serted, where in English and other languages a simple case is 
employed. 2) Although most of the prepositions, in their pri- 
mary signification, can be referred to definite relations ; yet in 
their general application, and especially when used figuratively, 
these relations are so obscured, that in translating one and the 
same Greek preposition we often have to employ in English dif- 
ferent ones of various significations. 

Note 1. Let the student endeavour to obtain, under each preposition, a 
clear idea of the two characteristics, oneness of signification and variety of 
usage, by following out the investigation here indicated. The prepositions 
here follow in the same order as above in no. 1. 

a) Prepositions with one Case. 

'ANTI. The earliest signification seems to have been over against, as ap- 
pears from the adverbs dvrlov, avria, avra, from the compounds with avrl 
(note 6), and from single examples in the epic writers, as ncos p.ep.ova$ avri 
epelo <TTT](recr8ai II. 0. 481 ; comp. o. 415. Hes. e. 729, where however now-a- 
days dvrC, avr, is everywhere written. See Spitzn. Exc. ad II. XVII. — By 
far the most current signification, but kindred with the preceding, is instead 
of for, denoting alteration, exchange, value, etc. e. g. II. $. 233 Keveavx^s 
r]yopdacrde, Tpcocov dv&* eKarov re 8lt]k.oo-l<£)v re eKacrros aTrjorecrB' iv no\ep,a>, 
vvv ouS' eVor d^io'i elp.ev. Dem. 01. p. 33 Set ra ^fKriara avrl tcov fjdecov dv fjefj 
o-vvajj-rporepa e^fj, Xapftdveiv. Hence may be explained some peculiar idioms 
of expression, as II. (p. 75 dvri to'l elp iKerao instead of (i. e. as) a suppliant. 
Mem. 2. 7. 14 avrl kwos el cpiiXa^ like a dog. ib. 12 IXapai dvr\ aKvdpconcov 
rjaav. All. 3. 1. 17 eo-Tpa.Tevo-ap.ev en\ j3acri\.ea oby 8ov\ov avrl (3aai\eco9 noir\- 
aovres instead of {out of) a king. So with comparatives : 6 ^poi/or p.d6rjo-iv 
dvri tov rdxovs Kpeicraco StoWi Eur. Suppl. 420. Also the frequent con- 
structions with dvd* ov, dvd' o)v, on this account that, because : Hell. 2. 4. 
17 ndvres, dvd' cov vftpicr8r]p.ev, Tip.copcop.eda tovs civbpas. An. 7. 7. 8 av ev 
TTotfjaas rjfJ-ds; dvd' cov ev ena6es, dnonepneis, comp. § 143. 13. Eur. Andr. 
389 ri Ka'iveis p.' ; dvri tov ; 

'AIIO marks the going forth or away from an object, i.e. separation, re- 
moval ; and in respect to time, from, after, since. The wider usage of this 
preposition may be seen in the particular examples. E. g. J/ E<pecro? dnexei 
ano 2dpoecov rpiav t]p.epcov obov Hell. 3. 2. 11 ; an' Xnnov Srjpeveiv, p-dx^crdai, 
Hdot. 6 0776 tcov noXep-Lciv (fiofio? Xen. Tpeffieiv to vavrtKov an 6 npoo-ohcov 
Time. (771/ dnb Ix^vcov Hdot. dep' ov, to dnb Tovfie, dnb tov npcoTov vnvov, 
since, Thuc. — Peculiar phrases are : an eknlSiov, dn6 86gr)?, apart from, i. e. 
against; dno ykcoaa^s orally; dnb o-novdrj? diligently; dnb tvx*)* from accident. 



$ 147. PREPOSITIONS. 413 

'EK marks a going forth out of an object, from within it : and is ^ius dis- 
tinguished essentially from and. Hence it serves to specify the cause with 
passive and neuter verbs ; also an inward dependence and immediate con- 
tact both in place and time. E. g. levai eK tov bopov • tcl etc tov narpos rrpoo-- 
rayQivra' TeXevrav £k tov Tpcoparos Hdot. edave i£ iprjs X € P^ S Soph, tovto 
irroieL e/c tov ^aAe7roy elvai Xen. ex. ttjs iraiDelas ttoXv dieveyKovres idavpdcrdr]- 
crav id. Cyn. 1. — iyeXacrev eK tcov rrpoadev daKpvaov Cyr. 1. 4. 28; etc Kvparcov 
yap avdis av yaXrjv' 6pa> Eur. Or. 269. e£ ov since. — §eti> ti e/c Tvaacrakov, eK 
tcov (o^o-T-qpoov (popelv ti, Kpepdo-ai Tiva en tov tto86s, on a nail, by the foot, etc. 
— Particular phrases are : eK. Tptrcov one of three, the third, Plat. Symp. 
p. 213; eK tvx 7 !*' eK T0V rrpocpavovs publicly Thuc. 3. 43; eK (3paxeos briefly 
3. 92; eK no86s close behind; <zk rroXXov, eK TrXelarov, from far ■, Xen. 

IIPO signifies before, both in place and time. Hence arise in a figura- 
tive sense the significations : instead of (clvt'i) ; for (vrrep) ; and before, prce, 
marking preference. E. g. ol Trpb avrov fiao-Ckecos Teraypevoi' Trpb rjpepas 
Xen. "AXKrjaTis rjdeXe Savelv Trpb Kelvov (sc. 'AdprjTOv) Eur. Ale. 18. ScoKpa- 
rrjs (aero KaXXiov elvai rrpb tov (pevyeiv vneyeiv rfj TroXei 8lkt)v Phced. p. 99. 
btaKivhweveiv irpb (3ao~iXe(£>s • fiovXeveo~6ai rrpb tcov OTpartcor&Jv Xen. Trpb ttoX- 
Xq)V xP r )P aTWV Tiprjaaadac ti Isocr. oi8e\s ovrco dvorjTos icrri, oo~ris noXepov irpb 
elpfjvrjs alpeerat Hdot. 1. 87. — Particular phrases are : Trpb ohov elvai opportu- 
nism esse ; irpb (p6j3oio for fear Horn. yr]v rxpb yrjs iXavvopai iEsch. Prom. 687. 

'EN stands in answer to the question where; and signifies in, often also 
by, at, among (inter). Hence arises in respect to time the meaning in, dur- 
ing ; and in a tropical sense, in, with, penes. E. g. 37 iv AevKTpois pdxrj, iv 
MavTiveiq at Mantincea ; iv pvrjo-Trjpcn Horn. Xeyeiv iv Tracri' ohelv iv irovrj- 
pols iEschin. ev Sea, ev ipol, iv aoi eari, compare irri c. dat. — With iv are 
formed many adverbial expressions : as iv opolco, iv iXacppco, iv Kep8e'i Troiel- 
adai, to regard alike, to make light of, to make gain of, Hdot. iv (ppovribi, 
iv rjdovrj io-ri pot Xen. iv Si/07 by right, jure ; iv Kaipco seasonably ; iv KaXca 
well, conveniently, and with following Gen. f] KepKvpa Kelrai iv koXco tov Ko- 
pivOiaKov koXttov Hell. 6. 2.9. — Further may likewise be noted the Homeric 
use of iv for eh with verbs of motion, as Karnreo-ov iv Arjpvco, iv itvp\ (BdXXcv ) 
as also its seemingly pleonastic use along with the Dat. of instrument, as 
iv dcpdaXpolaiv opco Horn. Ilttttov iv x a Xivu> vmreveiv Xen. iv tovtols ev8rfXov id. 

2YN, with; e. g. TreipaadaL xph °"vv to7s Seols apxeo~Bai iravrbs epyov Xen. 
(Ec. 6. 1 ; avv tco Sikcu'g), avv tco vopcp, in accordance with laiv, etc. 

'ANA signifies primarily up, upon, on; comp. avco and the compounds. 
In this sense it governs in the poets also the Dative, II. a. 15. Od. X. 128. 
In prose it is construed only with the Accusative ; and is used of any all- 
pervading motion, strictly from bottom to top, throughout, in respect to both 
place and time. It often passes over likewise into a distributive sense. E. g. 
pvrjarrjpes 8' opadrjcrav dva peyapa aKioevra Od. a. 365. ol 'AXK/xatcoz/tSat e/3a)- 
o~6rjcrav dva. ttjv 'EXXdda Hdot. 6. 131. ol "'EXXrjves dpio-Trfia idldovv tco a^tcora- 
tco yevopevco dva tov noXepov tovtov id. 8. 123. dva rrdo-av ttjv rjpepav through- 
out the whole day. But without the art. dva Trciaav rjpepav, dva nav eTos, daily, 
yearly; and so inopevdrjcrav dva rirrapas by fours, dva nevre Trapacrdyyas 1 ttjs 
rjpepas Cyr. 1.2.8. An. 4. 6. 4. — We may also note : dva xpbvov for a time, 
dva tov rroTapov up along the river, dva Kpdros up to full strength, i. e. strong- 
ly, vigorously. 

EI2, is, Mol. and Dor. also iv Pind. Pyth. 2. 21. ib. 5. 50; see Greg. 
Corinth. Dor. 159. It stands in answer to the question whither, and signi- 
fies into, often also to, as far as to, towards ; and in a still more general 
s-ense, in respect to, as to. E. g. is pev MeveXaov iyco KeXopai eXOelv Od. y. 
317; KaXeei re piv is e eKaaros II. yjr. 203; els ae tJkio Soph. Phil. 500;=* 

* On this mainly epic use of els with persons after verbs of motion, see Spitzn. 
Exc. ad II. 35. In Attic prose we find instead of it regularly d>s (by § 146. n. 1) ; 



414 SYNTAX. § 147. 

i< SaXdrrrji els QaXarrav Xen. ol pev ebpapov els tovs noXepiovs id. ov pet 
ti KaKco els cona icoxei Od. a. 411 J eh piaXaKiav aicodiTTeiv Tivd Dem. 17 noXis ev 
e%ei els ra noXepiKd Xen. acrae Iv to. els tgv noXep-ov id. Kvpos noXv dirjveyicev 
eh rb apxeiv dvdpamau Cyr. 1. 1. 6; e'ls ti to what end? wherefore? why? 
— In specifications of time, it marks about the point up to which any thing 
happens or is to happen; e. g. 6 'Appevios Tvpoemev els rplr^v fjpepav irapewat 
Cyr. 3. 1. 42 5 ixd^eo-Oai dv fiovXvade, iJKere eh ttjv TptaKocrrrju rjpepav, i. e. 
within 30 days, Cyr. 5. 3. 6; eh avpiov, eh rr\v imovo-av, eh rbv eneira XP°~ 
vov. — With numbers it signifies either about, circa, and then o>r often stands 
with it : a>s is eirTaKoo-'iovs ; or else it is distributive : els eva, els dvo iropev- 
eo-dai, to go one by one, etc. Xen. — When eh is put with verbs of rest, (as 
vice versa with ev,) the idea of previous motion must he supplied: thus often 
with Kelpai (for Tedeipai) ; ards is p.eaov Hdot. Trapelvai, cpavrjvai eh ttjv 
ttoXiv, etc. — Adverbial expressions are : els xaipov comp. in iv ; is Kevov in 
vain, frustra ; is tovto, is roaovro (with foil. Gen.) so far, so much; eh dv- 
vap.iv, els to dvvarov as far as possible, els t6.)(os, etc. 
b) Prepositions with two Cases. 

AIA c. Genit. signifies : 1) through, both of place and time; and here too 
belong e. g. evboK.ip.elv did navrav tS>v 'iLXXrjvov, throughout, among ; eTrperre 
did Trdvr&v, before, Hdot. Horn, also the signif. after of time: did Tpirijsrjpe- 
pas, St' eYeW e'iKoo-i, St' oXlyov Hdot. Thuc. 2) through^ spoken of the 
means or instrument, especially with persons, but also of things, which also 
can stand in the Dative. So too with the Passive, where in Lat. per, not 
a, would stand, i. e. when the person is the means, and not the efficient 
cause ; see in vtto and iic. Thus : dvepcoTqv Tiva did epp.rjveo)S, eXe^av St' dy- 
yeXcov, but also St' cotcov, St' 6(pdaXp,cov alo~6dveo~6ai ti Xen. Bid yvp-vaaiiov 
ttjv vyieiav TVopi^opeBa JEl. 2. 5. tovto peyiarov icrTi iv rravrX epyai, ottov ti 
St' dvdpa>7raiv yiyverai, Kai iv yeoopyia de Xen. (Ec. extr. TavTa did tov Itvtto- 
Kop.ov StareAetrat id. — Various peculiar turns of expression are formed by 
Sta and the verbs etVat, yiyveadai, e\eiv, e. g. did arop-aros eyeiv Tiva to have 
in one's mouth, upon the lips ; did ^etpor ex* LV Tl t° have in hand, to be oc- 
cupied with ; St' dpyrjs, St' imdvpias e'xeiv, ' to be angry or eager;' did x a p' L - 
tcov, St' ddvp.ias, St' %x&pas yiyveadai, 'to be graceful, despondent, hostile;' 
St' rjcrvxias, did (f)nj3ov elvai. — Adverbial expressions are : Sta rdxovs, did tci- 
xioov Hell. 7. 5. 6; Sta ^pa^vrarcoi/ Dem. etc. 

— c. Accus. signifies on account of, propter, (not causa.) and marks the 
ground or motive from which I do or suffer anything: pivpias ^/xiv daxoXias 
napex^t to aa>/j.a did ttjv dvayKaiav Tpo(pr]v Plat. Phoed. p. 66. did tovto, did 
ae, did tovs &eov? ev irpaTTO), etc. — In epic writers it sometimes stands for 
did c. Gen. as dp.fi payer inv did vvktol, Kpovldeco did fiovXds. 

KATA c. Genit. implies direction down, down from, as appears from the 
compounds, and from the adv. Kara. E. g. Kara tg>v irerpaiv p'nrTeiv Tivd, to 
cast down from the rocks; firj de kcit OvXvp7roio Kapijvcov II. (S. 167 ; /<ara^et- 
crBai vdop Kara ^etpoy Aristoph. Also of rest, as 01 Kara yrjs Xen. — In a 
trop. sense it implies towards, upon, against, concerning (de), for the most 
part in respect to personal objects : Xeyeiv, opivvvai Kara twos, to icad* vp,wv 
iyKapiov Dem. Tavra p.ev KaTa (de) Travrcov Hepacov exop.ev Xeyeiv Cyr. 1. 2. 16. 

■ — c. Accus. can be fully given by no corresponding preposition; because 
it either marks relations which are in fact entirely general; or else expresses 
definite relations in a manner so general, that the context alone decides in 
every case what definite relation is intended. So in the following exam- 
ples : Kar' dypov in the country, ruri; ol 'Adrjvaioi rjpx ov KaTa 7V V KaL * a ™ 
SdXaTTav Xen. oi Kara tt)V 'Aaiav inrd fiao-iXel ovres id. 6 r/ Epp.os e/cStSot is 

while els is only employed of persons when it signifies among; consequently onl) 
With Plurals or collective words, e. g. els upas, eh tojs Kpirds, els ~)}v arpxTiai 
iXduv. 



o 147. PREPOSITIONS. 415 

Sakacraav Kara $>i£>K.air]v nokiv Hdot. 1. 80. (avr)p) rov icXeos evpv kclO' 'EXXdSa 
icai peuov "Apyos Od. a. 344. — Also of time: Kara "Apacnv fiao-ikevovra, Kara 
ndvra rbv n\6ov Hdot. Kara robs avrovs xpovovs Time. Kar' ip.£ in my time. 
— Only seldom does Kara c. Ace. express a motion forth ; and that, only when 
the indefiniteness of the direction, or mere approximation towards it, is to 
be expressed; e.g. oi 8e dve'Ckovro ra vavdyiard Kara crepds e^evex^evra, ' into 
or upon their territory,' Time. 1. 54. Also levai Kara Seav, Kara \rjtrjv, Time. 
Hdot. where ini would be more definite. — In a tropical sense, likewise, it 
marks only the most general relations towards an object; hence it is some- 
times put with the Accus. treated of in § 131. 7, as 'Id pis Kara yvapvv Soph. 
OT. 1087 ; and it stands especially where the Accus. alone could not stand, 
as with a substantive to form a periphrase for an adjective, e. g. at Kara, rb 
trcopa rjdovai, enidvpiai, Plat, or for the Genitive: ra Kara TIavaaviav, 'the 
deeds, fortunes of P.' Thuc. 1. 138. With verbs of saying, believing, etc. 
it expresses of, concerning, de, as Kara rr)v rpocpr)v rwv naldav roaavra eXeyov 
Hdot. while with some others it may be rendered on account of, propter: 
ovros (6 npohor-qs) ripcopevos e£ dp^r/s, Kara rbv narepa* Ayv&va, Hell. 2. 3. 30. 
Kara ri wherefore? why? alriav, Kad* rjvnva alKi^erai pe, aacptjvia, iEsch. 
Prom. 226. In other instances it has the more definite signif. after, accord- 
ing to, secundum j as Kara vopov, Kara dvvapiv, Kar' epavrov after my way ; 
Kara rb pavrelov, noir)o-a> Kara rov (3aaiXea>s ypdppara. Here belongs also the 
distributive use, in Kara Kcopas vicatim, Acar 5 livbpa viritim, man by man, Ka6 y 
ripepau daily, Kara prjva, Kad* eva, etc. — To be noted is also the current 
phrase : airbs md' eavrov, by or for oneself as e^onXiodrjre Ka6* vpds avrovs, 
by or for yourselves alone, Xen. Cyr. 6. 3. 32. — Adverbial phrases are : Kara 
piKpov by little and little, by degrees; Kara Kpdros very; Kara rb Icrxvpov by 
force, vi; Kadoaov in so far as ; mddnep according as ; Kara rd^os, etc. 

'YIIEP c. Genit. 1) over, above, expressing what is or happens over any 
person or thing; e. g. Mem. 3. 8. 9 6 rjXios vnep r)pS>v avrcou Kal ra>v areycov 
nopeverca. Time. 1. 46 eari Se Xipr)v koX noXis vnep avrov. 2) for, for the 
sake of, because of; as npdrreiv v. elnelv vnep rov koivov, also beipaiveiv v. 
Bappelv vnep rivos ' for the sake of any one ;' evdaipovlfa vpds vnep rrjs eXev- 
dep'ias An. 1. 7. 3, comp. the Gen. alone in § 132. n. 15. It is used also in- 
stead of nepi, de, of, concerning, without the accessory idea of advantage to 
a,ny one; but more in later writers, as Polybius, etc. 

— c. Accus. expresses that over or beyond which anything goes, Lat. 
super; as vnep ra reaaapaKovra err] over forty years; vnep r)plo~eis, etc. 
Hence: bvvapis virep avOpamov super-human power Hdot. 8. 140. 2; vnep 
opKia against the oath II. &. 47 ; vnep Seov invito deo II. p. 327 ; vnep iXnida 
beyond hope, contra spem, Soph. Ant. 366. 

c) Prepositions with three Cases. 

'AM<X>I and IIEPI, about, around, round about, agree together essentially in 
their meaning; except that primarily dpcpl signifies on both sides, as dpcpl- 
o-ropos ; while nepi. implies on all sides, and is in prose far more usual. 
With the Dative they express the being round about a place or object (in 
prose only nepi) ; e. g. reXapcov dp(p\ crrrjOeaaiv Horn, ^pvaovs dpcpl KparX 
nXoKos Eur. SJopa^ nep\ rois arepvois koi yeppov ev 777 dpiarepa Cyr. 1. 2. 13. 
— In a tropical sense, about, on account of, for the sake of (in prose only 
nepi and this but seldom,) e. g. ov vepeais, Tpcoas roirjd' dpcpl yvvaiKi noXvv 
Xpdvov tiXyea ndo-xew ; II. y. 157. Sappelv, delcrai nepirivi, Plat. Time. comp. 
nepi c. Gen. just below. — Wholly poetic is the signif. prce, for, by reason of 
in dpcpl rdpfiet, nepi <£d/3w. 

— c. Accus. also very commonly round about: cpi/XaKes dficpl rfjv o'lKrjaiv 
fj nepi rrjv x&pav SdXarra Xen. Also as implying direction : Bcopams nepi ra 
crrepva Kal yeppov els rrjv dpiarepdv Cyr. 2. 1.9. Of time, about: nepi pecras 
vvKras, dpcpl deikrjv Xen. and so of numbers : rjv dpcpl ra. rpiaKovra err] • nepi 
rerrapa rakavra, Xen. — In connection with eyjw and ehai both prepositions 



416 SYNTAX. § 147. 

imply: to be employed about, to be occupied with; e. g. ol nepl ra emrrjdeia 
ovres ■ 6p£> o~e apep' tnnovs e^ovra, Xen. — Finally, nepl alone stands with the 
Acens. in many connections in a sense precisely similar to Kara c. Accus 
e. g. e^ap.aprelv nepl rov? &eov? about the gods, i. e. towards, against; ex* lv v. 
elvai nepl nva, c to be disposed towards any one,' Cyr. 4. 5. 29 ; ScoKpcirns 
7rep\ Seov? eneipdro aaxfipova? noielv rov? avvovras Mem. 4. 3. 2. — The peri- 
phrase ol nepl v. djACpL nva, see in § 150. m. 25. 

— c. Genit. also about, i. e. concerning, of, corresponding to the Lat. de in 
almost every respect. Yet here too dpept belongs almost wholly to the po- 
ets. Tims we find : Xeyeiv, (po/3eio"#cu, (piXoveitcelv, pavecr&u, dnoXoyelo-Qai 
nepl tivos. Further : nepl p.ev Tpocprj?, eneladrju licavov eivai 6,ti nape^ei Kva- 
{■dprjs Cyr. 1.6. 15; o'lKTiaai ap(pi reKvav pe Uerav Eur. Suppl. 278; also 
the phrases nepl noXkov, nXelovos; nXelarov noielo~6ai, to make much of, etc. 

'EITI c. Genit. is used: 1) Of place, in answer to the question where, and 
then it marks the two relations : on, upon, and at, by, i. e. near by; e. g. 
e(f> tnnov^ o^etcr^ai, fielvat enl rov norapov, etc. and in a similar sense, enl 
dvo paprvp&v before, in presence of. Especially Attic is the usage of inl 
c. Gen. in answer to the question whither, in order to mark the direction or 
aim of the motion; as nXelv eVi 2dp.ov, eV o'Ikov. 2) Of time, in answer to 
the question when; as eV elprjvrjs Horn. enl r&v wvl Kaip£>v iEschin. In 
prose for the most part only when the specification of time is connected 
with a personal idea; as enl Keicponos Thuc. 2. 15; eV epov in my time, enl 
TipoOeov Dem. enl T&v f]p.eTepav npoyovow. Also in connection with the 
Part. Pres. by § 145. n. 5, e. g. enl cipxovro? EvuXeldov. 3) In other rela- 
tions, not referring to place or time, we often have to render ini by various 
and different English prepositions; yet it always expresses (contrary to 
Kara c. Accus.) a definite relation, a near and almost immediate connection 
and belonging together ; to which then there also comes the more free po- 
etic usage of this preposition. Hence we may explain the following exam- 
ples : $t'Xi7T7Toy ovx oloctt' earlv e\(£>v a Kareo-rpanraL peveiv irii tovtcov Dem. 
Phil. p. 42. tls av KcoXwcrair' avrbv npdrreiv ravra, e(p' cov earl vvv ib. p. 6Q. 
ol enl t(ov npayp-drcov those over the affairs, managers, Dem. p. 309. ra^Or). 
vai iiri twos to or over anything, Hdot. Kvblas elnev, enl koXov Xeyow naiboi 
kt\. Plat. Charm, p. 155. Especially with verbs of shewing, perceiving, 
etc. by: enl noXkcov TeKprjploav dno8el£<£> croi Plat, enl noWcov civ ri? loelv 
8oKel pot ttju napd tcov Secov evvoiav (pavepav y iyvop.evr)v rfj noXei Dem. 
01. 2. init. also with verbs of naming, after : Kakelo-Bai, ovop.a ex eLV * nl Tlv °s 
Hdot. rj eV ' 'AvtoKkl8ov Ka\ovp,evrj elprjvr) Xen. — Poetic : KaOrjcrTO Kddpov 
Xads danldcdv em, Eur. Phcen. 1467. enl npocrnoXov p.ids ^copeT^ (leaning 
upon) Soph. OC. 746. — Further to be noted is the distributive use : exj) evos, 
enl rpLav three and three, Xen. Thuc. And finally the frequent phrase, e<p' 
eavrov by oneself, apart (camp. Kara) : 2/apira't del ravrrjv rr\v rd^iv (the left 
wing) piovoi AaicedaipovL&v enl acpcov avrcov e^ovaiv Thuc. 5. 67. Hence e\p' 
eavrov ol/celv, to be independent, 2. 63. 

— c. Bat. marks in like manner, as to place, a near and immediate rela- 
tion ; in good prose especially the ideas : at, by, near, to, rarely on (see the 
marg. note) : p.iveiv enl rols onXois ■ arr/vai (also yeveaOai to come) enl rf] 
elcrodo) • enl ru> 8etnva>, enl reXevrfj rov (3iov Xen. eo~6Lovcri ndvres enl rat 
aiTG) aprov Mem. 3. 14. 2. oyx vr ] ^ °yx v Tl y^pdo-Kei Od. v. 120. cpovo? enl 
d>6vco, enl S' (iXyeaiv akyea Eur. — In time it marks immediate succession, 
after ; as enl tovtois after these things, thereupon ; r\p.epa enl rfj vvktI ravrrj. 
— From the same idea come readily the tropical senses : penes, i.e. in, with, 
in the power of (see in h) : t(p' vpuv co-rt K.o\d£eiv avrov? Dem. Chers. init. 
yiyveo-Qai inl /3ao-iXeT under the power of the king; eft rjfxiv noielv, etc. Also 



* In Cyr . 5. 2. 1, e^' %-k-kov is now correctly read instead of e</>' iWw, since in 
cjood prose hci c. Bat. will sciirr^ly he found in this sense. 



V 147. PREPOSITIONS. 417 

over, in such, phrases as em tois Tvpaypaaiv elvai to be over the affairs Dem, 
01. p. 21, see in the Gen. above ; vaiapxos em rals vavcriv Xen.*" — Peculiar 
for mi c. Bat. are further three modes of usage very common in prose, viz. 

1) When it marks an agreement under certain conditions; e. g. em tov- 
tois rf]V fiaaikeiav i\ apekafiov Xen. rr)v pvdv davei£eiv em oktco u/3oXoir Dem 
bovva'i rt em reaaapatcovra pvals, etc. For e'0' wre see in $ 150. m. \). 

2) When it marks the purpose with which an action takes place, comp. in 
Accus. below ; as em rovrco for this purpose, e. g. Xen. Conv. init. lipmrayopa 
ttoKv dpyvptov dedaxa em (rocpiq, for wisdom, in order to learn wisdom ; dyecv 
riva «rl ydpco, etc. 3) When it is put before the Dative described in § 133. 
4. b, especially with verbs signifying an emotion of mind; e. g. eV cl'Bepifi 
alrirj Hdot. 3. 35 ; ye\av, peya typovelv, x ai P elv > dyavaKrelv im rivi. Also 
with adjectives, as evboicipo?, Siafio-qros, and others. — Poetic: Od. n. 216 ov 
yap tl crTvyepfj em yacrrepi. nvvrepov aXKo, almost like o~Tvyepr)? yacrrepos. 

— c. Accus. marks simply approach to or towards an object; hence again 
n^elv em 2dpov, to sail for Samos, differing in the mode of conception, but 
not in sense, from 7rXeii/ em 2apov. Also with the secondary relation of 
purpose, comp. ini C. Dat. e. g. ievai em rrjv Srjpav, e\8elv em rrvp, e^)' i'Scop, 
i. e. for fire, water, in order to fetch it. — The specifications of duration of 
time are to be explained from the idea of the Accusative itself, where then 
em appears rather as an adverbial addition; e. g. ol ' 'aOtjvcuoi, arxovres rrjs 
'HXeiay, ebrjovp ttjv yrjv em dvo fjpepas Thuc. 2. 25. ovk eylyvero rd lepd em 
rpels r]pepas, for three days, An. 6. 4. 36. So too in adverbial phrases: as 
em xpovov for a time Horn. eft rjpepav Thuc. 4. 69. Hence also etr' rjpap 
elxpv Eur. Phcen. 412. eV eKarocrrd, em rpiaKoaia, a hundred (three hundred) 
fold, Hdot. 4. 198. em irokv, em 7rXeio-roy, em ivdv omnino ; em noda dva- 
Xcoprjcrat, to withdraw gradually Xen. Polyb. 

META c. Genit. both of persons and things, signifies with; e. g. perd aov 
with thee, with thy help ; oo-tis eavrdv <fii\el, per* epov pax^aBco Cyr. 7. 1.13. 
perd twos elvai to be with any one, of his party ; perd hokov kol Tkyyr\$ Isocr. 
perd Traidtds kol o'Lvov Thuc. 6. 28. perd vroXkaiv Kivhvva>v Dem. etc. 

— c. Dat. with, among, in, is everywhere poetic : perd irdcriv dnpoTaro?, 
perd pvrjo-rrjpo-iv, etc. Sometimes it is put almost pleonastic with the Da- 
tive : nrjdd'KLov perd x*pvw ex eiv ^- 7* 281 . prjriv vcpaivew perd (ppealv Hes. 
Sc. 28. 

— c. Accus. after, both in time and in order or succession; as ol per' e<el- 
vov fiao-iXels Xen. per' dXlyas rjpepas; etc. Sometimes, especially in the 
poets, it serves to express motion after or among, as dtaacov cocrr' alyvmos 
perd x^jva?. Or it marks aim or purpose, (like eni c. Ace.) after, in quest of; 
as 7rAeW perd ^uXkoV, perd irarpos aKovrjv Horn. — Special is the very com- 
mon pe6' rjpepav inter diu, during or on the day ; also perd ^etpa? ex €lv (e. g. 
eypfetptfiia) between or in the hands Xen. Agesi. 2. 14; comp. in Dat. above. 

IIAPA c. Genit. from the side of, from beside, from ; as rj\6e irapd Kvagd- 
povs dyyeXos. So espec. with the verbs pavddveiv, irvvBdveaOai, aKoveiv, etc. 
which also take the simple Genitive : ravr' rJKovo-a irapd Tofipvov, etc. With 
passive verbs it is put in the same manner as vno, but oftener when the 
secondary idea from the side of is implied ; clearly in napd navrcov SpoXoyel- 
rat apud omnes constat An. 1.9. 1 ; less clearly in tovto napd crov emdeaevv- 
o~6(£> Cyr. 5. 5. 20. — It is to be noted, that by means of the article and napd 
c. Gen. various substantive and verbal ideas are often indicated, which in 
each instance may be easily filled out from the nature of the construction 
and from the context ; comp. in § 125. n. 6. E. g. ol napd Kvpov i. e. am- 

* Thuc. 2. 35 ayopeveiv iirl to?s SaTrropevois, lit. to speak over those buried, i. e. di- 
rectly after or at the burial of the slain, as if over their grave. Comp. Plat. Menex 
init. ipe? e.rl rols airoQavovci. Dem. Epit. init. 

Dd 



418 SYNTAX. § 147. 

bassadoiv : ra Trapa. Kvpov i. e. commands ; ra rrapa Qea>v, f) rrapa. rovrcov ev- 
vota, etc. 

— c. Bat. signifies : by the side of. by, as rrapa ra 7r0rap.cZ, etc. 

— c. Accus. of place, to the side of, i. e. to, espec. of persons ; more com- 
monly alongside of, near, by, both with verbs of motion and of reft, the 
latter in answer to the question where. E.g. ol rrapa fiacriXea rropevopevoi ■ 
Trapa. QdXarrav rropeveadai : napa. rroXtv rroXepiav ayeiv rbv arparov [by, past) 
Xen. to\ be nap' avrbv avbpes Koiprjcravro Od. £. 523. rrapa. rrjv rroXiv rjv rrvpa 
pis \16Lvq An. 3. 4. 9. Also tropically : rrjv vvv Trap' epe eovaav bvvap.iv Hdot 
8. 140. — Used of time, it marks duration, as rrapa rrdvra rbv xpdvov Plat. 
Trapa rbv rroXepov, rrapa rrjv rrocnv during Hdot. 2. 121. 4. — Tropically it is 
used in three different senses, arising out of the primary idea : 1) aside 
from, against, beyond ; e. g. Trap' eXrriba, rrapa robs vopovs, rrapa qbvo-iv, rrapa. 
86£av, rrapa rb beov, etc. hence Trap' ev rrdXaia-pa ebpape vikqv Hdot. 9. 33. 
2) along with, i. e. by, on account of, propter: QiXiTrrros ov Trapa rr)v avrov 
pecprjv rocrovrov errrjvtjrjrai, ouov rrapa rrjv rjperepav dpeXetav Dem. Phil. p. 43. 
rj ortoTTjpla rroXXols fjbrj rrapa rovro eyevero Xen. Hipp. 1. 5: comp. Dem. p. 
688. 3) It implies the placing together of different objects side by side foi 
the sake of comparison ; hence it is used especially after comparatives, as 
also after aXXos, erepos, and the like, which often gives rise to peculiar 
turns; e.g. rjXiov e'/cAen^eir rrvKvorepai rrapa ra pvr;povev6peva ^vvefirjaav, as 
compared with, Time. 1. 23. rrapa ra aXXa £5>a coarrep Seol ol dvdpcorroi /3to- 
T€vovcn Mem. 1. 4. 14. 'A^iXXevs rod Kivbvvov Karecppovrjae rrapa. rb alo-^pov 
ri vrropelvai, Achilles disdained danger rather than suffer anything shameful, 
Plat. Apol. p. 28. 'AyrjcriXaos eirovei rrapa rovs aXXovs, beyond (more than) 
others, Xen. Ag. 5. 3. — Adverbial are: rrapa piKpov by a little, well-nigh, 
almost ; rrapa rroXv by much. — An example with all the three cases see in 
Xen. Mem. 1. 3. 4. 

KEPI, see in dp-cpl, p. 415. 

IIP02 c. Genit. accords in its main signification with rrapa ; yet it marks 
much more comprehensively not only the idea from the side of, as rrpbs prj- 
rpos v. rrarpos from (on) the maternal or paternal side, geivor ob' 1k€t epbv bco 
r)e rrpbs Tjoiav rj icrTrepiidv dvQpcorr^v Od. $. 28 ; but also alongside of, towards, 
against, as rraprjyyeCXe rovs Xo^ayovs rrpbs rav KapSou^coz/ levai, ovpayovs be 
Karacrrrjo-ao-Oat, rrpbs rod rrorapov An. 4. 3. 26. — In a tropical sense it ex- 
presses what goes forth or proceeds from a person or thing ) or more gener- 
ally, what belongs or is appropriate to, also promotive or worthy of a person 
or thing; e. g. rrpbs Aids elcriv arravres t-elvoi re rrroa^oi. re Od. £. 207. ovk rjv 
rrpbs rod Kvpov rpdrrov, e^ovra p.r) aTrobibbvai An. 1. 2. 11. arorra Xeyeis, a> 
Sdxpares, <a\ ovbapa>s rrpbs crov Mem.- 2. 3. 15. o-rrovbas erroLrjaaro rrpbs Qrj- 
fiat&v pdXXov r) rrpbs eavrcbv, for the benefit of; be£iov rrpbs dvbpds eari Aristoph. 
ov Trpbs larpov aocpov Qprivelv Soph. (comp. § 132. n. 13) j cibiKos, dae^rjs Trpbs 
rcov Secov ka\ rtov dvdpoorrow before (in the eyes of) gods and men; np.r)v, bb£av 
e'xetv, dpeo-Qai rrpbs rravrcov II. rr. 84; comp. Thuc. 1. 71. An. 2. 5. 20. ib. 1. 
6. 6. ib. 5. 7. 12. — Further, rrpos stands more frequently than rrapa after 
passive and neuter verbs to mark the author or cause, as 6p.oXoyelrai rrpbs 
rrdvroov An. 1. 9. 20. ra\exdevra rrpos rivos, aTroOvrjcriceiv, okicrOai rrpos rtvos.* 
So too with verbs of hearing or learning, Hdot. — Peculiar for rrpos is its use 
in oaths, protestations, etc. as rrpbs r&v Secov, w rrpos ore yovdrcov sc. Uerevco 
r,urip. See more in § 151. III. 6. 

— - c. Bat. by, near by, like rrapa ; e. g. ol 'Adnvaloi &pp.ow rrpbs rj} rrokei 
Xen. It is also according to Homeric idiom to say : rrori be aKrjrrrpov /3aXe 
yairj II. a. 245; comp. under iv above. — Further, rrpos also very commonly 

* Hence may be explained the poetic usage of irpSs in the sense, to do anything 
by command of, by the will of: Kai Kev iv 'Apyei iovcra irpbs aWrjs Iffrhv xxpa'ivois II. £ 
456. nKovaa irpbs rod Srqpbs (the Centaur) ttolw ra5e Soph. Trach. 935. 



§ 147. PREPOSITIONS. 419 

implies addition; as Tvpbs tovtols to this ; Trpbs de tovtco (IXovto \\beifxavTOP 
to him (besides him) they chose Adimantus. 

— c. Accus. Here rrpo? is the appropriate preposition to express both in 
place and time, and also tropically, a direction or motion towards or to an 
object.* This comprehensive idea again shapes itself in the particular in- 
stances so variously, that here too in translating we have to use various and 
different English prepositions; most frequently towards, tc ; upon, against, 
as may be seen in the following examples: avaTtivai ras x f ip ay irpbs rbv 
ovpavov Xen. vaUiv Trpbs tjcc rjeXiov re Horn. — Trpbs ianepav, Trpbs ttjv aeXrjvrjv, 
marking time. — Xeyeiv npos 1 tovs 'Adrjvaiovs (to), 6 Trpbs AenTivrjv Xdyos 
(against), Trpbs to (3ekTio-TOV Xeyeiv (for) ; oi etXcoTes TToXXa kXItttovt€S iircoXeov 
irpbs tovs klyivr]Tas Hdot. 9. 80. ov8ev Trpbs Xoyov nothing to the purpose 
Plat. o~KoireiTe to. vii€Tep' ovtcov Trpbs tcl tcov aXXcov avOpcoircov Dem. Trpbs 
tt)v d^lav eKacrrw 5iSoi/at Xen. 7rpb? t'l ; wherefore? why? Ta^drjvai irpos rt, 
cppovco to. Trpbs ae, etc. — Like Trapa (c. Ace. 3), it marks the placing together 
of objects for comparison ; e. g. Mem. 1.3.4 ScoKpar??? irdvTa TavOpwmva vire- 
pecopa Trpbs ttjv Trapa tcov Secov £vp.(3ovXlav. 3. 5. 4 rera7retVoorai r] tcov 'Adrj- 
vaccov 86£a Trpbs tovs Bolcotovs, eTrrjpTai 8e to tcov Qrjftalav cppovrjpa Trpbs tovs 
1 'Adrjvalovs. Dem. p. 185 iv Tavrrj Trj ttoXzl xP^ aT ^ evevtiv irpos dndaas to.s 
aXXas iroXeLS. Id. Lept. 9 npbs anavra tov iic tcov aXXcov ipTropicov d(pLKvovp,e- 
vov, 6 iic tov Uovtov otto? tlcnrXecov io-riv, i. e. the grain from Pontus exceeds 
that from all other markets. — Less closely it may be rendered with, e. g. 
cruppay/'ui/ Tvoieio~6ai irpos Tiva, iwoa> Trpbs epavrov. — Adverbial are : Trpbs j3iav 
perforce, per vim, different from /3ta, see § 133. n. 12; Trpbs ^apiv, Trpbs <ai- 
pov, Trpbs ovdev dixaiov unlawful, Trpbs to mprepov, etc. 

'YIIO c. Genit. signifies in respect to place, not only under, as to. p-erecopa 
ml ret vtto yrjs Plat. Apol. init. but also from under, as avTLS dvao~Ti\o-ovTai 
vtto £6<pov rjepoevTos II. (p. 56. To this same signif. belongs also : Xveiv 
fjpiovovs vtt' aTrrjvqs, from the car, Od. 77. 5, and (3ovv Xafieiv vtto dp-d^rjs An. 
6. 2. 25. — But the main use of vtto is : 1) With verbs passive and neuter, 
(which last thus become passive,) when a person and sometimes a thing is 
named as the author or cause of the action or condition implied in the verb ; 
e. g. to. vtto Kvpov Trpa^Sevra, 'lttttos vtto t'ov ^aXiz/oi) (comm. Dat. %aXivop) irei- 
crdeis • diroQaveiv v. TeXevTav viro tlvos, i. e. to be slain; d.TroXecr0ai vtto AtpoO • 
to. Trpa.yp.aTa avvio-TaTai vtt* cvvoias Dem. 01. p. 20 ; ttcos vp.lv vtto tcov XPV~ 
o-tcov tovtcov (ironical) to. irpa.yp.aTa e^et ; p. 35. We find too the following 
construed in like manner : Trdo-xew, cpevytLv to flee, to be banished; also as .111 
Attic law-term : §1*771/ cpevyeiv vtto tlvos to be put on trial by any one ; bUr]v 
bLdovai to be punished ; ev aKoveiv, eiraivov e^etv, iv a^tcopari e'^eu/, to be hon- 
oured, praised. 2) With verbs implying action, when things or abstract 
ideas are the moving cause or occasion of the action, i. e. through, for, 
from,, out of, Lat. prce ; e. g. daicpveiv vtto Xvtttjs, ov aiyav vtto ttjs rjdovrjs, 
naTabveo-BaL (to sink down) vtto alcrxf'i'VS, {173-' direLpias dp-aprelv, vtto St] pas from 
love of hunting, eTTLXadecrdai tl vtto tlvos. — More poetic is the usage, when 
an action is not directly caused by, but yet stands in close and immediate 
connection with something else ; e. g. x°P e ^ etv V7T0 (popp-lyycov to dance (ac- 
companied) by harps Hes. vtto Xap-Trdbcov with torches Eur. and so too 6pva- 
vglv vtto paaTLycov Hdot. V7r' olodveov KaXcov, vtt' evuXeias Saveiv Eurip. 

— c. Dat. is under, both of place, and trop. of circumstances ; as /ccoprj 
eVrt inrb tco opei' vtto AaKe8aip,ovloLS eivai v. yeveaOai An. 7. 2. 2; tj/v ttoXiv 
v(j> axiTols TTOLrjo-aadai Xen. — The poets employ vtto c. Bat. in most of the 
senses of vtto c. Gen. see § 134. 3. 

— c. Accus. signifies under, in answer to both the questions where and 

* Strictly towards or to the side of; which idea in napd c. Accus. is just the least 
frequent; on the other hand, iiri c. Ace. is towards or to a pointy etc. In naTtx and 
Tepi c. Ace. the idea of motion is less prominent. 



420 SYNTAX. § 147 

whithet comp. rrapd. E. g. vtto yrjv sub terra j ottoioi rives av ozow oi 7rpo- 
crrdrai, tolovtol kcu oi vtt' avrov? a>? emroiroXv yiyvovrai Cyr. 8. 8. 5. rjyei 
vtt' air a ra rei^r? Xen. Klyvrrros irakiv vtto ftacriXea eyevero. — Of time it cor- 
responds to the Lat. sub, i. e. about, towards, near j as vno rov avrbv yjpdvov 
Time. 5. 3. v7ro rrjv Karakvo-iv rov iroXep.ov. — It sometimes alternates with 
vrpos, yet with some little difference : Xen. Conv. 6.3?} ovv fiovXeoSe, cacrnep 
NiKoarparo? rerpdaerpa npos rov avXov KareXeyev, ovroa Ka\ vtto rov avXov vp.1i 
bcaXeyapai. — Special is vir' avyas Ibeiv, to look at by the light, Plat. 

Note 2. When two or more substantives following one another are de- 
pendent on the same preposition, and are connected together by copulative 
conjunction? (re, Kal, or also rj), the preposition is usually written only once, 
and that before the^rs£ substantive; e. g. vtto re avbpa>v kcu yvvaiKtov. The 
poets in such instances are fond of placing the preposition only before the 
second noun: rj dXos rj eVi yrjs Od. p.. 27. irork p.ev kcikov aXXor* err* 
ecrOXbv epnei Soph. Ant. 367. — But when in relative and other correspond" 
ing clauses, the relative or other like word is dependent on the same prepo- 
sition as is the antecedent in the other clause; in such cases the preposi- 
tion is by rule inserted before both words, and very rarely only once ; e. g. 
Eur. Hipp. 474 is be rr)v rvyjqv 7recrovcr, oarjv crv, ttcls av (Kvevaai boKels ; So 
too Od. b. 413 Xegerat ev p,eo~o-rjcn, voaevs a>? iraeo-i urjXcov. In dialogue: 
Plat. Soph. p. 243, nepl rov ueyicrrov vvv aKerrreov. Tivos brj, Xeyar. 

Note 3. The prepositions are sometimes separated from their noun at the 
beginning of a clause by the small particles te, ye, yap, p.ev, etc. as with the 
article § 125. 9; e. g. iv p.ev rrj x<»P?j e *c — Other like separations belong 
rather to a freer position of the words ; as Plat. Rep. p. 564. a, e£, olp.ai, 
rrjS aicporar-qs eXevdep'ias. Od. e. 155 7rap' ovk c6eXa>v eOeXovcrrj. Pind. Pyth. 
10. 83 e7r' aXXor aXXov Quvei, Xoyov. — For irpos ere yovdrav see § 151. III. 6. 

Note 4. Sometimes the case of a preposition is apparently wanting, viz. 
when instead of it a whole phrase or clause is inserted. E. g. Soph. Phil. 
469 77p6r 7rarp6s, npos ei ri croi nar* olkov ecrri 7rpoo~<piXe?, i by thy father (I 
conjure thee), by — if anything is dear to thee, 7 i. e. by all that is dear to 
thee. % 

Note 5. Sometimes however the object of the preposition is really not 
expressed, because it would only be a repetition of a word already oncf 
given. In such instances most languages employ tvn adverb, (e. g. thereby, 
therefor, therein,) and when the prepositions themselves are so used, they 
stand adverbially. In Greek this commonly takes place in prose only with 
Trpdr, and then only in connection with nai and be; e. g. kcu ivpos, rrpbs be, 
and thereto, and further, besides, moreover, etc.* In Ionic and later writers 
we find too nerd thus used : as p.era be, but afterwards. — The poets however 
can use most of the prepositions adverbially ; e. g. e/c 6° (therefrom) dpyv- 
peov reXap.a>va' — arvv 6° avroos eyco • — ev be Xip.r)v evopp.os • — vtto b* rjpiovoi 
abp-TJres. So especially ivapd, thereby. This usage is often imitated by 
Herodotus. — The preposition rcepi (or Tvepi, § 117. n. 3) takes .in the epic 
poets, as adverb, the signification very. 

Note 6. In this manner have arisen all the instates of composition with 
prepositions. They all consist of the radical word with a preposition taken 
adverbially ; as SiajSouVco ' I go throughout,'' etc. § 121. 2. In such compounds 
the prepositions often take all the different meanings which they have when 
not in composition. Hence we may refer in general to the preceding ex- 
planations-; and call attention here only to some peculiarities. 
dp.cpi- with the idea cf two sides, see above in du<pL 
dva- up; but often also oca- and 0770- back, re-, e.g. dvanXclv to sail 
back, dnobovvai, etc. 

* The passage in Avistoph. Ran. 611, is corrupted, and should read : Kheirrovra 
7rp6v9' aXh6rpia. 



§ 147. PREPOSITIONS. 421 

avn- against, contrary; also it has the idea of -likeness (ur), e.g. in 

avriOeos ; see above in dvrt. 
dia- expresses what is reciprocal, mutual, e. g. diaXeyeaBai, BidBeiv. It 

also takes the sense of the Lat. and Engl, dis-, in two, apart ; e. g. 

biaaivqv to pull in two, in pieces ; bia&vyvvvai disjtmgere, to disjoin, 

to separate, 
sv- often stands in answer to the question whither, e. * b . iyx^v to pour 

into. 
Kara- most commonly expresses the idea of completion; e. g. KaTarrpdr- 

T€iv perficere, to finish ; Karaarpecpeiv to turn around; KaTamp-irpdvai 

to burn up. — Hence arises then the idea to make an end of, destroy ; 

e. g. wraicvfieveiv tt]v overlap to gamble away one's fortune. — In "both 

instances it corresponds to the Latin per- and to the Germ. ver-. 
fiera- takes the sense of transposition, change, Lat. trans-; e. g. pera- 

j3ij3d£eiv to carry to another place, to transport; pteravoelv to change 

one^s mind. 
napa- in some compounds derives from the signif. prater, the sense to 

miss, fail of, etc. e. g. Trapafiaivew rovs vop.ovs to miss or mistake (pur 

posely) the laws, i. e. to transgress ; napopau not to see perfectly, to 

overlook; Trapda-novBos truce-breaker, from airovBai. 
irepi- often expresses a high degree, like ire pi very; e.g. irepimXkrjs, etc. 
virep- implies excess; as virepp-eyas very, too great; virepahyelv to grieve 

excessively. 
v7ro- in many compounds signifies somewhat, a little; also like Lat. sub-, 

by little and little, underhand, secretly; e. g. viroBaovs somewhat 

rough, etc. 

Note 7. From the circumstance that the prepositions, as above men- 
tioned, are in composition to be regarded strictly as adverbs, the poets are 
able so frequently to separate the preposition from its verb by means of 
other intervening words. This is called 

Tmesis. 
E. g. Bid re pfj£ao~6ai e7raX^€is for ko.1 Biapprjf-acrBai. Homer especially 
jan separate the preposition entirely from the verb, and even places it after 
the verb ; so that the preposition sometimes comes to stand before a case 
which is not dependent on it; e. g. nokepiov irepl rovBe (pvyovres, for irepi<pvydv- 
res ravBe rbv iro\ep,ov — £k %p,6v iXeadai for e£e\e crdaiSvp.6v • — Kara fiovs 
'Yireplovos 'HeXioto fjaOiov — evdpi^ov an evrea (more accurately airo § 117. 
n. 3 ) for direvdpi£ov evrea, etc. The perusal of Homer therefore is very 
much facilitated, by assuming that he has properly no compound verbs, but 
merely simple verbs with adverbial prepositions standing either near or re- 
mote from, before or after, the verbs. — Hence comes the like usage in Ionic 
prose, especially with Z>v for ovv\ e. g. Hdot. 2. 39 an &v eBopro, for dire- 
Bopto ovu. Hence too it comes, that in those emphatic repetitions to be 
mentioned in § 149. m. 12, instead of the compound verb, the preposition only 
is repeated; e. g. Hdot. 3. 126 6 Be Kara p,ep eKreive Mirpoftdrea — , Kara 
Be tqv Mirpo/Sareo) iralBa. — In the tragic poets the tmesis occurs only where 
small words thrust themselves in, as it were, between the preposition and 
verb; e. g. £k 6° eirpevae, Kara B* eKreipas, Bid fi* e(p0eipas; Bidr* evpaaai, Eur. 
Phoen. 904. Hipp. 1373 j and with the preposition following: Hec. 502 tJko) 
'Ayap.ep.popo? ire p.yjsapros, & yvvai, p,era. — Even in Attic prose we must refer 
to the same usage the insertion of the qualifying r\, somewhat, between an 
adjective and the preposition to (sub, a little), which serves to diminish 
the signification of the adjective; e. g. vtto n dae(3h somewhat impious, vtto 
rt aronovy etc. Heind. ad Plat. Phaedr. 43. 

Note 8. But in ordinary prose, likewise, there are some prepositions, 
which, though standing in compounds, are still to be taken as if separate. 
So especially irpos and crvv. Every verb, whether already compound or 



422 SYNTAX. § 14 S 

not, could always be again compounded by the Greeks, chiefly with one ©f 
Miese two prepositions, merely in order to shew that the thing took pk,ce 
besides or in addition to something else (7rpdr), or in connection with some 
other person (avv tivi). E.g. o-vo-Tparevopai aoi C I make a campaign with 
thee? crvve^atpei civtoI? 2eXkaaiav t he assists them to conquer Sellasia,' 
Xen. Hell. 7. 4. 12 ; dXXd kcu Tvpoabufiahe p.e 'but also in addition to this he 
has calumniated me.' So too Thucydides says, 3. 13 p.r) £vp kcikS)? rroielv 
avrovs aX\a gvveXevdepovv, and Plato Gorg. p. 520 <W ev Treicrerai, which 
words strictly should all be written in one, see § 121. n. 1. — More rarely 
we find other prepositions used in the same manner; e.g. £ uueXeravy 
€yyvpvd£ecr8ai, 'to exercise oneself in any thing,' Plat. Phsedr. 5. — 
iEschin. c. Ctes. p. 75 6 QeibLas elpya.cra.TO ttjv 'Adrjvav evepyokafieiv kox iv- 
emopnelv ArjpocrdeveL ' Phidias has sculptured his Athena for Demosthenes, 
in order that the latter may have his profit by her and perjure himself by 
her? Thuc. 2. 44 tovtois ivevbaipovrjcrai re 6 fi'ios 6/Wcor kcu evreXevrrjaai 
^vveperprjO-q. Hdot. 9. 7 nebiov e7nrr]decoTarov eppa-^eaacrOai. — So also dno- 
iro\ep.elv, a compound which probably occurs nowhere else, means in 
Plato, on occasion of mentioning a horse, (Phcedr. p. 260. b,) to fight from 
sc. the horse, i. e. on horseback; so dno^jju to live from, see § 139. m. 57. 
Further, irpoavapTid^eiv Dem. Mid. 35; rrpoocpeikeiv, 7rpoaSt/ceIv, ibid. 23. 

Note 9. Not only in the compounds just mentioned, but in many others, 
the preposition, in certain constructions, still governs its own separate case; 
e. g. eveivai nvi to be IN something (comp. § 133. 3), dcpeo-rdvai rivos to be dis- 
tant from something, direTvqb s no~av 2coKpdrov? they sprang away fRom Socra- 
tes, etc. Elsewhere, in the full construction, the preposition is usually re- 
peated before the case. This occurs more frequently in Homer, and con- 
firms the remark made above, that in him every compound must be regard- 
ed as separate ; since in him the prepositions sometimes, as we have seen, 
remain in compounds what they really are, adverbs ; and sometimes be- 
come actual prepositions : II. yjr. 121 e<deov rjp.i6v&v 'they bound (the wood) 
so that it hung from the mules.' 

Note 10. That the prepositions with a change of accent sometimes stand 
after their cases by anastrophe, and sometimes also for their compounds 
with ehai, has been mentioned in § 117. 3. With this is to be connected 
the like transposition of monosyllabic prepositions, as e| § 13. 4; 'Aprepidi 
%vv Horn. 

§ 148. Particles of Negation. 

1. The Greeks have two simple negative particles, ov and /xt], 
from which all more definite negative words are formed by com- 
position. Every clause in which one or more of these more 
definite negatives occur, is for the most part rendered negative 
hi precisely the same manner, as if the simple negative with 
which it is compounded stood alone in the clause. Consequent- 
ly, all that we may here . say of ov, holds good also for ovBl 
ou8e69, ouSa/zw?, etc. and the same is also true in regard to firj, 
fiTjBeis, etc. 

2. But between ov and prf, and their respective compounds, 
there is an entire difference of usage, running through the whole 
language. To comprehend this usage fully a course of accurate 
study is necessary, for which we can here give only an outline 
of the general principles.'* 

* It is particularly recommended to compare here the views of Hermann, which 



fc 148. PARTICLES OF NEGATION. 42^J 

a) Ov is the direct and full negation, which expresses the negative judg- 
ment independently and absolutely ; e. g. ovk £d£\co, ov (ptkcj, ' I will not. I 
love not j' ovk dyadov Zcttiv, ovbels 7raprjv, etc. Such a complete and direct 
proposition can never be denied by p.r), prjSeis, etc. — As a matter of course, 
direct interrogations, and also clauses which are expressed in the tone of 
moderation (i. e. in the Opt. with aV, $ 139. m. 15), can, as independent 
clauses, be made negative by means of ov; e. g. rt yap ov ivapeo-Ti; — ovk av 
fiov\oifji.i]v • — ri'y yap ovk av o'loiro, etc. 

b) Mr) on the other hand is everywhere only a dependent negative. Hence 
it stands in all propositions, which represent the negation not as a fact, but 
as something dependent on the idea or thoughts of some subject. Thus it 
is, first of all, the necessary particle in all negative conditions and suppo- 
sitions ^ e. g. ov \r)y\rop.ai, et p.r) av Kekevei?' — et rt t&v rore vvv p.r) d|to^pect)i/ 
boKei elvai, ecopev, ' if any of those former things appear now not to be im- 
portant, we will let them go.' Hence p.r) always stands with et if, em/, fjv, 
orav, ineiddv, ems av, etc. because all these serve to express a thing not as 
fact, but as supposition; and it stands also with ore, o7rore, etc. so often as 
these are in the same circumstances. On the other hand, eWt, eVeiS^, since, 
inasmuch as } and 6'rt, diori, because, have ov, because these always refer to 
actual facts ; e. g. II. (p. 95 p.r) pe Kreti/', eVei oi>x 6p.oydaTptos "Efcropdy elpci.* 

he has so acutely developed, ad Viger. no. 267. He there lays down the princi 
pie, that ovk alwa) 7 s denies the thing itself, and pr\ only the idea of the thing; or 
that ov denies objectively, and p-f] subjectively. I acknowledge, that, by assuming 
this theory, we can bring under it most of the actual appearances : and at all event? 
nothing is more useful or more strengthening for the critical judgment and tact, 
than to follow out such a philosophical principle with all possible impartiality, or 
even to take some pains in order to find it confirmed. With all this, however, I 
cannot deny, that 1 have not yet been able so to reduce under this theory all which 
occurs, that I could not in the same manner have brought under it much which 
does not occur. It will easily be seen on comparison, that I have made use of 
Hermann's views. A better principle of unity than his, I could not give ; but yet 
I did not wish to bring under a theory by force, that which according to my con- 
viction could not come under it. Let my theory therefore stand as it may, by the 
side of his; or let it be thrown into the shade. 

* There occur some passag'es, where et is construed with ov. Such of these as 
are found in epic writers, e. g. II. o. 162. Od. j8. 274, I would not in any way en- 
deavour to refer to the common usage ; because in my opinion they are well enough 
accounted for by the remark, that at that period the more exact grammatical rules 
were not settled with entire consistency. The case is different with the examples 
in Attic writers. Hermann (ad Vig. not. 309, and p. 890) considers them as suffi- 
ciently explained by the remark, that in such cases ov does not stand for itself sep- 
arately, but forms with the following word one idea. I acknowledge this in such 
passages as Soph. Ajax 1131, Et tovs &av6vTas ovk ids frdirretv irap<av, i. e. for- 
biddest. Lysias in Argoratum p. 135. 27, Et pev ov iroAAol fio-av, Kad' tKacrrov hx 
■Kepi avr£>v i]KoveT€, 'if there were few ;' where also belongs the ovk elvai in the 
comic-philosophic passage in Athen. 3. p. 99. a. But I regard this explanation as 
admissible only in instances, where the negative thus stands directly for the op- 
posite idea ; so that ov may be considered as forming a sort of compound with the 
following word. In ov (pypi, ov cpdcKeiv, this seems to have become an established 
rule ; so that even idv is used in connection with them ; see below in- § 148. n. 2. 
In other cases we must seek in the context some perceptible ground for the choice 
of the unconditional ov instead of p/f\. Thus in the example from Andocides de 
Myst. p. 5, ei 5e ovdev rjpdpTWTal poi, Kal tovto vuav diroZeiKvvpi cracpus, deopai vpav 
avrb cpavepbv to?s "EAArjo't. irdo~i iroirja'ai, the purpose of the orator to assert his inno- 
cence in the most positive manner, is evident : ' since, as every one knows, I have 
committed no fault at all.' In Eurip. Med. 87, Et rovaSe (his children) y' evinjs 
ovvsk' ov arepyei 7raT7jp, the form ov ffrepyei expresses this circumstance as notori- 
ous, and the et refers solely to the specified cause, evvrjs ovveKa. The case is differ- 
ent with the three examples in Herm. ad Eur. Med. p. 344, 361. All these three 
belong to the construction with pev and Se' (see § 149. m. 11-14), of which the last 



424 SYNTAX. * 148. 

c) lo that which exists only in idea belongs also purpose ; and hence [if] 
stands in like manner everywhere with the particles tva, cos, ow-coy, coo-re, 
whenever these actually denote a purpose or intended result. In the same 
manner therefore it necessarily stands with all expressions which imply 
wish, entreaty, prohibition. In all these instances it corresponds to the Lat- 
in ne ; and it stands also, like this particle, at the beginning of a clause. — ; 
the idea of wishing, etc. being not expressed, but retained in the thought; 
e. g. fj.rj yevoiTo, let it not be ! i. e. I wish that it may not be ! 

d) Further, an appearance of dependence belongs also to whatever is 
brought forward as the opinion, conclusion, conjecture of any one • either 
as introduced by on, wy, etc. with the Indie, and Optative, or as expressed 
in sermone obliquo, Ace. c. Infm. Nevertheless, as this species of discourse 
differs only in external form from the judgment which is directly expressed, 
usage has here in most cases preferred the direct and independent ov, and 
we therefore find vo/j.l£ei ov koXov elvai • — ovk edeXeiv cprjaiu. An. 7. 2. 27 (rv 
drreKpiva), on ovdev tovtov eveKa deoi reAeIi> oirre crot ovt' aXKco. In many such 
cases however \xr\ can also stand, e.g. Xen. Hell. 3. 2. 27 evoLiiaav avrbv ju.77 
3ovkeo-6ai fiaXkov, i) /jltj 8vvao-0ai. — The dependent or indirect question, with 
el whether, commonly has prj. 

e) To the conditions and suppositions (in lett. b) belong also all relatives, 
whenever they refer not to definite antecedents, but to such as are merely 
implied in the thought. Thus e. g. ov8e\s Ai^erai xPW aTCL i oar is- /irj irape- 
arai 'no one will receive money who is not present, 7 indefinite; on the 
other hand ovto'l elcnv, ot ovS' otiovv tovs TroXeplovs fi\6.TTTovo~i Xen. Cyr. 
6. 1. 28, definite, ■ these are they, who do not injure the enemy at all. 7 — The 
relative clauses with fxrj are consequently for the most part of a general 
nature ; and therefore can also be changed into conditional clauses. 

f ) Hence all those shorter phrases, which can be referred back to one of 
the dependent constructions, have always prj. Thus the prepositive article 
when put briefly for the relative with the verb elvai, e. g. ra p,rj Ka\d, for 
aTiva jj-rj Kakd eo-riv, whatever (i.e. all that) is not handsome. So Xenophon 
says (An. 4. 4. 15) of a man of veracity, that he had constantly stated to 
[irj ovra cos ovk ovra. Here ra pr] ovra is the abridged form of the dependent 

half only is the proper object of the thought, while the first is merely the antithesis 
of the second. We give here the passage from Thuc. 1. 121, literally: 
7) deivbv av €^7], el ol /xev eKelvoov ^vfx/xaxoL eVi dovXeta rfj avrtav (pepovres ovk airep',w<riv, 
■qp.els 5e em rip rip.<apovjxevoi tovs e%0povs kol avrol ajxa crdb^ecrdcu ovk apot, o~aTravJio , o/xev. 
Here the ovk in the first clause is necessary and natural, because a notorious fact 
is expressed. But in the second, the ovk appears so much tha more strange, be- 
cause the matter is even represented as impossible; in which case consequently 
ix-f} would seem to be just as necessary, as in the similar example in § 149. m. 11, 
alaxpou ecrnv el . . . fxrjSe tovs Aoyovs ktX. The case is the same with the two pas- 
sages adduced by Hermann p. 361, from entirely different writers, where similar 
double clauses are introduced by detvhu el, and ov stands with equal strangeness 
in the second half. All this seems to point to some common cause ; which I find 
in the circumstance, that the clause with Seivbv el, which expresses surprise, after 
ihe insertion of the first clause, passes imperceptibly over, by means of ov, into the 
interrogative tone of surprise and censure. Consequently, the above sentence from 
Thucydides closes with the interrogation, ovk apa Sa-rravrjcrofMev ; in like manner in 
Hdot. 7. 9, by "EWrjuas Se . . . ob TipMpT}cr6pLe6a ; and in Andocides de Myster. 
p. 13, ev vp.7v he .... ov crcoO^(ro/j.ai ; which seems to me to be a very natural turn 
of the thought. In this way also other passages, which may still remain, can 
probably be explained by further criticism. In Hdot. 6. 9 el . . . ov Troi-fjo'ovo't. 
the manuscripts give fxr\. In Eurip. Cyclop. 428 eft-' ov xpvC er€ J tne €l ^ as the sig 
nification whether, which is susceptible of both constructions. See the note to Plat. 
Meno. 23, and Herm. ad Eurip. Med. p. 344, where in the passage cited from Plat. 
Protag. 77, et ovk aKTxovojxai 'whether I am not ashamed,' the ovk is occasioned by 
the transition from the direct question, ovk alo'xvvei; 






$ 148. PARTICLES OF NEGATION. 425 

clajse ariva fir) qv, whatever was not, i.e. 'the unreal;' but ova ovra is the 
participle of the definite and direct negation ovk ean ; for with the finite 
verb it must necessarily stand thus : to. fir) ovra ovk eamv, 'what is not, is 
not.' So further Participles without the article, when they stand more 
briefly for one of the above constructions, e. g. qdiov av e'xp&fiqv rco 'AA/a- 
Siddrj pqdev KeKTqfieva • I would rather have intercourse with Alcibiades pos- 
sessing nothing,' i. e. el pqdev eKeKrqTo -even if he possessed nothing;' but 
ovdev KeKrqpevco ' rather with Alcibiades who possesses nothing.' 

g) But every negation is likewise dependent, which is governed by an- 
other verb. Hence with all Infinitives, (those excepted which are men- 
tioned in lett. d, as belonging in sermone obliquo,) fir) is by far most fre- 
quently employed. The ground of this is partly to be sought in what is 
said above ; since most Infinitives can be referred back to such propositions 
as those already described, e. g. to fir) Tifiav yepovras dvoaiov ean, i. e. c if one 
does not honour,' consequently a supposition. But even when the negation 
in question is a fact, the Infinitive still retains fir), e. g. to fir) ixeio-Qqvai fioi 
dvnov croi t£)v Kcacctiv, i. e. the fact that thou hast not believed me. In this 
manner fir) stands not only after all such verbs, as deofiat, KeXevm, vmo-xvov- 
pai, etc. but also after del, ava.yK.-q, and the like, even when these words do 
not imply a necessity founded on the will of a person, but a physical ne- 
cessity ; because there is connected with them the idea of prohibition, which 
always requires fir). 

h) To this general principle can also be referred most of those instances, 
according to which some Grammarians assert, that ov serves to render neg- 
ative entire propositions, and fir) only parts; e. g. Plat. Phaedr. p. 258 rts 
ovv Tponos tov ko\g>s re ko\ fir) ypdcpeiv; Here certainly fir) only renders 
negative the KaAco?; but even if it stood alone it must also read, rt'y ovv 
Tpoiros tov fir) koX&s ypdcpeiv ; and the fir) has consequently its ground in the 
dependence of the Infinitive ypdqbeiv, — fully, rt'y ovv Tponos, et tls fiovkerai 
fir) koXcos ypdcpeiv ; See further the similar phrases § 151. IV. 6. — So in the 
question apa del fie napayeveadai, r) fir); this last means: 'or shall I not?' 
and the fir) then renders negative merely the dependent Infinitive irapeyeve- 
o~6ai. The force of del is not thereby destroyed ; it means : ' am I compelled 
not to be present? 7 Were it r) ov, then the del would become negative, r) ov 
del; 'or is it not necessary V In like manner: rouroty e^ecrTi fiev ireldeaOai, 
e^eo-TL de fir) sc. neideadai, Plat. Phsedr. p. 252. 

Note 1. It is however easy to conceive, that it very often depends solely 
on the will of the speaker or writer, in the case of a negation in itself de- 
pendent, to treat it nevertheless, either for the sake of perspicuity, or of 
some distinction or emphasis, as a direct negation and only interwoven ill 
the construction ; and that vice versa many a negation which is founded on 
complete reality, but is nevertheless interwoven with the participial con- 
struction, is for the same reason given with fir). An example of this last 
is Demosth. Cor. p. 276. 6 qv de (6 Q'Ckntrros) ovr* ev ttj SaXaTTn Tore KpeiT- 
Tuav vficov ovt* els Tr)v 'ATTiKrjv iX8elv dvvaros, firyre QeTTaXa>v aKoXov8ovvTwv, 
firyre Qqfiai&v duevrtov, 'the Thessalians neither following him, nor the 
Thebans suffering him to pass through.' This refers to actual facts, and 
the negation is not that of any mere idea or supposition, nor of any thing 
dependent ; and therefore in every other such case ovtc would stand Avith 
these participles, But here ovre had already been used ; and hence if ovre 
had stood here again instead of fiqre, it would necessarily (by no. 6 below) 
have expressed the meaning, ' Philip could not enter Attica, neither if the 
Thessalians followed him, nor if the Thebans let him pass through.' Con» 
Bequently firyre stands here, in a negation not indeed dependent, but still 
subordinate, simply for the sake of distinction from the preceding ovtc. 

Note 2. The particle ov has with some words the power, not merely 
of rendering them negative, but of giving them the directly contrary sense. 



<*26 SYNTAX. § 143 

Thus especially ov ndvv is to be translated not by not wholly, bat by noi 
at all, by no means; ov cpvp-i means not 'I do not say,' but I deny; ovk 
ecpaaav livai 'they refused to go;' ovk vmcrxvovvTo avv8ei7rvr']o~eiv 'they de- 
clined the invitation,' Xen. Conv. 1. 7 ; ovx vnedeKero refused, Hdot. 3. 50; 
oi>x fJKiara not least, i. e. most of all. In dependent clauses, both negatives 
are employed in this manner by the best writers; e.g. Plat. Gorg. p. 457 
iav nepi rov dp.CpLo-(Br)Tr)cndcn jcal p,r) <fif] 6 erepos tov erepov 6p6a>s Aeyeiy, ^uXe- 
Ttaivovo-Lv. In Plat. Apol. Socr. p. 25 (§ 12), instead of iav re — p.r) (pyre, 
Bekker has adopted ov <firJTe out of the best manuscripts ; so that ov stands 
even after iav (compare the marg. note to no. 2. b, above) ; and in Lysias in 
Agor. p. 137. 3 iav S' ov cpdo-Kj) has always stood. — For other examples of 
}ir), see also Plat. Gorg. p. 481. e. Lycurg. 34. p. 152. 

Note 3. Both ov and p.r) are placed immediately before substantives, in 
order to render these alone negative, and thus form with them a species of 
compounds; comp. the same practice with the adverbs, § 125. 6. E. g. r) ovk 
dn-odei^is, r) ov hiaXvo-is, ' the not showing, the not destroying ;' to. p,r) et'Sea 
'the non-species;' r) p.r) ipneipia 'the not knowing, ignorance.' Both of 
these are abridged forms of clauses in which either ov or p.f) occurs; e.g. 
17 ov StdXucrir tcov yecpvpwv the not breaking down of the bridges, i. e. 'the cir- 
cumstance, that the bridges are not broken down.' a direct and real negation 
with ov. So deivov e&riv r) pr) ipneipla ' it is a great evil, if one has no 
experience,' a mere assumption with pr). 

3. We have seen (no. 2. c), that firj stands particularly in 
clauses implying toish, entreaty, command. "Whenever it appears 
as 'wish, it is always followed by the Optative ; e. g. fir) yivotro, — 
fir) t'Sot? tovto mayst thou never behold this ! In negative en- 
treaties and commands, according as the required action is to be 
expressed as continued or as momentary, which is often arbi- 
trary, it takes the Present or the Aorist (§ 137. 5) ; but with this 
limitation, viz. that it is followed 

in the Present only by the Imperative, in the Aorist only 
by the Subjunctive. 
Thus, fir] pe {SciWe, or yd) fie fidXys. To the extremely rare ex- 
ceptions from this rule belong some Homeric passages, as II. o\ 
410. Od. 7T. 301. a>. 248. The third pers. of the Imperat. Aor. 
in connection with fii] is not unfrequent ; e. g. fir) SoKrjcrdra) tlvl 
iEsch. fi7)$eh vofiiadrco Xen. 

4. The expression of fear or anxiety, which we make positive, 
i I fear that something will happen to him,' is introduced by the 
Greeks, as also by the Latins, with a negative : BeBoc/ca fir] tl 
TTciOr), vereor ne quid Mi accidat, Engl. I fear lest, etc. 

Note 4. The construction of these verbs in respect to moods (Subj. Opt. 
Future), and the examples, see in § 139. m. 50, comp. m. 23. 

Note 5. Sometimes also with the sense of fear or anxiety, pr) constitutes 
a clause or proposition by itself; e. g. pr) tovto aXXcoy 'iyj\. II. a 26 p.q ae, 
yepov, Koikrjo-Lv iyu> irapa vr)vo\ /a^a'a). The greater part of such clauses can 
be explained by supplying before them cpo(3ovp.ai I fear, or opa see to it, take 
care. Often however this assumption would be too unwieldy ; and there- 
fore it is perhaps better to say, that the Greek language by means of this 
p.7) with the Subjunctive and a certain tone of emphasis, formed an inde- 
pendent clause expressing care or foresight; see \ 139. m. 6. 



$ 148. PARTICLES OF NEGATION. ^±27 

5. Often also /^ (or apa jjutj, § 149. m. 18) is merely an em- 
phatic interrogative particle ; the negative form of which has its 
ground in the indefinite and doubting tone of the question ; and 
it may therefore expect in answer either yes or no, according to 
the context and the tone ; as in Engl, perhaps, perhaps not, per- 
haps not indeed. E.g. /jlt) SokeI vol tovto elvai evrjOes ; seems 
this to thee perhaps to be foolish? Soph. OC. 1502 t/? ^eiTai 
fCTViros ; firj Tt? Albs tcepavvos, r) rt? bjJL,j3pla ^(aKoXfL ; iEschyl. 
Pers. 344 /jltj ctol Sokov/jL€p rfjSe \eL(f)6r}vai fid%r] ; Plut. Mor. p. 181 
teal fjurj tl aXXo ; shouldst thou ivish nothing else ? For fxwv fir), 
see § 149. m. 18. — On the other hand, ov (or ap ov, § 139. m. 62) 
is the negative interrogative, by which the inquirer lets it be 
understood that he expects an affirmative answer ; e. g. ov teal 
koCKov io-Ti to ayadov ; is not the good also beautiful ? 

6. When to a sentence already made negative, other qualifi- 
cations of a more general kind are to be added, such as sometimes, 
some one, somewhere, or the like, these are all commonly sub- 
joined in words compounded with the same negative particles ; 
e. g. ov/c iiroiiqae tovto ovScl/jLov ovSek ' no one has anywhere done 
this ;' Plat. Parmen. extr. TaXXa tcov yJr\ ovtcov ovSevl ovSa^fj ov- 
Safjicos ovhefiiav kolvmvIclv e%«. And, in the same manner, to the 
negation of the whole is subjoined the negation of the parts ; e. g. 
ov hvvaTai out* ev Xiyetv ovt' ev iroielv tovs cf)l\ovs, where we 
say 'he can neither . . . nor.'' Consequently, in Greek, these 
co-ordinate negatives of the same kind in the same clause do not 
(as in Lat. non nunquam and the like, and as in modern Ian 
guages) serve to destroy each other, but thus strengthen one an- 
other. Only when the simple negative stands last, does it de- 
stroy the preceding ones ; see note 7 sq. 

Note 6. In some phrases both the particles ov and 1x77 are united for the 
sake of emphasis, viz. 

1 ) ov fxrj in assurances which refer to a future time (hence the construc- 
tion in § 139. m. 6), and in the confiding entreaty arising from them. 
The two connected particles can also he separated by other words ; 
and instead of ov, its compounds (ov8e, ovdelr, etc.) can also stand ; see 
the examples in § 139. m. 6. 

2) fir] ov, but only in the simple form of both, and not separated ; most 
commonly before Infinitives instead of yu.77 alone, e. g. nolov napa/jLvOiov 
Trocr]o-€L9 avTcp, /xrj ovxi aivemeiv ; 'what consolation wilt thou give him, 
that he may not despair ?' cuo-;(ui/o/xcu /xt) ov noielv tovto ■ I am ashamed 
not to do this.' Sometimes also before Participles, instead of el p-rj with 
the verb. Schsefer Melet. p. 108. Soph. OC. 360. 

Note 7. But from this and also from the general rule, that two or more 
negatives only strengthen each other, there are two principal exceptions, 
where the negatives actually destroy each other, as in Latin and in the 
modern languages : 

a) When 1x77 is not merely a negative, but also a conjunction ; and conse- 
quently in clauses implying purpose, fear, anxiety, wish, etc. E. g. 
II. a. 28, where Chryses is ordered to depart, with the threat firj vv toi 
ov xpm 07x77 aKrJ7TTpov kcu crre/x/xa Seolo l lest the sceptre and fillet of the 
god afford thee no aid.' So too after verbs of fear when 7x77 is rendered 



428 SYNTAX. § 149. 

simply that; e. g. <pcj3ovp.ai p.rj ov kciXov ?j l vereor ne non honestum sit,' 

I fear that this is not honourable. Eur. Phcen. 270 SedoLKa, p.r) p.e 6V 
ktvodv eo-co Xafiovres ov [LeOaxTi. The reason why ov here stands in a 
dependent clause, is apparent ; inasmuch as only a single word is 
rendered negative by ov (but a whole clause by p,r)), and negatives of 
the same kind would only strengthen each other. 

b) When the two negatives belong to two different verbs, even where one 
is a participle ; e. g. Horn. oid y ovk eOeXovra p.dxecr6ai. Commonly 
however, for the sake of perspicuity, one of the negatives is then made 
by the strengthened p,rj ov) e. g. p.rj ovxi p-tcrelv avrbv ovk dv bvvaip,-qv, 

I I should not be able not to hate him,' i. e. I must hate him. 

Note 8. Two negatives destroy one another also in the phrase ovbels 
oar is ov, nemo non; because strictly the verb etvai is here always omitted 
after the first negative ; that is to say, if fully written, it would be ovdels 
(eanv) Sams p.rj Troirjaei, l there is no one, who will not do this,' i. e. every one 
will do it. But this omission of ecrri is so entirely forgotten, that not only 
has \ij\ gone over into ov ; but also in construction, except in the Nominative, 
ovbels (by a form of attraction explained in § 143, 17, and n. 7) is entirely 
attracted to the following principal verb; so that it stands thus: ovdevl 
otco ovk dpeaKei, nemini non placet, it pleases every one. — Dem. p. 657 vp.els 
p.ev, a> a. 'A. ovdeva irpovhcoKare rcov (piXcov, QerraXol de ovdeva ttcottoO* ovriva ov 
sc. 7rpovbcaKav, i. e. 'they have betrayed all their friends.'* 

Note 9. But as the Greeks were in general so accustomed to the rule, 
that one negative only strengthens another, it often happens that a verb, 
which in itself implies a negative, is still construed with another negative. 
This is the case with verbs signifying to hinder, deny, beware, disbelieve, and 
the like ; as hre^Eiy, e'Lpyeiv, KoaXveiv, Karapvelcrdai, ef-apvov elvai, a7rayopeveiv, 
7raveiv,Xr)yeLv, direyeo-Qai, (pvXdcraeo-daL, dmo-relv, eKtpevyeiv, etc. E. g. Hdot. 
3. 128 Aapetos drrayopevei vpiv p,rj dopvcpopeeiv 'Opoirea. Also T)vavTico6r\v 
avrco fi-qBiv iroielv napa tovs vop.ovs 'I opposed myself to him, i. e. 1 
hindered him from doing anything against the laws;' Xen. Anab. 1. 3. 2 
[xiKpbv e^eepvye tov /lit) KaTaireTpcoOrjvai. "he but just escaped being stoned.' 
See the Index to Plat. Meno. v. p.rj. Exc. XI. ad Dem. Mid. and comp. 
Dem. 01. 1. p. 15, 16, without yu.77. 

Note 10. For the phrase el 8e p,r], see § 151. IV. 7. 



§ 149. Yarious Particles. 

1. The use of tne particles in Greek is so various, and in some 
respects so difficult, that we select here several of the most im 
portant for particular illustration. 

a)? as a relative Adverb has the following significations: 1) as, so as 
2) It strengthens the superlative (§ 123. n. 9), chiefly with adverbs, e. g 
cos Taxiora as swiftly as possible; and with some adverbs also the positive. 
especially in cos dXrjdcos really, most certainly, cos erepcos, and some other 
examples; see in Heindorf ad Plat. Apol. Socr. 23. Praef. The instances 
where it stands after the adverb, $avp.ao~Tcos cos, vivepepveos cos, are explained 
in § 151. I. 5. 3) about, nearly, cos irevT^Kovra about fifty. 4) To the prep- 
ositions eni, els, rrpos, in answer to the question whither, e.g. in erropevero 
cos eiri tov Tvorap,6v, it gives the signification towards, in the direction of ver- 
sus ; lit. as if he would go to the river ; leaving it undetermined whether 
he reaches it. Thuc. 6. 61 dnenXeov p-erd rrjs 2aXafiivlas ck ttjs 2i.KeXl.as cos 
«$• 'Adrjvas. Hence it can everywhere be used of a journey not yet complet 

* The omission of 'Sams in this phrase in the passage Xen. Conv. 1. 9, is doubt- 
ful (see Schneider's note) ; but it is certain in the oracle in Hdot. 5. 56. 



149. VARIOUS PARTICLES. 429 

ed : e. g. Soph. Philoct. 58 nXels 6° coy npos oIkov, 'thou saile.st for home.' 

5) Before certain words or qualifying phrases, it often signifies m, as beings 
according as, like Lat. ut ; e. g. An. 4. 3. 31 rjaav co7r)uo- pevoi, coy iv rois ope- 
cnv, ' as is customary or possible nr mountains.' Thuc. 4. 84 Bpaaidas rjv 
ovde dfivvaros; coy Aa/ceScu/xcVioy, elireiv, he was by no means unable, as being 
(although he was) a Lacedemonian, etc. — uy in tcov dvvarav v. inrap^ovroiv, 
etc. 6) In a laxer construction it sometimes stands in the place of a rela- 
tive pronoun : e. g. II. 77. 407 pv$ov 'A^atcoz/ aKovei?, coy tol viroKplvovrai, comp. 
£. 44. \j/. 50. Soph. OC. 1124 ao\ Seol iropoiev, coy iycb £eAco, lit. ' as I wish,' 
coy for a. 

cos- as Conjunction signifies: 1) that, see § 139. G. 2) that, in order that, 
§ 139. E. 3) so that, with the Infinitive, more commonly coo-re, § 139. F. 
§ 140. 4. 4) as, of time, § 139. C. 5) as, inasmuch as, because, in the par- 
ticipial construction, § 144. n. 14, and especially § 145. n. 7. — Hence also : 

6) as, since, for, J, it. quippe; e.g. Kpanarov earat avyx^pwac, coy cru SoKeis 
ovk d(pr]<Teiv p.e, FOR tAott seemest not willing to let me go. 

coy as Preposition, see in § 146. n. 1. 

co y for ovrcoy is very frequent in the poets, especially the Ionic. In prose 
it is mostly found only in the phrases : kcu coy, ou6° coy, ^778' coy; see § 116. 5. 

tbcnrep, as, even as, just as, a relative adverb or strengthened coy in its 
first signification above ; used both before single words and whole clauses 
Its connection with Participles, see in §§ 144, 145.; — Connected with, el, (as 
coairep el, also axmep av el,) it becomes a conjunction signifying as if, Lat. 
tanquam, quasi, also ut si. It must however be noted, that wherever either 
the main clause or the apodosis contains av, the form axrirep av el is always 
used; so that consequently this av in the conjunction, as being already an 
ticipated, belongs to the main clause, and not to the dependent clause. 
Hence the Indicative can so often stand after coanep av el; comp. the same 
construction after kou el in m. 4 below; and for the double av, see $ 139. m. 
20. E. g. Plat. Gorg. init. (ocnrep av el ervyx^vev a>v brjpiovpyos, aTreiepivaTu 
av. — There are found also some elliptical terms with this conjunction; for 
which see § 151. IV. 3. 

oilrcoy and code, so, thus, are distinguished like the corresponding ad- 
jective pronouns, ovtos and ode. — We may here note further the use of o'v- 
r coy ... coy in clauses of wishing; e. g. Luc. Philops. 27 ovras ovalprjv tov- 
r<£>v, coy aXrjdrj npo? ere epco. Comp. II. v. 825. — In Homer code often occurs 
in a local sense; e. g. rrpopoX code, vvv 6° code j-vv vql Karr]Xvdov II. o\ 392. 
Od. a. 182. 

O7rcoy as adverb, signifies as; as a conjunction, that, in order that. For 
its construction, see § 139. E. 

iv a as adverb, where; as a conjunction, that, in order that, § 139. E. — 
Also tva ri, wherefore? as if: 'in order that ivhat? should happen.' 

&are, so as, so that, § 139. F. § 140. 4. § 142. 4. — Herodotus uses it in 
the manner of are before participles, § 144. m. 14; e. g. Hdot. 6. 44 coo-re 
Q-qpicdbeo-Tarris eovarjs rrjs S^aXdcrarjS 1 ravrrjs, 8ie<pdeipovTO. 

Sti 1) that, § 139. G ; for 8?j\ov on, ev 01S' on, see § 151. IV. 4. 2) be- 
cause, § 139. D; elliptically for dia rovro ore, or abbreviated 8l6ti; but in 
later writers Sio'n also often stands for on, that. 3) It strengthens all su- 
perlatives (comp. coy), e.g. on peyiaros the greatest possible, on paXiara, etc. 
But here after on we cannot add bvvaadai or the like, as after coy. — For 
ovx on, on prj, see § 150. m. 1, 3. 

ovveica, for tov evem, ov eve<a. 1) on which account. 2) because. — But 
in the poets further : 1) For eW/ca, on account of. 2) For on, that. 

odovveica, see § 29. n. 10 : in the tragic poets i. q. ovvena, because^ thai. 



430 SYNTAX. § 149. 

el 1) si, if § 139. A. 2) In an indirect question, whether, § 139 m. 63. 
6 148. 2. b. 3) fAaf, after Sav[idfa see § 139. m. 60. 

et kgu with the Indie, although. On the other hand, kcu el and kclv eu 
even if, even supposing that ; which last formula, notwithstanding the av> 
takes the Indicative; since this av (as in cbenrep av el in m. 1) strictly 
belongs to the apodosis, which hoAvever is often retained in the mind, or 
follows another construction. See the note to Dem. Mid. 15. Heindorf ad 
Plat. Soph. 69. 

e'lTis, fin, lit. if any one, if any thing ; but this expression stands fully 
in place of the pronoun oans, with greater emphasis: Xen. Hell. 7. 1. 20 
ecpdeipov eiTi xpw^fiov rjv ev rw irebito, i.e. ivhatever, all that, etc. Comp. the 
converse in § 143. 19. 

el yap, Lat. utinam ! that! in wishing; for which elsewhere e'ide. 
§ 139. m. 7. 

errei, enei8f) 1) Lat. postquam, after. 2) Lat. quoniam, since, because, 
§ 139. C, D. 3) Before questions and before Imperatives, since, for ; e. g. 
eVet ncos av 8ia.icpivoip.ev avro ; for how then could we distinguish it ? enel 
Seaaai avro? for see then thyself. — Compounds with av are: eiredv, iireibdv. 

ottov 1) where, there where. 2) As conjunction, since, siquidem, Cyr. 
2. 3. 11. 

oirore, ore, stands likewise often for since, like Lat. quandoquidem : Dem 
01. 1. init. Soph. El. 38.— Also ore, that, § 139. m. 59. 

edv, rjv, av, also orav, eVetSai/, see in § 139 ; comp. Index. — For edv espec. 
after verbs signifying to examine, see too, see in § 139. m. 66. 

fj or; which signification it always retains likewise in interrogations; 
e. g. ovtcos eo-riv • fj ovk o'lei ; ' thus it is ; or dost thou not think so ? J nodev 
rJKet; fj 8r)\ov on eg dyopds ; 'whence does he come? or is it plain (and 
therefore the question unnecessary) that he comes from the market ?' — The 
disjunctive fj . . .fj in epic writers takes also the particles p,ev and 8e, as fj 
p.ev . . .fj be; but then commonly signifies as well . . .as also; hence fj8e (18 e) 
standing alone in Homer signifies and. 

In comparisons fj signifies than, quam; e. g. o~o\ tovto p.dXkov dpeo-Kei fj 
epol. If the first part be negative (or interrogative) then in the second part 
dXkd can stand instead of fj; e. g. Time. 5. 99 ov vop,i£op,ev f)p2v tovs fjneipco- 
ras 8eivorepovs, aWa tovs vrjcricoTas. 1. 83 eanv 6 7ro\ep.os oi)( oiihcov to 
irkeov aWa 8airdvr}?. Or else in such a case the negative is repeated after 
fj, and is then redundant, as with the Infln. § 148. n. 9 ; e. g. Hdot. 4. 118 
rjnei 6 Tleparj? ov8ev tl p,dWov eir r)p.eas fj ov kol en\ vp.eas. Hell. 6. 3. 15 ti 
ovv Set dvapeveiv p.aXKov fj oi>x cos rd^iara elpfjvrjv noielo-Bat, ; Comp. Thuc. 3. 36. 

Less accurately and with a certain anacoluthon, instead of fj, after com- 
paratives we find cos (ocrov, olov) ; e. g. Theocr. 9. 33 ov yap pe\io-o-ais dvdea 
ykvuepcoTepa, oaaov ep\v Moicrat (piXai. Hence sometimes ovtcos likewise 
stands with a comparative, e. g. Plat. Apol. p. 36. d, ovk eo-6* o,ri p,a"h\ov 
Trpeirei our cor, cos rbv toiovtov av8pa iv irpvTaveico o~iTe1cr6ai. So too after ovk 
aXXo and the like fj should follow by rule ; yet we find cos, as with com- 
paratives ; e. g. Eurip. Fragm. 75 ovk earn \vwrjs aXXo (pdpp,aKov fiporols, cos 
dv8pos eo~6\ov koX (piXov TrapaLvetris. — Vice versa, this comparative fj can like- 
wise be put after the positive, or generally after all those predicates, which 
either include in themselves the idea of comparison (as alpelcrOai), or else 
receive it by means of this fj. E. g. Hdot. 9. 26 f)p.eas 8iKaiov e%eiv to erepov 
vitpas, fjtrep 'AOrjvaiovs. II. c^. 117 fiovkop? e'yco Xabv o~6ov ep.pevai fj dno\e- 
adai. Lys. p. 171 {wtovctl Kepbalveiv fj vpcis neideiv. 

When the comparative refers to a relation or proportion, it is followed by 
rj irpos or r) Kara ; e. g. p.ei(cov fj Kar avQpvmov greater than according to man j 
f) 86£a eo-riv eXaTTOiv fj irpbs to KaTop6<s>pa, the renown is less then in propor- 
tion to the merit ; Lat. quam pro. 



1 149. VARIOUS PARTICLES. 431 

r\ is wholly different from rj, and originally signifies certainly. In common 
usage it is simply an interrogative particle, num, whether. — For rj p-qv see 
below, m. 29. — Further, rj yap; in dialogue signifies always: not so? 
Germ, nicht wahr? 

zeal and re correspond entirely to the Lat. et and que; and. Kat has also 3 
the significations also, even, etc. — When re precedes Kai, the former means 
not only, the latter but also ; e. g. avros re rvpavvos eyevero, kcu tols rratal rrjv 
Tvpavv'tha Kareknrev. In other cases, both . . . and. Still this double con- 
nection is often used in Greek, where we employ a single and. 

re' moreover in epic poetry seems very often entirely superfluous. This 
arises from the circumstance, that in the most ancient language this par- 
ticle first lent to many classes of words that connective power, which after- 
wards, as the language became more cultivated, they retained for them- 
selves alone without the re. Hence in the epic poets we find so often piv 
re, Se' re, yap re, and. even mi re (also), for pev, 8e, yap, ml, alone. Most 
commonly however the particle re follows the relatives of all kinds, because 
all these in the ancient language were already forms of the demonstrative, 
which by means of this re acquired a connective power (and this), and so 
became relatives (who, ivhich). But so soon as the relative sense was ex- 
clusively allotted to these forms, the re fell away as superfluous. Hence in 
Homer so frequently still os re, ocrov re, etc. for 6s, oaov, and the like. In 
the common language are further derived from this ancient usage the par- 
ticles ware and are, and the phrases olds re and e<fi y are, for which see § 150. 
m. 9, 10. 

Kai alone, in the signification also, is likewise in familiar discourse very T 
often apparently superfluous; e. g. Plat. Alcib. I. 6 ' I permit all thy ques- 
tions tva Ka\ eldS), o,tl kcu epels, where we should use some other particle, 
e. g. ' only that I may know, what thou wilt say. ? 

Peculiar is the usage of Kai (also re Kai) in connecting an adjective with 
such ideas as 7ro\vs, oXiyos, etc. where we do not use and; e. g. gvvrjdei 
avrco noXXa Kai irovrjpa • iroXXd re Kai dvocria elpyaapevos. 

Before pdXa and Tvdvv also Kai has a peculiar emphasis ; e. g. tovto yap 
Kai paka aKptfiocis oiSa, for I know this, and indeed very accurately. 

Further, Kat after 6 avros the same, opoicos, cocraurcor, and the like, may be 
rendered as, like Lat. at que ; e. g. Plat. Ion. p. 531 ovx 6/xoicor 7re7roir}Kaa-i 
Kai "Oprjpos. Hdot. 6. 58 vopos be rotou AaKedacpov'ioio-i eVrt wvtos Kai rolo'i 
Qapj3dpoLon. — For Kai . . . be, see m. 10. 

be but, is far from always having an adversative signification; in most 9 
cases it is simply a particle of transition and connection, in order to intro- 
duce something else, where we either employ the conjunction and, or often 
also put nothing. The Greeks, whose best writers do not admit the Asyn- 
deton, (i.e. a clause or phrase beginning in the midst of discourse and not 
connected with what precedes, see § 151 . IX,) unless some rhetorical pur- 
pose is thus to be accomplished, always employ the particle be wherever 
the discourse is in itself connected, without however requiring one of the 
other more specific modes of connection or construction. In the more an- 
cient language be supplied also the place of other connecting particles, viz. 
of yap for, e. g. Od. o. 369 atei yap IxOvaavKov ereipe be yaarepa Xipos. In 
Homer therefore it is necessary always to observe the context, in order to 
determine which of the three principal significations and, but, for, it has in 
each instance. Often too in the same writer, a specification of time, which 
is elsewhere connected by cos, ore, etc. is merely put in juxtaposition by 
means of be; e.g. Od, /3. 313 (vpels) to ndpoidev eWpere KTrjpar' epd- ey<b 
b' en vrprios rja. This usage is often imitated by Herodotus. 

Even after Vocatives, the next clause is introduced by be; e. g. II. a. 282 
Arpeibr), &v be Trade reov pevos. Eur. Or. 615 MeveXae, vol be raSe Xe'yco. 
Mem. 2. 1. 26 co yvvai, e(j)r), ovo/xa be am t'l ecrrw. The same takes place 



432 SYNTAX. I 149 

also with other adversative particles, as drdp, a A A a, and also not infre- 
quently with yap; as II. 77. 328 'Arpeidrj, noWol yap Tedvaai KaprjKopooavTes 
ci^aioi, etc. 

10 When kclI and de come together in one sentence, ml can only have the 
sense of also; e. g. ko.1 ovto? 8e 7raprjv, but he also was present. But very 
often this junction occurs where we say and also : for since in Greek one 
cannot; say kcu kcii, in such cases the looser connective 8e supplies the place 
of Kal or our and. E. g. Cyr. 3. 3. 44 vvv nepl yjfvx&v ra>v vperepcov ecrrlv 6 
dyd>v, /crfi irepl yvvatKcov 8e Kal reKv&v. If now we should here translate Kal 
. . . 8e literally : \ but also for your wives and children,' this would give an 
entirely false emphasis to the construction ; it means simply : \ the contest 
is now for your own lives, and also (and in addition) for your wives and 
children.' In the common language this junction of Kal and 8e occurs only 
in such a way, that the principal word to which Kai refers always stands 
before he ; while in the epic language, on the contrary, the two particles al- 
ways stand together, Kal 8e ; e. g. II. i. 708 KapTraXlpios Trpb vecov e%epev AaoY 
re Kai Irnrovs 'Orpuv&v, Kal S' avro? ivl 7rpopd)(ot.cn pd-^aBai. 

... pev and 8e are two particles belonging together, which have nearly the 
same character as 8e alone. They serve to form a connection, like our in- 
deed . . . but; but are far more frequently employed than these English 
particles, which usually require a strong antithesis; while pev and 6V only 
place two propositions or clauses in a connection, which with us is either 
not expressed at all, or at most by but alone. Thus very frequently a chap- 
ter or longer division of a book ends in this way : ko.1 ravra pev ovt&s eye- 
vero, these things then were so ; and then the following chapter must nec- 
essarily begin something in this way; rfj 8' va-repaiq, but on the following 
day. MeV must be given by indeed, only when the context manifestly re- 
quires it. 

But ph and be are often employed also to connect two clauses, of which 
only the second properly belongs in the connection; while the other is 
merely inserted in order to heighten by contrast the effect of the second. 
E. g. Dem. 01. II. p. 25 d\X eKelvo Savpdfa, el (that) AaKedaipovioi? pev nore 
vnep rcov 'EWwvikcov St/ccuW dvrrjpare, Kal, tva oi aWoi rv^coari tgov SikcuW, to. 
vperepa avrcov dvrfkiaKere elcr<pepovres ' vvvl 8' oKvelre e^ievai, Kal peXXere (ye 
delay) elcrcpepeiv vnep rcov vperepcov avrcov Krnpdrcov. Here it is not the first 
conduct that Demosthenes wonders at, that the Athenians once defended the 
rights of all the Greeks against the Spartans ; but the second, viz. that they, 
who once did this, should not now be ready to defend even their own posses- 
sions. Id. Cor. p. 281 alaxpdv earcv, el eyco pev rovs ttovovs vnepecva, bpel? 
8e pv8e tov? Xoyouy avrcov dve^eaBe. Here one easily sees that the first part 
is praiseworthy, and only the second shameful ; though, net in itself, but 
from the contrast with the first. How attentive one must be to this form 
of connection, may be seen in the following example, which has been mis- 
understood by most; Eurip. Iph. Taur. 115: 

Ovtol paKpbv pev rj\6opev Kwrrr] nopov 
'Ek reppdrcov be vaorov dpovpev irakiv. 
Here the negative belongs strictly only to the second clause, and the first 
can be made to follow as the antithesis : l We will not again turn back from 
the goal, after we have once made so long a voyage;' but the sense is 
stronger and more emphatic, when both clauses are united into one nega- 
tion : ' It shall not be said of us, that we have made so long a voyage, and 
at the very goal have again turned back.' The same sense remains, if we 
regard the whole as a question indicating displeasure. See Seidler.^ 

* The Latins also have this mode of expression sometimes, but, in accordance 
with their Syntax, without such particles : Hor. Sat. 1. 2. 84, ; Quod venale habet, 
ostendit, wee, si quid honesti est. Jactat habetque palam, qucerit, quo turpia celet.' 



§ 149. VARIOUS PARTICLES. 433 

This fxev . . . 6e' furnishes also an emphatic manner of connecting two 12 
ideas belonging to the same clause, instead of the more usual re . . . kcli, 
viz. in such a way that some word of the clause is repeated; e. g. Xen. 
Mem. 2. 1. 32 eya> 8e o~vvei\x.i p.ev Seols; uvveiiii 6' dvdpamoL? roty dyaOols, in- 
stead of the feebler avveip-i Seols re ko.\ av6. r. a. And in the same manner 
also without ueV in the first part, when the ordinary form of connection 
would be with /cat only; so in Soph. Philoct. 827. Comp. § 147. n. 7. 

In general, ueV can strictly never be -used, unless 8e, or at least some 13 
other particle of a similar meaning (aX\d, jueVrot), corresponds to- it in the 
succeeding clause. But nevertheless: 1) On rhetorical grounds the apod- 
osis is sometimes omitted, or otherwise expressed ; e. g. Plat. Charm. 2 nap 
eyevov iiev, rj 6' 6'?, ffj p-d-XO » HapeyevoiLrjv. 2) In some common expressions, 
where the apodosis is to be regarded as entirely obliterated, fiep is employed 
(like quidem) merely to insulate some person or thing, and thus to exclude 
everything, which one perhaps might otherwise expect ; so especially e'yo> 
Liev (equidem) Cyr. 2. 2. 10. etc. See Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 36. Thea3t. 
49. — For fiev instead of firjv in epic writers, see m. 29. 

From jiev . . . 8e, come the forms 6 ueV ... 6 SV, or 6s iiev . . . or 8e, which 14 
we have already seen in § 126. Similar distributives are formed with the 
help of the same particles, for the various adverbial relations ; and indeed 
not only the demonstrative and relative forms, but also the indefinite forms 
are so employed : 7rore p.ev . . . nore §e, sometimes . . . sometimes, or once . . . 
again; and so also with rore and ore (§ 116. n. 9). So further 777 ueV . . . 
rrj 8e ) or nrj fiev . . . tttj 6e, in one way . . . in another way, etc. euBa p.eu . . 
ev6a be, etc. In respect to all such distributives it is to be remarked, that 
sometimes such a formula stands without a verb in reference to a preceding 
clause ; where consequently \iiv in itself alone seems to have an affirmative 
sense, something like our indeed, forsooth; e. g. ndvras (pi\T]Teov, a\X ov rbv 
ueV, top 6' ov, ' one must love all, and not the one indeed, but the other not;' 
naprjaav ovx 6 p.ev 6 6' ov • dXka. ndvres, ' they were present, not the one for- 
sooth, and the other not, but all.' 

ovre, fxfjTe- ovde, Lirjde. Both these forms express a negative con- 16 
nection, and correspond to the Latin neque, and not. There is between them 
however, this difference, that ovre, /x^re, affect parts of clauses, or represent 
that which is denied as belonging to that with which they connect it ; while 
ovbe, p,r]8e, on the contrary, rather connect whole clauses and sensesj partly 
by way of strong contrast, and partly by way of transition and in the regu- 
lar progress of discourse. Oure and jx^re are more copulative, like the 
affirmative /cat; ovbe and jxrjbe more disjunctive, corresponding to' 67. The 
same difference is found when either particle is repeated ; as ovre . . . ovre, 
ovde . . . ovde, p,r)Te . . . Lirjre, etc. like Lat. neque . . . neque, i. e. neither . . . nor. 
Here too it must be noted, that, according to the nature of the clause-mem- 
bers thus connected, at one time the direct, and at another time the de- 
pendent negative may be employed; e. g. Dem. Phil. p. 138 tovto [xrjre 
yevoiro, ovre \eyeiv 'd^iov. — When one of the two members is positive, we 
find re . . . ovre (ovde), or ovre . . . re, etc. like Lat. et . . . neque, and neque . . . 
et; e. g. Hdot. 5. 49 ovre yap oi fidpfiapoi oXkilioi elai, ifxeh re e'y ra /jLeyiara 
dvrjKere aperr}? nepi. Soph. OC. 367 avrols rjv eptr, Kpeovri re Spovov? edaOai, 
Hyde xp a ^eadai nokiv. Comp. Eurip. IT. 698 ovoiid r eiiov kt\. On the 
other hand, in Eur. Here. F. 1106, ovre 2iavqbeiov etcropco nerpov U\ovT<hvd 
t , the negative avails also for re', which consequently stands for ovre. 

Besides this simple connective power, moreover, the forms ovde, Lirjde, cor- 
respond to the special significations of the particle nal) for as this in affirma- 
tion denotes: 1) also, 2) even; so these denote in negation: 1) also not 
2) not even; which last signification these particles always have when 
they stand in the middle of a clause; e. g. An. 3. 1. 15 e'yco p.ev ovre KaOev- 
deiv dvvapai., &crnep olp.ai ot»6' vjiel?, ovre KaraKclaQai en. 

E E 



434 SYNTAX. $ 149 

Primarily ovBe and prfde signify but not; and so we must frequently still 
understand them in epic poetry ; where also they are often written separate- 
ly ov Be, pr) 3e.* In the common language this concurrence of 8e with the 
negative was avoided, either by placing the words differently, or by using 
dXXd or drdp. 

16 d\\d has the strengthened sense of 8e, but, and corresponds at the same 
time to the Germ, sondem. — Besides this, it has in animated style a great- 
variety of uses, which can be learned only by practice. It stands especial- 
ly in an abrupt manner at the beginning of paragraphs or cf whole books ; 
where it is sometimes to be translated by well ! sometimes by indeed, truly } 
but often also not at all. Peculiar is the connection of dXkd and ydp ; by 
which the adversative signification of the whole clause is united with a 
secondary causal relation in the clause into one conjunction, dXkd ydp ; e. g. 
Soph. Phil. 81 aXX 5 r)8v ydp roi Krrjpa rrjs vlictjs Xa/3eiv Tokpa, where no point 
is to be put after dXkd, as is shewn by Eur. PhoBii. 1310 dWd yap Y-peovra 
Xevcraco devpo crrayoiTa, navcrco TOtr yoovs. Comp. Soph. Phil. 874. 

The compounds ov yap dWd, ov ydp rot dWd, ov pevroi aXAa, 
ov prjv dWd, bring out again prominently the negation of a preceding 
clause, and then let the antithesis follow with aAAd; e. g. Aristoph. Nub 
230 ovk dv 7700' evpov ' ov yap aXX' r) yrj j3la eX/cet irpos avrrjv tt)v eppovrida. — 
.When no negation precedes they are only a strengthened dXkd, arising per 
haps from the thought: 'for I mean (or say) nothing else but,' etc. e. g 
Plat. Meno. p. 86 /3ouXei o-Koncopev : Haw pev ovv ov pevroi aXX' eycoye 
eKelvo dv rjdto-ra to irptoTov o-K.ey\raipr)v, yet nevertheless I would, etc. Id. 
Euthyd. p. 286. c, ov yap rot dXXa $avpd£eo, emphatic. 

17 ydp, for, always stands in a sentence after other words, like Lat. enim. 
— The use of this particle is very various and elliptical, especially in dia- 
logue, where we must commonly supply before it in thought small phrases, 
like 'I believe it,' 'no wonder,' and others, which attention to the context- 
will readily suggest. Here belongs too its use in questions ; where we 
nevertheless in English very commonly use then; as who then? is then — ? 
etc. Cyr. 8. 3. 4 cry. Be, a> Kvpe, irdre Koo-pr)o~n ) ov yap vvv, e(pr) 6 K. §okg> 
vplv avro? KocrpelaOat, vpd? Koapcov ; — After a preceding demonstrative it* is 
either not to be rendered in English at all, or at most by our namely; e. g. 
Xen. Mem. 1. 1. 6 dXXd pr)v erroiei km rdde rrpbs tovs eniTrjbeiovs • rd pep 
yap avayKoia awefiovkeve itpdireiv ktX. i. e. 'he did for his friends all this, 
viz. that which was necessary he advised them,' etc. See also Plat. Lys. 
14. Heind. 

5 8 ovv therefore, consequently, stands only after other words in a clause. — 
For the ovv appended to words [ogttio-ovv, etc.) see ^ 80. 1 . § 116. 9. 

dp a is the most general interrogative particle, Lat. -ne ; e. g. dpa tovtq 
pe epcoray; — The negative dp' ov, nonne, awaits an affirmative answer: dp'' 
ov tovto KaXkiarov; — The formula dpa pr) gives to the question a tone of 
more doubt : is it then so? not surely so ? comp. § 148. 5. E. g. Plat. Phsed. 
p. 103 dpa pr) ttov kol ae tl tovtcov erdpa^ev cov o8e eiirev ; and with the next 
following aXko tl rj, ib. 64 dpa pr) dkXo tl rj Tr)v Tr)s "V^v^? and tov ad>paTO? 
dfioKkayrjV (rjyovpeSa tov Sdvarov ;) 

dWo ti rj, a very common particle of direct interrogation, which awaits 
the answer: 'nothing else,' i.e. affirmative; e. g. Plat. Gorg. p. 481 el pev 
yap Tvyxdvei Tavra dXrj8r) dvra, a Aeyei?, d"h\o tl r) r)pa>v 6 fiios dvarerpappe 
vos dv e'lrj. But rj can also be omitted; e.g. Plat. Rep. p. 369. d,' «XXo tl 
yecopyo? pev eh, 6 Be olKoBopo?, anything else ? i. e. not so ? one is a husband- 
man, the other a builder ? 

* Also even in Ionic prose : Hdot. 5. 35 iroWas eTx 6 eKiriSas perrjcrea-Oai (of being 
dismissed) iwl baXaffcrav • n$] 8e vecorepSv ti Troievo-rjs ttjs MiK-fjTov (but Miletus mak- 
ing no new movement), obSa/xa a -A. 



* 149. VARIOUS PARTICLES. 435 

pcov, contr. for prj ow, an interrogative particle, strictly : but surely not ? 
is it then I It loses for the most part its negative tone, (like interrog. pr\ 
oimply, k 148. 5,) and then is either not to he rendered at all, or at most by 
our perhaps. The answer can he yes or no, according to circumstances. — 
The compounds \i5iv ovv and pwv prj are only a strengthening of the sim- 
ple particle; the latter like apa prj. See Eur. Hec. 754. Plat. Lys. p. 208. 
C. e, pwv fxf) tl rjdiKTjaas t6v 7rarepa; Ma At", ovk eyaye. 

ovkovv, ovkovv. The particles ovk and ovv express in the tone of asser- 
tion an inferential negative, consequently not, therefore not. Hence arose in 
daily language a manifold use of these particles, which is in general obvi- 
ous from the connection, and is in part also indicated by the accentuation. 
1) Put interrogatively they express the thing denied as being, in the opinion 
of the speaker, affirmative : Eurip. Orest. 1238 Ovkovv ovetdrj rale k\vcov pv- 
<ret reKva ; i wilt thou then, hearing these reproaches, not save thy children ?' 
Plat. Pheedr. p. 258. b, Ovkovv, iav pev ovtos eppevy, yeyqdoi? aTrep^erai e/c 
tov Se&rpov ; ■ does he not therefore, if this (his work) abides, depart from 
the theatre rejoicing?' 2) This interrogative form, through the habit of 
hearing it from those whose opinion affirmed that which was therein denied, 
became itself an affirmative form without interrogation : Soph. Ant. 91 Ov- 
kovv, otclv 8rj prj adevco, 7re7ra.vo-op.a1, ' therefore I will cease, when I have no 
longer strength.' Plat. Phsedr. p. 274. b, Ovkovv to pev Te^yqs re Ka\ arexvlas 
\6yodv Trepi wavco? e^eVto, ' let this therefore be enough said on art and want 
of art.' 3) Wholly different from these is ovkovv, when, without imply- 
ing an inference, it expresses simply an emphatic negation ; Soph. Aj. 1336 
'AAA* avrov epnas ovt' iyu> rotovde poi Ovkovv dripdaaipb' av, 'but although he 
was wholly such towards me, yet I would by no means dishonour him.' 
Soph. Philoct. 872 Ovkovv 'ArpeZdat tovt* *4t~kr,crav evcpopoos Ovtcd? iveyKeiv, a>ya- 
6o\ o-TpaTrjkaTai, ''not lightly did the Atridse bring themselves to bear this.' 
— This sameness of the accent in the forms under 1 and 2 (ovkovv), in distinc- 
tion from that in 3 (ovkovv), is given in general by tradition in the editions. 
With this coincides also the testimony of the ancient Grammarians ; see in 
Hermann ad Vig. not. 261 ; to which may be added Apollon. de Conjunc- 
tione p. 496. 9. Phrynich. Bekk. p. 57 ; all of whom assume this difference 
only as between the illative and the negative words.* From the form in 3 
it is not usual to distinguish the direct illative negation, consequently not, 
with the accentuation ovkovv. Since however it is customary to distin- 
guish such compound particles as retain their original signification un- 
changed, by writing them separately, it seems to me that this is also the 
most natural here, and also no violation of the tradition; e. g. Plat. Pheedr. 
p. 275. a, where Thamus, after saying to Theuth that men would become 
forgetful through this security, continues : Ovkovv (better Ovk ovv) pvrjpr]?, 
aAA' v7Topvrjaeo)S cpdppaKov evpev, i therefore not for the memory, but for the 
recollection, hast thou found a 'medicine.' Eurip. Or. 1640: Men. f/ Oo-rty 
5e npa prjrep' — . Or. Evdalpcov ecpv. Men. Ovkovv (better Ovk ovv) avye, 
' consequently thou not.' 

eir a and eVetra both mean : 1) after, afterwards j 2) then, see Herm. 1£ 
ad Vig. n. 239. — Both often assume a tone of censure and reproach : 1) The 
ground of the indignation or surprise being first stated, e. g. Ar. Ach. 311 
ravra drj roKpas \eyecv — , elr* eyo) aov (peiaropai ; ' thou art so bold as to say 
this, and then (after all this, notwithstanding) shall I still spare thee ?' 

* In some recent editions, Hermann and others have first begun to distinguish 
die illative interrogation by the accentuation ovkovv; which I cannot approve. 
The forms under 1 and 2 have essentially one and the same affirmative significa- 
tion. The tone of interrogation itself is an ethical accent, to distinguish which 
by a grammatical accent, is what can be prescribed to no language. Both species 
of tradition are here against it ; for the Grammarians, in all the passages above re- 
ferred to, do not mention the interrogative meaning in this connection. 



436 SYNTAX. $ 149 

2 y When it stands at the beginning of a sentence, with reference to the dis- 
course of another ; where we also can say : l thou wilt then consequently — ,' 
or more "briefly, therefore, itane ; e. g. iEl. V. H. 1. 34 elra roA/x^crety rbv view 
airodvr)(TKovTa. dcropav ; ' wilt thou therefore (or then) bring thyself to see thy 
son die? 5 Xen. Mem. 1. 4. 11 eireir* ovk. o'Ul cppovrifciv (sc. tovs Seovs tcop 
av6pom<£>v) ) ot 7rpcorov p.ev av6p<s>irov up86v dvecrrrjo-av ktX. In all these rela- 
tions both particles are also construed with participles, as we have seen in 
§ 144. n. 13. The instances, however, where efra and eneira are supposed 
to be dependent on the following participle (Herm. ad Vig. not. 219), all 
admit of being referred also to the preceding one ; which is to be preferred 
as being the more natural construction. 
£0 av 1) again, another time; 2) on the other hand, vice versa; 3) fur- 
ther, and then also. 

irpiv before, sooner, is in its signification a comparative, and takes there-- 
fore the particle fj, than; though less often among the Attics. For its con- 
struction, see § 139. m. 41. 

vvv Br) just now, this moment; and especially with the preterites, just 
now, a moment since, before. 

21 7T o> and 73-0077 ore. In these particles, the idea till now, hitherto, lies at 
the foundation; their usage is limited to the following cases: 1) Most 
commonly they are appended in this sense to negative particles, and then 
express the English yet, still, Lat. dum, as ouVco, fxtjirco, not yet, nondum ; 
where however they must not be confounded with the similar epic forms, 
for which see § 116. n. 6. The form Trtonore however is seldom appended 
to the simple ov or fxrj ; but we find ovSe7ro)7rore, p7§e7ra>7roTe-, never yet ; and 
indeed, in reference to the past, this form is almost 'solely in use, so that 
the form without irco (i.e. ovdeTrore never) is mostly used only in general, 
or in relation to the future. See Wolf ad Dem. Lept. 76. Lobeck ad Phryn. 
p. 458. Moreover both rroo and ncoirore can be separated from the negative 
particle, by the intervention of other words. 2) Except with a negative 
these particles stand only occasionally, and indeed emphatically, with in- 
terrogatives, with relatives, and with participles used instead of the con 
struction with the relative; e. g. Thuc. 3. 45 rls ttw iireyeifniafev ', Dem. Phil. 
1. extr. 6o~a 7twttot6 fonto-ap-ip riva Tvpa^eiv virep f]p.wv, 'what we always 
hoped.' Plat. Phscd. p. 116. c, apiaro? tg>v 7ra)7rore devpo acpacofievav. Very 
often also in conditional clauses. 

22 en alone means yet, still, yet further ; and with a negative ovKen, (xrjKe- 
ri, no more, no further. 

23 p. a and vq are particles of swearing, which are always followed by the 
object by which one swears, in the Accusative : e. g. vrj Aw by Jove ! — Th • 
oath with vrj is always affirmative ; that with p.6, on the contrary, is sub 
joined both to affirmations and negations;' e. g. vol p,a Aia and ov p.a Ala 
but when it stands alone, it serves merely as a negative ; p,a Aia, no, cer- 
tainly not; nothing less. 

24 2. .These and some other particles have in Greek various other 
uses, which require a more extensive investigation than can be 
given here. This is especially true of several particles, which 
have formerly been called expletives, Parttculce expletivce. In 
all languages there are particles, which are often employed only 
for the sake of completeness, or in order to produce a well-sound- 
ing fullness, yet never without their own peculiar sense ; al- 
though they could also be omitted, since that which they ex- 
press is often understood of itself. In estimating these parti- 
cles in Greek, peculiar caution is necessary. Their full and 



k 149. VARIOUS PARTICLES. 437 

original meaning has in most cases become partially lost ; and 
they now give to the discourse only a slight colouring, which we 
cannot properly feel except after long acquaintance and practice. 
For this purpose, however, a knowledge of the fundamental sig- 
nifications of these particles is necessary ; for which the follow- 
ing may in part serve. 

ye enclitic, strictly at least, for which however yovv is more usual; while 2.*> 
ye is almost always employed, wherever a single object, or a part, is named 
with reference to the whole or to a greater number. Hence it is so oftei 
appended to the pers. pron. as eya> (eyoaye) etc. by which means one always 
places himself as it were over against all other men; strictly, I at least, I foi 
my part. Not unfrequently it can also be translated by certainly, truly, certe. 

apa, epic ap and pd, of which the last is enclitic; it always stands after 26 
other w-ords,* and means: 1) Most commonly, therefore. 2) Where it 
seems to be without any power, there lies at the basis the idea : conformably 
to nature or custom, properly, ex ordine, rite ; hence it serves as a transition 
to a clause which may be anticipated. 3) After el, edv, and the like, it 
means perhaps. — Different is the interrogative apa, see m. 18.f 

rot enclitic, is strictly an ancient Dative for r<5, and means in conse- 27 
quence of therefore certainly ; which significations however are in roi itself 
extinct, and therefore miydp, rotydproi, roiyapovv, are found as strengthened 
forms of them; while roivvv is used when one proceeds with an inference 
etc. as it were, ' now I further say,' but now. — The particle rot by itself, 
retains only a sort of confirmatory sense, something like our words indeed, 
forsooth, just, also, yet, etc. 

Other compounds with rot are: Kairoi, which signifies: 1) and truly, 
and yet; 2) although. — Mevroi, from pr\v, epic p.ev, and rot, comp. m. 16; it 
signifies: 1) indeed, truly, certainly ; 2) but indeed, nevertheless, a more em- 
phatic form for 6V, especially after a preceding p.ev. — "Hroi comes either 
from t) roi, and then is often used by Homer as a particle of introduction or 
transition; e. g. II. a. 68 rjrot oy a>r eliroov Kar ap e£ero • or else from rj roi, 
and then it is a strengthened rj, used also in prose. — Also r apa, rj rap a, 
t ap, (see § 29. n. 8.) are forms of apa strengthened by rot, used by the poets. 

8fj strictly now, at present, for which rjdrj is more usual. It serves in 23 
various ways to increase the vivacity of discourse ; e. g. aye dr) come on now ; 
ri 8f] ; what then ? — It means also certainly, in truth. 

After relatives, e. g. 6Vrtr 8f], ottov S77, it serves to render them still more 
general, whoever now it may be, wherever now it may be, etc. or also some 
one or other, somewhere or other, etc. — When the strengthening 7rore is sub- 
joined, the whole is commonly written as one word : 6ariadr]7rore, see § 80. 
n. 1. § 116. 9. 

8r)ra, certainly, serves for emphasis both in declarations and in questions; 
ov drjra certainly not. 

8 a 1, only in colloquial language, especially in interrogative clauses ex- 
pressing wonder ; commonly after ri and in unfinished clauses : ri dai ; 

p.r\v, Doric p.dv, epic p.ev and p.dv, a particle strengthening affirmation: 29 
1) in truth, assuredly; 2) but certainly, nevertheless; e. g. Plat. Soph. 1 /cat 
p.01 doKel Seos p.eu dvrjp ouSa/xaJj eivai, Qelos p.r\v. 

* When sometimes &pa or ap' ovv stands at the beginning of a clause, it is in 
prose always to be changed to Spa, which in such cases is an interrogative supply- 
ing the place of a direct assertion. See Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 15:' ed. 2. 

t The Attic poets can nevertheless change the quantity, and use Spa for there- 
fore and &pa as an interrogative; but their position in a sentence remains the 
same. See Herm. ad Soph. OC. p. xvi, sq. 



438 SYNTAX. § 150. 

So in questions which in dialogue follow a negative of another speaker, 
e. g. Tj-dre fxrjv ; when then ? r/s ur)v; who then ? i. e. when or who else then ? 
Hence ri ur)v ; equivalent to why not ? 

ye jjL-qv, epic ye uev, yet certainly, but truly ; hence likewise a stronger 
§e : see Exc. I, ad Arat. — Also kci\ ur)v, and truly, yea; in contradictions, 
atqui, and yet, nevertheless. In the tragic poets a person is often first in- 
troduced by the chorus thus : kcu ur)v 6p5> TLvpibiK-qv, yea truly I behold 
Eurydice! Soph. Ant. 1180. 

rj p.r)v, Ionic and epic rj pev, is the usual formula of oaths and affirmations, 
sometimes with the Indicative, rj urjv eycb eiraOov tovto, l I swear, that I have 
suffered this ;' and sometimes with the Infinitive, dependent from other 
verbs, as opwui rj ur)v 8axreiz>, ' I swear to give.' Also in the third person: 
vnebe^aro rj ur)v ur) drropeiv avrovs 1 rpocpr)?, l he undertook, solemnly promised, 
that they should not want for food.' 

ov urjv, 1) yet not, assuredly not; 2) As a negative assertion correspond- 
ing to the affirmative rj urjv. In dependent clauses, ur) urjv. 
SO 9-r)v enclitic, (peculiar to the Ionic and Doric poets,) also a particle 
strengthening affirmation ; which however gives to the discourse much the 
same tone, as when we say, I thought though; hence especially in a con- 
temptuous and sarcastic sense : rj Srjv, ov $r)v, but yet though, but not though. 

vv, vvv, short and enclitic; only in the Ionic dialect and in the poets: 
1) Strictly the same with vvv, for which it also sometimes stands; 2) For 
ovv, therefore, now; 3) Like our expletive now, then, e. g. Svyro? de vv Kai 
aii rervgai 'and thou too now art born mortal,' II. tt. 622. 

77 e p enclitic (probably derived from irepl in the sense of very, § 147. n. 5). 
wholly, entirely. — Hence axnrep lit. entirely as; Ka'nrep although, with 
participles, § 144. n. 15. 
31 7rdre enclitic, once, ever, some time or other. In interrogatives it expresses 
surprise, e. g. ris rrore ecrriv ovto?; who now can this be ? 

ttgv enclitic : 1) somewhere; 2) perhaps ; 3) In conversation, when one 
fciays anything half interrogatively, in order to found something upon the 
answer, yet, but yet, yet perhaps. See Ind. ad Plat. Meno. in voce. — The 
same with greater emphasis is brjirov; and when to this is joined a tone 
of half contemptuous defiance, so that the opposite assertion is represented 
as inconceivable, this particle becomes brJTrov6ev, less strong br)6ev. 
Dem. Mid. 26 eardvai yap egeo~Tcu or)ivov6ev avrco ' for there, I think, he is 
likely to be allowed to stand.' 

§ 150. Particular Words and Phrases. 

oii x ° rl an d ov X o7rois. These two forms of expression are often re 
garded as synonymous, though they are in reality opposed to each other. 
Before each of them some verb like Xeyco is to be supplied. When the form 
ovx otl then follows, the clause is affirmative; e.g. Xen. Mem. 2. 9. 8 
kcu ovx ° Tl P-dvos o Kpircay ev rjavxla yv, aXka kcu ol <fii\oi avrov, where udvos 
belongs only to Kpircov. Dion Cass. 42. p. 285 Aavei£duevos ovx ° rl ^apa. 
tS>v IdicoTcov, aXXa. kcu napa tcov ndXeoov, ' not only from private persons, but 
also from cities.' When this phrase is to introduce a negation, this must 
be already implied in the clause itself; and then it can be rendered still 
stronger by dXX' oi8e. Demosth. c. Tim. p. 702. 2 ovx ° Tl ™ v ovrav dnecrTe- 
prjurjv av, dAV ovd' civ egrpt. Thuc. 2. 97 ravrrj de (Scytharum potentiae) 
dbvvara e^LcrovcrQai ovx ° rt T " * v T V El/peon^, dXX' owS' ev rfj 'Acrta edvos ev 
irpas ev ovk ecrriv ktK. — More commonly, when the negative is to be express- 
ed, ovx onois is used, where consequently oira>? as, becomes equivalent to 
that not. E. g. Demosth. c. Pol. 1225. 12 rj be yrj ovx ottcos nvd Kapnov 
rjveyKev, dXka. kci\ rb vbcop ... ex tcov eppedroov errekmev, l not only the earth 



§ 150, PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. 439 

bore no fruit.' Xen. Hell. 5. 4. 34 ecn8a<xKoi> tov t)r)p,ov, cos ol Aa/ceSat/xdviot ovx 
o7Tco? TifxaprjcraivTo, dWd kcu enaiveaaiev tov "2(po8piav, 'that the Lacedaemo- 
nians not only would not punish,' etc. ib. 2. 4. 14 ovx oncos dducovvres dXX' 
ovd' €Tridr]fj.ovvT€s e(pvyadevop.eda, l having not only not done them any wrong, 
but not having even entered the land, we were banished.' Comp. Thuc. 
1. 35. 

Less frequent, in the same sense, were ovx oaov and o^ olov. The 2 
former stands for ovx ° Tl > or a ^ l eas ^ Thucydides uses it with a second ov 
subjoined for the negation : 4. 62 ol p,ev ovx 00 ~ ov 0VK r)p.vvavTo, aXX' ot>§' icrco- 
&rjo~av. — Ovx 0L0V stands for ovx oVrcoy. Polyb. ovx OLOV ^> < p e ^ €lv dvvatr* dv rovs 
(p'CKovs, aXX' ouS' avTohs crco^eiv. 

Preceded by yu.77, both on and O7rcoy must have v7ro\dfir) ns or the like sup- 3 
plied ; or they are to be taken like the Lat. ne dicam. In this way they 
are stronger than with ovx, an( ^ ^oth have a negative sense. Xen. Cyr. 1. 
3. 10 /i.77 oTTois opx^to-dai iv pu#p<5 dXX' ovd* opdovadai ibvvao~6e. ib. 3. 2. 21 
ovk av r)p,e7s dcnpaXaJy ipya£olp.eda, yu.77 on tt)v tovt&v, aXX' ou§' civ tt)v r)p,erepav 
SC. x^°P av ' Mem. 1. 6. 11 /cairot roye ipdriov rj tt)v oliclav ovdevl dv p.r) on 
TrpolKa dolrjs, aXX' ovb* av eXarrov ttjs d£ias Xa/3a>i>. All these constructions 
are easy to fill out and explain. 

When pit] ore follows, the mode of expression becomes still more em- 
phatic, and is then to be given by the Latin nedum, much less, not to say: 
Plat. Crat. p. 427 SokcI o~ol padiov elvai ovtoo ra^u padelv onovv npaypca, p,r) 
on roaovTOV o 8r) 8oku iv Tols peylarois peyiarov elvai ; Phsedr. p. 240. d, a 
kcu Xdyco icrnv duoveiv ovk iiTLTepnis, p.r) otl 8t) epya>. Xen. Hell. 2. 3. 35 ov8e 
TrXeti/, p,Tj otl dvaipeicrdai tovs av8pas Svvarov rjv. In the same sense Lucian 
uses ovx oncos, e.g. D. Mort. 27. 5 old' iardvai x^cd oi>x oWcd? (Sadi^cLv 
idvvaro. 

Sometimes a seeming objection is introduced by ovx ° r£ > which is then im- 4 
mediately (commonly by means of dXkd) refuted ; fully : i not that it troub- 
les me — , but — .' If no refutation follows, ovx OTt can ^e rendered by al- 
though, etc. See Heind. ad Plat. Lys. 37. Protag. 66. 

otl p,r) after negatives, except. 

to he — , an elliptical phrase which it is hard to fill out, and which 6 
serves to introduce a clause contrary to what has been before said, some- 
thing like our since nevertheless, but since ; e. g. Plat. Theset. p. 157 ovx 0Tl 
rjvayKaapLeda xpyadai avT<o • to §' ov Set 01/Ve tl avyx^pelv ktX. See Heind. 
ad loc. et ad Meno. 38. 

t\ often pusses over into a modifying, or also into a generalizing parti- 6 
cle : in some measure, or also in something or other. Hence ovtl, p-tjti- 
not at all; which compounds however can be again separated, e. g. xepaW, 
ot'r' dp qbpevas, ovre tl epya II. a. 115. — For the Tmesis with this rt [vtto ti) 
see § 147. n. 7. 

\ir\Ti ye, not to say then, much less then, nedum; probably derived from 
p.rj on, which see above in m. 3. 

tl, what? also how? why? wherefore? Lat. quid? serves for many short 
elliptical turns in colloquial discourse; e.g. tl ydp; quid ergo? or quid 
enim? what thenf for why? in bringing forward arguments. Also tl 8i, 
but how? what jmther? as a transition to something new. Further: tl 
ovv drj; how so then? tl p,r) ; why not? quidni? — For tl /xrjv; see § 149. 
m. 29. 

oi nepi y e.g. Thuc. 4. 63 rjv aXXoir v7raKovaoop.ev, ov nepl tov rijucop^cra- 7 
crOaL TLva, dXkd /ecu (pikoi roir ixOtorois av yiyvoipifOa, ' not to speak of venge- 
ance (as this is not to be thought of), but we should, even become.' etc. 

oo-ov ov, or oaovov, tantumnon, only not, i.e. almost, e.g. tov peXXoira 8 
kcu ocrovov TtapovTa rroXepov ' the impending and only not yet present war.' 
To fill out this mode of expression, we must conceive it thus : ' only so much 



440 SYNTAX. § 150 

is wanting, as is necessary to make it not a present war.' Eur. Hec. 143 
rj^ei §' 'OSuo-ei/y ocrov ovk fjbri. 

ocros, rj, ov, stands in SavpacrTov ocrov and similar phrases, as in Lat. mi- 
rum quantum, ' so much that it is wonderful, 7 i. e. uncommonly much. In a 
similar manner it stands before or after superlatives of quantity ; e. g. 7rXeZ- 
o-ra ocra, or ocra 7rXeia-ru, quam plurimum, very many. For the explanation 
of this construction, see $ 151. I. 5. 

toctovtco . . . 6 a co, with comparatives and superlatives, signify: by so 
■much . . . by how much, i.e. the more . . . so much the more. Yet ocrco or ocrco 
Kai often stands alone in the second member: Time. 2. 47 avrol paXtara 
eOvrjCTKov, oaco Kal jiaXiarra npocrrjecrav, and so much the more as, inasmuch as. 

With the neuters ocrov and ocra also many elliptical turns are made; 
e. g. ocrov Ka6" r)pa.s so far as in our power ; ocrov r' opyvlav, ocrov eiKocri, about. 
II. i. 345 ovk e'#eXecFKe pd^crBai, dXX' ocrov is S/catdr re irvXas Kal c^-qybv 1<a- 
vev, i. e. only. Time. 1.111 rrj? pev yrj? eupdrovv, ocra pr) Ttpo'iovTes ttoXv ex 
tcov 07T/W, i. e. ' so much of it as they could, without,' etc. comp. § 143. n. 3. 

6'cr at r) pep at, contr. Sarjpepai, every day, daily; e. g. Plat. Charm, p. 
176. So too oo-or with other specifications of time. 

9 e'<p' cp, for eVi tovtco o or cos, on condition that; e. g. Xe'£co croi ecp 1 co 
criyrjcrei, 'I will tell thee on condition thou wilt be silent.' — Further, ecp' 
are has the same meaning, for eVl tovtco cocrre, but commonly takes the 
Infinitive; e. g. rjpedrjcrav ecp y core crvyypd\j/aL vopovs, 'they were chosen on 
condition or with the commission to make laws.' 

10 ecrre, (not es re, for it stands for es ore: Dor. eVre,) till, so long as; see 
§ 139. C. 

olds re, oJocrre, signifies, when spoken of persons, able; of things, possi- 
ble; e. g. olds re' eWt iravr arrohel^ai ' he is able to accomplish all ;' dXX' ov% 
oldvre tovto 'but this is not possible? 

11 ovoev olov, lit. nothing such, nothing like, Fr. il n'y a rien de tel; e. g. 
Dem. Mid. p. 529 dvdyvcodt tov vojaov • ovbev yap olov d-Koveiv avrov tov vdpov 
'for there is nothing like hearing the law itself.' Plat. Gorg. p. 481 ovhev 
olov to avrbv ipcorav. Arist. Lys. 135 ovdev yap olov, absol. 

12 ciWos often stands with its substantive in antithesis to other objects of 
a different kind, where in English we omit the adj. other ; e. g. Plat. Gorg. 

1. 473 €v8aLp.OVL(^€Tal VTTO TCOV TToXlTCOV KCLl TCOV aXX CO V ^eVCOV. The US6 Of 

SKkos iikXo, ciXKodev it\\os etc. corresponds to the Lat. alius aliud ; Engl. 
one this, the other that. For the construction with the Plur. see § 129. n. 12. 

ciXXo, else, is used with a negative or interrogatively in order to strength- 
en assertions ; where commonly there is the omission of some verbal idea. 
E. g. Xen. Cyr. 1. 4. 24 eKelvos oxihev aXXo rj tovs nerrTcoKOTas TrepieXavvcov 
ededro, i. e. 'he did nothing else? Mem. 2. 3. 17 t'l yap aXXo rj tavdwevcreis 
eVifiei^cu, crv pev ^p/yen-or . . . eivai ktX. In such connections, if aXXo takes 
the apostrophe, it commonly also loses its accent; e. g. Plat. Apol. p. 20. 

d, St' ovdev dXX' rj Sid aocpiav Tivd tovto to dvopa eV^ra. Phsedr. p. 231. b, 
<w<rre ovbev {»7roXei7rercu dXX' r) rcoielv rrpodvueos o,ti av uvtoIs 8okt). Meno. p. 
76 otl ovoev dXX' rj eVirdrretr, 'because thou dost nothing else but command.' 
iEschill. C. Tim. p. 55 ScopoSoKei, coo-re prjSev dXX' rj tc\s aicr^ui/ar avrco nepi 
elvai. Yet very often we find aXX' accented ; see the next marg. note. 

13 dXX' rj takes also in many connections the signif. nisi, unless, except, 

e. g. Aristoph. Ran. 1105 (1073) ovk rjir'io-TavT* dXX' rj pd£av KaXeaai Kal pvn- 
TaTTai elnelv. In most cases however there occurs before this dXX' rj an el- 
lipsis of the thought, which cannot well be supplied by words ; e. g. Isscus 
de Arist. Hered. p. 261 6 vdpos ovk ea tcov Tr)s imKkrjpov Kvptov elvai, dXX' z) 
tovs nalBas . . . Kparelv tcov xp7?/zdrtoi/. Plat. Phsedr. p. 258. e, tlvos jj.cv ovv 



$ 150. PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. 441 

eve/ca kciv rtr, cu? elnelv, £<»?7, aXX' r) reop tolovtow rjdovcov eW/ca. See also 
Aristoph. Acharn. 1112* 

raXXa for ra SXXa, in other respects, otherwise; e.g. ecrnv arrais, raXXa 14 
eidcupovel, ' he is childless ; in other respects, happy.' — Hence rd re ciXXa, 
followed by Kal in the next clause, as in other respects . . . so also especially; 
e. g. rd re aXXa evbaipovel, kcu 7rcuda? e'^et kcltijicoov? avra>. — Hence too comes 
the elliptical mode of expression rd re aXXa Kal, lit. among other things ; but 
inasmuch as we render thus prominent only that which is distinguished, it 
is always to be translated. particularly, especially. 

aXXcor re Kal signifies in like manner especially, and has arisen in the 
same manner as the preceding. 

dpcporepov is used by the poets adverbially (or elliptically) where we 15 
say both; e. g. x < x >0 ~ aT0 6° alv&s 'Kpcporepov vlkyjs re Kal ey^eoy, 6 £vvea£ev. — 
With this coincides the usage in prose, where the Accus. dp(j)6repa com- 
prehends two preceding adjuncts which stand in a different case; e. g. dia- 
cpepovres r) crocpia rj KaXKei rj dpcporepa (Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 2); and so 
likewise in the corresponding usage with Sdrepa; e. g. Plat. Leg. 6. p. 765. 
e, eario naidoov yvrjaiav irarr)p pdXiara pev iueW Kal Svyarepcov, el Se pr), $d- 
repa. 

Kal ravra, and that too, and that indeed ; e. g. Luc. D. Deor. 8. med. rrj- 16 
XtKavrrjv ivapOevov ev KecpaXrj edpeyjsas; Kal ravra evoirXov, ' so stately a maiden 
(Pallas) hast thou nourished in thy head, and that too armed !' — It is also 
inflected: ko.1 ovroi, Kal rovrav, etc. An. 2. 5. 21. Hdot. 6. 11. 

avrb deigei v. o-rjp,ave7, the thing itself will shew, etc. 17 

avras and aurcoy, see Lexil. I. 37. 

7rpo rod or Tvporov, before now, sooner, already, i.e. npb rovrov v. eVcei- 
vov rod xpdvov) see on Plat. Alcib. I. 14, 

tov Xolttov sc. xpdvov, in future, for the future, comp. § 132. 14.— Also 
r6 Xonrov, or simply Xoi7roV, from new on, henceforth. 

noXXov del Impers. it wants much, it is far from. So also personally, 18 
7roXXov dea>, I am far from, e. g. Xe'yeu/ rovro, comp. § 151. 1. 7. For 77-0XX0G 
8elv see § 140. n. 4. 

In the same manner, for the contrary, stands p,iKpov oroXiyov Set, 
6Vco, detv, for non multum abest quin, i. e. almost, nearly ; oXlyov 6Vco eiVeu/ ' I 
could almost say.' — Often also dXlyov or piKpov stands alone in this sense. 

pdXXov 8e, when standing alone, is to be translated or rather. 19 

pdXiara p.ev, (with reference to a following el 8e pfj,) before all things, 
best of all, if possible, strictly indeed; e.g. Karayiyvcoo-Kere avrov paXiara pev 
Sdvarov, el 8e pr), detcpvylav, ' condemn him, best of all, to death : but if not, 
to perpetual banishment.' 

With this coincides the use of pdXiara when connected with interrog- 
atives, where it demands a specific answer : iroaoi pdXiara ; ' how many 
then strictly ?' With actual numbers, however, it expresses their amount 
(e. g. ev reaarapaKovra pdXiara rjpepcu?) with the conviction indeed that they 
are correct, probably, surely, certainly; but yet so as to imply that it is not 
entirely decided; hence therefore 77-77, ttov, etc. are frequently subjoined. 
See Ind. ad Plat. Meno. in v. Wessel. ad Herod. 8. 65. 

7r<o/xaXa primarily but how then? also by no means. It comes from n&s 

* The examples here collected, shew manifestly, that all these forms of expression 
belong together. The accent should consequently, according to general custom, 
remain on aAA' unchanged. But the form aAA 5 ?? for nisi is quite abrupt; especially 
as in some passages the word &\\os occurs just before it ; so that consequently the 
ellipsis before aAA' tf is not clear; e. g. PJat. Apol. p. 34, Tlva &\\ov \6yov exovffi 
fio-qdovvTes ipoi, aAA.' ^ 6p66v re kol ZUaiov. For this reason the ancient Gramma- 
rians also seem to have derived aAA' f? from a\Aa. 



442 SYNTAX. § 150. 

pdXa, and not, as the grammarians assume, from the unusual' Dorisra nco 
for ir68ev. 

20 ciXtjOcs, with the accent drawn back, an ironical interrogative reply: 
itane? really? is it then so? See Brunck ad Aristoph. Ran. 840. 

a>cpe\ov (non-Attic ocpeXov) is inflected; strictly, I ought ; and hence it 
takes the sense of wishing, partly alone, e. g. prj-rror'' acfieXov -noielv had I 
never done this ! and partly with coy or with e'lde or el yap, that, utinam; 
e. g. co? a>cpe\es napelvai hadst thou been present ! el yap a>cpe\ov Savelv 
that I had died! In later writers only it became an indeclinable interjec- 
tion. See also § 139. m. 8, 13. 

d/xe'Xet, be unconcerned; hence: 1) As an assurance, without doubt, 
positively, certainly ; 2) In confirmation of a general proposition by a par- 
ticular one, and really. 

21 ear i stands before relatives of all kinds in the following manner : eariv 
ore est cum-, i. e. sometimes.; eariv os est qui, i. e. some one. So even be- 
fore the Plural, e. g. ko\ eariv ot avreov erirpaaKovro 'and some of them 
were wounded:' ecrriv ols oi>x ovrois edo£ev 'to some it did not appear so.' 
(Still one can also say elalv ot.) Xen. An. 1. 5. 7 rjv he rovroav rcbv araOpav 
ovs 7Taw paKpovs fjXawev, ' some of these day's-joumeys he made very long.' 
— This expression came afterwards to be regarded as one word, and was even 
interwoven in the midst of a clause; e. g. el yap 6 rponos eariv ols dvaa- 
pearet 'for if the manner displeases some ;' KktTrreiv 8e ecpr/Kev eariv a 'but 
he permitted to steal certain things, 1 Xen. Laced. 2. 7; ovairep eldov ecrriv 
o7rov 'Avhich I have seen somewhere or other.' — So also interrogatively, 
ecrriv ovarivas avOpcoirovs re6avp.aK.as eVi aocpiq. ; 'hast thou perhaps ad- 
mired certain men for their wisdom?' Mem. 1. 4. 2. 

22 ovk ecrriv o7rcof, it is impossible, inconceivable; Dem. 01. p. 13 y\ cpiko- 
rrpaypoavvq, yep* r}S ovk ecrriv ottoss f]avx<-av axwei ' the love of strife, on ac- 
count of which it is not possible for him to remain quiet.' 

23 eariv, e^eariv, evean, Trdpeo-ri Trpdrreiv, (absolutely or with a Dat. 
of person,) all signify, one can. But evean refers to the physical possibil- 
ity, it is possible ; e^eariv to the moral, it is lawful, permitted, one may ; ean 
stands indefinite between the two, it may be done ; and likewise ndpean, 
except that this includes the idea of facility, it lies with him, i. e. ' he can 
at once, without hindrance.' When e£eanv and evean are interchanged, 
this takes place simply on rhetorical grounds ; as we also say for the sake 
of strength : ' it is not possible for me' instead of ' I may not;' and ' I am 
permitted' instead of ' it is possible for me.' 

coy evi. In this phrase evi stands (by § 117. 3. 2) for evean it is possible; 
hence before superlatives, cos evi pakiara, the most possible, in the highest 
degree. 

24 ev rols. When this phrase stands before a superlative, it signifies om- 
nium, of all, among all; e. g. Thuc. 1. 6 ev rols npcoroi 'Adrjvaloi rbv aibrjpov 
Kark&evro, 'first among all, the Athenians laid down their weapons ;' rovro 
eya) ev rols (3apvrara civ eveyKaipi ' this I of all should bear the heaviest.' — If 
one would resolve this construction, some participle must always be sup 
plied after ev rols, such as the context suggests ; thus in the first example 
above, ev rols irapovaiv, in the second ev rols $apea>s cpepovaiv avro. We 
must therefore be upon our guard, in cases where the superlative is an ad- 
verb, as here in the second example, not to construe thus: eycb rovro av 
iveymipi ev rols fiapvrara cpepovaiv avro, which would give a feebler sense 
(' I should be one of them who bear it most hardly'), and is incorrect, as 
those instances shew, where this cannot be applied ; as in ev rols irpcbroi. 
— This ev rols stands even before the Feminine, e. g. Thuc. 3. 17 ev rols 
rfkelarai v^es a/x' avrols eyevovro. 3. 81 rj ardais ev rols Trpdtrr] eyevero. \i 



< 150, PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. 443 

is often put before the adv. fidXio-ra for strength; e. g. Plat. Symp. p. 173 
epao-Tris rjv ev rots p-dXiara ra>v Tore. Comp. Plat. Crit. p. 52. a. 

ol dfiqbi or ol nepl with an Accusative. Here e. g. ol dp,cpl "Avvtov usu- 25 
ally means not merely 'those who are with or about him,' but: 'Anytus 
with those about him, his companions,' etc. So ol dficpl QaXrjv, ' Thales 
and other wise men of his sect,' Plat. Hipp. Maj. 2. The Attics especially 
avail themselves of this indefinite expression, even where they wish to 
speak chiefly only of the owe person, leaving it from some cause or other 
doubtful, whether it really concerns only this one or not. Thus ol dficjA 
Evdvcppova (Plat. Cratyl. p. 400) means indeed Euthyphron, but still with 
the implication that there may perhaps also be others belonging to his party 
and opinion; ol dficpl QefiurroKKea (Plat. Meno. extr.) 'the Themistocles' as 
Plural; further ol nepl KeKporra (Mem. 3. 5. 10) only Cecrops, where how- 
ever the obscurity of the ancient fable seems to be alluded to. — Plutarch 
says even : ol nepl AevrXov virarevovTes fjdrj, i.e.' Lentulus being now consul,' 
Pomp. 59. 

el fir] did with the Accusative, lit. if not on account of, i. e. were it not 2b 
for ; hence e. g. <al dneOavev dv el firj 8ia rbv Kvva ' he would, have died, had 
it not been for his dog.' See also the example in § 139. n. 4. 

fieragv between, in the midst of This particle as adverb usually stands 27 
before a participle in this manner: fieragv irepnraTfovy as he was walking : 
peraf-v bentvovvra ecf>6vevaev avrov, he murdered him while he was at supper ; 
i. e. inter ambulandum, inter ccenandum. — As preposition it is put also be- 
fore the Genit. absol. § 145. n. 5. 

dp, a, and in the apodosis nal; so soon as, when . . . then; e. g. dp.a dn-qKoa- 
fiiv tl ko.1 rptrfpdpxovs Kadiarafiev, ' so soon as we have heard anything (of 
the enemy), we will then appoint captains of the ships.' Also construed 
like fiera^v, e.g. dfia ravr* eliroav dvearr], 'as he said this he stood up.' — 
The construction with the participle in the Dative, see in § 145. n. 5. 

7roWaKi? has in suppositions and questions the meaning perhaps, per- 28 
chance, forte; e. g. Plat. Lach. p. 194 gt]Tovp.ev, el dpa 7roAXa/ar avrrf f) Kapre- 
prjcris io-Tiv dvbpla. Heind. ad Phsedo. 11. Index ad Meno. in voc. 

6 del. When this phrase stands before participles, del means : every time, 29 
in every case, always; e. g. 6 del rfbiKqpevos, 'he who always (i. e. as often 
as the supposition has place) suffers injustice;' 6 del apx<w l the archonfor 
the time being.' So too with substantives and adjectives. 

eppovdo? is only construed as a verb, with the omission of elvai: he is 30 
gone, has disappeared ; e. g. eppovdo? yap 6 dvr\p for the man is off ; eppovda 
tvdvra all is over ! Comp. § 129. n. 10. 

dp£dp.evos, e. g. dirb crov dp^dfievos lit. beginning from [with) thee; 31 
hence, and thou first of all, thou before all. In this mode of expression the 
participle is always connected with the principal object spoken of; e. g. 
Plat. Gorg. p. 471 ecrriv octtis ' ABrfvaLcov, dno crov dp$-dp.evos, pdXXov be^air* 
dv dovXos yeveo-Bai fj becnroTrjs ; ' is there a single one of the Athenians, and 
thou most of all, who would rather be slave than master?' Rep. p. 366 
irdvres ovroi goto tcov rjp<x>a>v dp^dpevoi oiidels Trcoirore e^efjev dbiKiav. See Ind. 
ad Meno. in v. Heind. ad Plat. Alcib. I. p. 104. 

reXevrav, the converse of the preceding, can usually be rendered by 32 
the Engl, adverb at last; Cyr. 1. 6. 19 of a hunter: rjv be woWaKi? y^evbrf- 
rai tci? Kvvas, reXevrcocrai old' oirorav Kakfi TreLOovrai. 

dyav, cpepav, e^^v, Aa/3(»v, are all used by poets and prose writers 33 
as a sort of periphrase for an adverbial idea : in company with, or simply 
with. The choice of the particular participle depends on the context : Cyr. 
1. 4. 17 iroXkovs avrbs eywz/ rjKev 'nnrea? ko.1 7re£ovs. An. 4. 4. 16 6 be avbpa 
a-vXKafi&v r}Ker d\<av, e%ovra rd^ov HepcriKov ical crdyapiv. II. y. 424 rfj 6° apa 



444 SYNTAX. § 150 

dicppoi eXovaa (pi\oiip.£Lbr)S 'Acfypoblrr) Karedrjice (pepovo~a. Comp. further "be- 
low, rn. 40, 42; also § 144. n. 3. 

34 i\6a>v, la>v, p.o\cov, Secov, and the like, are often, especially in epic 
poetry, apparently superfluous additions along with verts of motion ; but 
by means of them the expression gains in vivacity and fullness; e. g. II. e. 
134 Tvdeldrj? e£avTi$ lav irpop.axoicnv efiix^r). Other examples see in § 144. 
n. 3. 

35 p,e\\eiv as forming a periphrase, see in § 137. n. 11. — Out of the natu- 
ral signification of the verb : to be about to do, i.e. in future, arise two oth- 
ers, which must not be confounded: 1) The hypothetical, conjectural, e. g. 
Horn, outgo nov All pieXkei . . . (piXov elvai, where we also make use of our 
auxiliary will, l thus then will it be agreeable to Jove.' 2) The significa- 
tion to delay, i. e. to be always about to do, always intend. 

tl S' ov ixeXkei; t'l §' ovk ep.e\\e ; why shall he not? why should he not? 
l. e. most certainly, assuredly. — But also without the negative the significa- 
tion comes to the same thing: tl fxeWei; lit. what (then) shall be? hence, 
why not? certainly. Heind. ad Plat. Hipp. Maj. 17. 

36 i6e\eiv (but never SeXeiv) when followed by an Infin. must very often 
be rendered as an adverb before a finite verb : wilhngly, voluntarily ; e. g. 
Xen. Hi. 7. 9 dcopelaSaL iOeXovai, lit. ' they are willing to make presents' 
i.e. 'they willingly make presents.' Cyr. 1. 1. 3 Kvpco 'lapev ideXrjo-avTas 
(i. e. on rjdeXov) TreLdetrOai tovs kcli dnexovTa? 7ra/x7rdXXcoi/ rjpepcov 686v kcl) 
o/iooy rjdeXov clvtco vtvclkovclv . 

37 <p 6 due iv, to come before, anticipate. This verb, besides its simple use, 
has a threefold construction and signification, which must first of all be 
clearly distinguished. 

1) In a positive clause with the participle of the main verb (§ 144. n. 6), 
it signifies : to do before, sooner than another ; or before something else can 
take place ; e. g. eqbOaaa clvtov TrcpeXdoiv 1 1 arrived earlier than he;' e'cpQrjv 
dnLcov l 1 went away before.' Hence to do in haste ; e. g. Hdot. 3. 78 qbOdvei 
rd to£cl Kare\6p.€vos: 

2) In a negative clause in like manner with a participle, and connected 
by teat with the following clause, it signifies no sooner . . . than; e. g. Isocr. 
p. 388 ovk ecpdnpev eV TpoL^rjva eXOovres kol v6(tols €kr]<p6np.ev 'we had na 
sooner arrived, than we were seized by illness;' i.e. in one and the same 
moment we arrived and were taken ill. lb. p. 354 ovk ecpOncrav vfid? Kara- 
8ov\u>o-dp.evoi Kal Trpoorov clvtov cpvyrjv KaTeyvcccrav ' they had no sooner sub 
dued you, than they banished him first.' Comp. dp.a above, m. 27. 

3) In a negative clause with the participle expressed or implied, but 
without any further necessary connection, ov cpddveiv is used for to be ready, 
not to fail ; and thus imparts to the verbal action expressed by the partici- 
ple the accessory idea of certainty and speediness. In this sense it never oc- 
curs except in the Optative with dv ; viz. a) Instead of the Imperative . 
ovk dv cpddvoLs Xeycov i be ready, fail not, to tell us,' i. e. tell us at once. 
b) As confident prediction, promise, etc. e. g. ovk dv qbddvoLpu (in answer to 
a challenge) f I will not fail, I am ready; 1 e. g. Eur. Or. 930 ovk dv qbOdvoi 
tls aTTo6r)<TK<av '•none will fail to die,' i. e. will not escape death. Dem. p. 
745 6i ovv p.rj Tiucopf)o~ecr6e tovtovs, ovk dv (pSdvoL to -kKtjBos tovtols tois SnpLOLS 
dovXevov ' if then ye do not punish these, the multitude will inevitably be in 
slavery to these beasts.' — It is as obvious as it is singular, that this nega- 
tive form of expression coincides with the affirmative one, in no. 1 above. 
In order to explain this contradiction, we may probably best assume, that 
ovk dv cpddvoL? is strictly an interrogative phrase, which was used instead 
of an animated Imperative (wilt thou not instantly ?), and thus in daily us- 
age by degrees lost its interrogative tone ; whence also in the poets the ov 
stands last, e.g. Eurip. Heracl. 721 (pOdvoLS 8' dv ovk dv Tolade a-vyKpvTTT&v 
fteiias. So soon now as ovk dv (pOuvoi? became equivalent to a direct Im- 



t 150 PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. 445 

perative, it was very natural to say in the same sense : ovk av cpddvoipi, and 
ovk av <p6dvoi. In this way the sense became indeed imperceptibly turned 
about : but we find the same fact in all inferences beginning with ovkovv, 
where this is not interrogative : for precisely as ovkovv aneiui is synonymous 
with aneipi ovv, so also is ovk civ cp8dvoip.i ttoicov synonymous with (pddvoip.' 

av 7TOLC0V. 

elvai. This Infinitive appears as superfluous in some phrases in Attic 38 
writers, especially in !#ce>j/ curat, fully : l so that I am unconstrained' i.e. 
if it depends on me, of my own accord, etc. It usually stands after a nega- 
tive : ovk av £kcov elvai yp-evdoiurjv 'I would not intentionally lie.' Rarely 
without a negative, e. g. Hdot. 7. 164. 

Different from this is elvai in to vvv elvai, for now, for the present ; e. g. 
to rfjfiepov elvai xPW^y-^ avTco for to-day ice will use, etc. See on the 
phrases which belong here, Reiz. ad Viger. n. 178. ed. Herm. 

e^fti/ with an adverb means lit. to have oneself so and so, i. e. to find one- 39 
self be circumstanced ; but can generally be translated by the verb to be, e. g. 
/caAco? e^ei it is well ; a>? et^e as he was, i. e. undressed. — Its construction 
with the Genitive, see in $ 132. n. 28; and in connection with the preposi- 
tions du<pl and nepi, see in § 147. — In the poets- e\eiv stands sometimes in 
like manner before adjectives and pronouns ; e. g. eyei TavTov it is the same 
thing Eurip. Orest. 308; e'x' rjovxos id. Med. 550. — The periphrase of a 
preterite with e\co, see in § 144. n. 18. 

e'xoy is subjoined to the second person of some verbs, as Xnpelv, cfiXvapelv, 40 
77al(eiv, in order as it were to bring them more home to the feelings; much 
as we would say: 'thou wilt but have thy jest,' nai^eis e'xcov • — 'thou only 
makest thyself sport,' Xvpel? ex^ov. The origin of this is easily recognized 
in the interrogative form, e.g. ti excov diaTpifiei? ; lit. 'what hast thou then 
that thou so delayest?' shorter: 'why delayest thou so then?' Compare 
Ruhnk. ad Tim. 257. Brunck ad Arist. Thesm. 473. Herm. ad Vig. num. 
228. See also m. 33 above. 

Ti jraOcov and t'i p. a 6 do v are both expressions of displeasure and censure, -4 1 
instead of the feebler ti (why?) alone. The former is to be explained by 
the phrase in Aristophanes, ovto?, ti irdcrx eiS » thou there, what has come over 
thee, what has got into thee? So then also e. g. rt Tva8a>v iXevdepovs TvirTeis; 
'what has got into thee, to beat those who are free?' This rather blunt 
expression therefore refers originally to fits of passion approaching even to 
insanity. — In an analogous manner is the other also to be explained, which 
is more ironical: n p.a8cov ; 'what hast thou learnt so wise?' i. e. what 
hast thou taken into thy head? what has got into thy head? see Wolf ad 
Demosth. Lept. p. 348. Further, as we have just seen above that from 
the interrogative ti e^coz/ has come the direct excov, so likewise we here find 
padcov without interrogation, but only with oti: e. g. Plat. Apol. 26 ti a{-i6s 
elp.i aTTOTicrai, 6Vt uadcov ev tco f3lco oi>x rjcrvxlav rjyov ) where in uadcov there 
clearly lies the idea of considerate purpose : ' what punishment do I merit, 
who so intentionally, in my whole life, had no rest.' If now one would 
supply the object omitted after padcov, it would perhaps be something thus : 
oti, padcov ovk oi'6° o,ti, rjavx^av ovk rjyov. But it is by no means to be sup- 
posed, that the full sense of p.adcbv, as here developed, was in every single 
instance present to the mind of the speaker; this or something similar was 
only the origin of the expression, and oti uadcov became then only a more 
emphatic oti. See the other examples in Heind. ad Plat. Euthyd. 30. 
Comp. also in Hdot. 3. 119 Tiva e'xovcra yvoopinv t6v dde\(peov eTXev irepielvai 
rot, which, is nothing more than a softer ti p.adovaa ; how comest thou there- 
to ? what thinkest thou . 2 * 

* Since it is apparent, that the three phrases of censure, ri ex^v, rt rraBcov, tI 
uaOwv, are essentially the same, and are to be explained in the same manner, we 



446 SYNTAX. • § 151. 

\? fVpoov seems also to be superfluous in some phrases; but it always ex« 
presses a free and decided propensity connected with an action, not however 
^•iihout censure ; e. g. vT>tfioX*v iaurov cpep&v Qrjfiaiois, c he delivered him- 
self up at once to the Theb^ns,' ^Eschin. p. 482 ; eh tovto cpepav irepieo-Tnae 
ra irpay/jLara. l to this state he has unceasingly brought affairs, ; id. p. 474 
Comp. Herm. ad Vig. x»-im. 21'8 ; and see m. 33 above. 

§ lo 1 . ij T or.iAnc Forms of Construction 
I. Attraction. 

1. Although ws ii«we already particularly treated of the two principal 
forms of attrJMjtioii ($4 142, 143), the subject nevertheless deserves to be here 
presented under one point of view; since both of those forms, together with 
some other instances occurring in single phrases, have manifestly a com- 
mon principle as the basis. There existed, especially among the Attics, a 
strong propensity, to which indeed they often sacrificed the strict rules of 
logic, for introducing eyery where a rounded conciseness. For this end they 
sought as much as possible, where two clauses or propositions were closely 
connected, not merely to let them immediately follow one another, but to 
concentrate both into one. Hence the frequent use of participles, even in 
cases where the nature of the sentence seems to require a different con- 
struction; see § 144. 2. 

2. But participles could not everywhere be employed. The construction 
with the relative was also necessary, which consists of two clauses follow- 
ing one another. In order now to give to these the shape of one clause, the 
pronoun of the last was made common to both, by attaching it, as to form, 
to the first, while in its nature it remained a part of the second. E. g. in 
the sentence /^eraSi'Scc? rov airov ovnep avrbs e^e ir, the Genitive ovirep causes 
the whole of the second clause to become a sort of adjective qualifying 
(titov; and it is only from an indulgence of our own habits and preconceived 
notions, that we separate such clauses by a comma, which the Greeks so 
evidently drew together into one. 

3. Whenever, further, the subject of the Infinitive has already been men- 
tioned with the preceding verb, there thus arises a connection in the sense, 
which the Greek endeavoured to render perceptible also in the form. He 
melted down, therefore, as it were, both verbs, so far as the thought is con- 
cerned, into one compound (vneo-xeTQ 7rotrjo-eiv, egeari. yevecrdai) ; and by caus- 
ing all that belonged to the subject of the Infinitive to be atir acted to the 
subject of the first verb, he produced the appearance of a single clause ; as 
6 dvrjp v7reo~x eTO TroirjaeLv tovto avTos; — egeo~T(, pot yeveaOai evda.ip.ovi. 
This too in like manner we most inappropriately separate by a comma. 

4. Further, the same effort after unity lies at the basis, wherever the 
preceding noun or pronoun (the antecedent) is attracted by the relative ; and 
the same analogy extends also to adverbs; see fully in \ 143. 17, and n. 6. 

may therefore regard that as the most natural explanation of '6tl paOuv, which, 
without robbing oti of its natural connective power, regards paddov thus left standing 
alone, in the same manner as ix cav standing alone. For this reason I cannot alter 
the above paragraph, notwithstanding all that has since been said upon this phrase ; 
all of which I have well considered. Were I disposed to change anything, it 
would be merely so far as not to be at the pains of supplying the omission after 
pa9wv, but simply to represent the matter thus, viz. that in the phrases rl i%<^v 
SiaTpifieis ; rl /xaduiv irpoaiypatyas tovto ; only the ethical force of the participle was 
felt, without a clear consciousness of its grammatical construction ; and therefore 
it was transferred also to other constructions, where it does not indeed sland with 
grammatical accuracy, but was employed in order to impart the same tone wtiioh 
exists in these interrogatives. See Herm. ad Arist. Nub. p. xlvi, sq. 



$ 151. ATTRACTION. 44? 

5. Hence it clearly appears, that all those phrases, in which an expression 
of surprise or amplification seems to be strengthened by means of a sub- 
joined relative, are to be explained solely through this attraction. Thus 
when it is said (comp. § 150. m. 8) : Savpaarov oaov 7rpovx<*>PW € > ^ s i g 
strictly to be so taken: BavpaaTov (co-tip) oaov 7rpovxG>pr)aev, 'it is wonderful 
how far lie is advanced.' But when the relative stands in any other form, 
the preceding word also passes over into the same form ; as the Neut. Savpa- 
o-t6v into the Fern. e.g. Savpaarrj oar) fj Trpoxcoprjais civtov, where the clause 
can also be inverted : r\v he 17 npox^prjais clvtov Savpaorrj oar). From this the 
like form was adopted into other phrases, which can no longer be so well, 
nor even at all, resolved ; e. g. oXX' rjv nepl avrbv o^Xos vnepcpvrjs 000?. 
Aristoph. Pint. 750; ehcoKev ovtco TxKeuTTa ova, etc. But when the relative 
word is the adverb cos, the same adjectives are attracted by it even into the 
adverbial form: e. g. from Savpdaiov (eoTiv), cos adXios yeyove, comes Savpa- 
aicos cos (18)110? yeyovev, and in the same manner vnepepveos cos, and the like. 
And this representation is confirmed by the actual occurrence of the un- 
changed form; e. g. Hdot. 3. 113 diro^ei (to. Svcopara) SearreaLov cos fjdv. 

6. An attraction of a different kind embraces the very extensive usage, 
that, when verbs of speaking, knowing, feeling, and the like, are followed) 
not by the Accus. with an Infin. or participle, but by conjunctions like cos, 
ottcos, otl, or by an indirect interrogative clause, the subject of the subordinate 
clause is put after such verbs as the object in the Accusative ; e. g. olha yr)v, 
ottoo-t) earl, for oiha, oiroarj earl yrj. Or also thus arranged : yrjv Sirdar/ earlv 
elhevai • tovtov ovo 1 el yeyovev jjdeiv. In this way is pointed out, as it were, 
how such clauses stand in place of the object with the main verb, and how 
they effect a closer junction of two clauses into one whole. Hence they may 
be regarded as a transition from the construction with the Infin. or participle 
into that of a conjunction with its clause; compare § 149. n. 2. Further, 
when the predicate of the main clause acquires an (objective) Genitive, the 
subject of the minor clause can be put in this case with the main -verb. 

Examples: Ar. Pac. 603 el /3ot»Aecr#' aKovoai rfjvd', ottcos dncoXero, £vvl- 
ere. An. 1. 2. 21 yodeTO to Mevcovos arpaTev pa, otl fjdr) ev KikiKia e'lrj, 
for fjdr) ev K. elvai. Soph. Aj. 1141 ov £' avTtiKovaei tovtov cos TeOd^reTai. 
Time. 3. 51 NiKias e{3ov\eTO Tr)v (pvXaKrjv avToOev toIs 'Adrjvaiois elvai, tovs. 
re Ile\o7rovvr)a iovs, ottcos pr) ttoicovtol etarkovs avToOev, a combining of the 
two constructions, with the Infinitive and with a conjunction. Thuc. 1. 59 
rj\8e r) dyyeXia tcov irdXecov, otl dtpeoTaoiv. Mem. 4. 4. 13 ov yap alodd~ 
vopal aov ottolov vdpipov r) nolov htKaiov \eyeis. 

7. From the same propensity and effort arises further a construction, 
which in Greek is far more frequent and comprehensive than in other lan- 
guages, viz. the personal construction, so called, in connection with certain 
predicates. We here give a general survey of this topic, as the most ap- 
propriate place; although it can hardly be any longer regarded as attrac- 
tion. Yet its affinity with the preceding constructions is obvious. The 
subject namely of the secondary clause, as in the preceding case the object, 
becomes the subject of the main clause, instead of an impersonal it or one 
(Germ, man), and as in Latin : diceris esse, instead of dicitur te esse. But 
the Greek language goes further in this respect, that the dependent clause 
can be put not only in the Infin. or participle (with or without as), but may 
also be a clause of indirect interrogation, or one introduced by the conjunc- 
tions on, cos, ovveKa, etc. Hence one can say : Kvpos Aeyerat tovto 7Toir)aai • 
QikiTTTTOS ayyeXXercu TroXiopKcov v. ccs TToXiopicfjocov • 8r)\os rjv otl (cos) tovto 
en-olriae • (pavepos eoTiv o fiovXeTai. — The following especially are often put 
in the personal construction, and occur also in prose : 

a) The Passives of verbs of speaking, etc. or of such verbs as in the Act. 
take an objective clause (no. 6 above) ; as \eyopai, dyyeWopai, (paivopai, 
evptaKopai, emheiKvvpai, and others. 



448 SYNTAX. $ "J 51 

b) Many neuter verbs; as do/c<£, KivBvveveo, avpfiaLva), tmokeln s> \ also ttoX- 
Aov v. 6\lyov V. rocrovrov Se'co, etc. 

c) Also adjectives as predicates; as o^Xof, cpavepos, iiraioros Hdot. ini- 
8o£o?, agio?, 8iK(iio?, 8eiv6s Hdot. avajKaios elfii Plat. 

d) Jiess frequent and more poetical are various other predicates; inas 
much as the poets very naturally would prefer this construction to the im- 
personal : e. g. dpKco, 7rpeVco, npoo-rjicai • ^aXenos, (Sapv?, Kpeiaaoav dpi, and 
others. 

In all these examples the impersonal construction is likewise in use at 
the same time. 

Examples: Hell. 4. 3. 13 6 UelaavSpo? rjyyeXXero TereXeur^Kcof. 6. 4. 16 
£covTe? rjyyeXpevoi rjaav. Dem. Macart. illit. ovtol €7rt8eL^6r]aovTai, oloi elaiv 
dvOpcimoi. Mid. p. 522 eari 8e eKelvo? ovk. ao^Xor ipa>v. Cyr. 4. 4. 3 hrjkoi 
(are, obr (iy8pes ayafiol eyevecrde. An. 1. 5.- 9 8rj\os rjv las (nrevft&v. Dem. 
Cor. p. 227 tovtov ttjv air lav ovtos ecrri diKatos 1 e^eiv. Cyr. 4. 1. 20 bimios 
ei dvTixap[£ecrdai fjplv. 5. 4. 19 af-io'i ye pzvTOi iupev rov yeyevr/pevov Trpdypa- 
tos tovtov aTroXavo-ai ti dyaQov. Isocr. Plat. p. 297 toctovtov 8eopev twv 'io~a>v 
d£JLovo-dai toI? «XXoty "EXkrjo-iv, coure ovde Trjs Koivr>s eXevdepla? peTe^opev. 
Thuc. 7. 70 j3pa)(V yap aTViXiirov tjvvapcpoTepai vrje? biaKoaiai yzveaOai. — Po- 
etic : Soph. Ant. 547 ap/ceo-co $vr]o-Kovo-' eyco, it is enough that I die ; av e£ap- 
K«y also in Plato. II. (p. 482 ^aXe^ tol iya> pevos avTicpepeadai. Soph. Aj. 
635 Kpeiacrcdv yap aba Kevdcov rj voaau paTav. 

8. Finally, it belongs also to attraction, when an adjunct or relation 
properly belonging to the noun, is so attracted by the verb, as to be changed 
into one belonging to the latter ; thus the local relation where into that of 
whence, e.g. Dem. 01. p. 13 6 ineldev noXepo?, 8<svpo fjgei, 'the war thence 
(there) will come hither.' In Thuc. 5. 35, the Lacedaemonians demand, that 
the Athenians shall draw off their adherents from Pylos, ioanep /cat avTol 
tovs divb ©pa/07? ' so as they also their troops from (in) Thrace.' Theophr. 
Char. 2. 4 apas ti tcov drrb ttj? Tpanefo?. So also into the relation whither ; 
Hdot. 7. 33 ey tov JJpcoTealXeco to ipov, to er 'EXcuowra (for to iv 'EXaioiWi), 
dyiveopevos yvvalKia?. See Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 61 ; ad Phsed. 57 ; where 
also other relations (with inep, 7rep[) are pointed out in the like construc- 
tion. 

II. Anacoluthon. 

1. The Anacoluthon {dvuKoXovdov) is a construction, of which the end does 
not grammatically correspond to the beginning ; and which is nevertheless 
intentionally employed by writers. Here, however, the learner must be 
cautioned, not too lightly to explain a passage, as is often done, by means 
of the anacoluthon, so soon as it is only somewhat unusual, or where per- 
haps it has been corrupted by transcribers. Every anacoluthon must be 
regarded as suspicious, the origin of which cannot be naturally accounted 
for in the fact, that the speaker gains by it, either in conciseness, or in per- 
spicuity and smoothness, or in emphasis. 

2. The usual form of the anacoluthon appears, where the speaker com- 
mences a period in the manner naturally required by the preceding dis- 
course: but afterwards, especially after parenthetical clauses, through 
which the hearer may easily have 'forgotten the commencement of the con- 
struction, passes over into a new construction. E. g. Plat. Apol. p. 19. e, 
tuvt&v enao-TOS oIoctt £o~t'lv, la>v eh €K.do~T-qv tu>v 7ro'Xecoi>, tovs veovs, oh egeaTi 
to>v iavTcov tto\ito)v Trpolica ^vvelvai co av /3oiAcoz/rai, tovtov? jreioovcn . . . crcpiai 
gvueivat. Here tovtov at the beginning refers to several preceding names 
of Sophists; and both the progress of the discourse and emphasis required 
that the new period should thus commence: ' Each of these has it in his 
power to persuade the young men, etc.' In this way consequently after 



$ 151. ANACOLUTHON. INVERSION. 449 

oloar icnlv the Infinitive neidetv would have been requisite. But further 
on, since the mention of the youth intervenes with circumstances which 
the contrast made necessary, (' the youth to whom it was permitted to have 
free intercourse with such of their fellow- citizens as they chose,') the writer 
forsakes the first construction, the grammatical connection of which has now 
become obscure, and finds it more natural to refer back with another Toy- 
Toys' to the veovs, and so "begin a new construction : tovtovs ireidovo-i — , i.e. 
those Sophists persuade the young men. 

3. Another example is Plat. Phsedr. p. 232, ToiavTa yap 6 epas embeUvv- 
rat • byo~TyxoyvTas pev a pr) Xvnrjv toi? uAAoty Tvape^ei, aviapa note! vopl£eiv • 
€vtvx°vvto:s he kou to. pr) r)bovr)S a^ia nap eiceivoiv eiraivoy dvayicd^ei rvyxd- 
vecv, i Such things are wrought by love .- the unfortunate it makes regard as 
grievous that which causes no pain to others; the fortunate — ' (but here 
the writer will express the antithesis forcibly) l it necessitates that even in- 
different objects should receive from them praise.' Strict logic, however, 
demanded that the second clause should be given thus : irap evTvxovvr&v 
de — , but this would have destroyed the symmetry : dvo-ruxovvTas- pev — , 
Trap' evTvxovvTcov 8e — . But neither symmetry nor emphasis does the Greek 
writer sacrifice so lightly to logic; he leaves the Accus. eyTvxovvTas, which 
the analogy of the first clause required, standing as an Accus. absolute, and 
then refers back through Trap' enelvcov to the same object, in order to bring 
out the forcible conclusion enaivov auayicafci Tvyxdveiv. 

4. Other examples of minor anacolutha are the following : a) Where a 
preceding case, in respect to what follows it, is ungrammatical : Cyr. 2. 1. 
5 rovs "EW-qva?, toijs ev ttj 'Aaia ol<odvTas; oydev ttco craves \eyerai, el errov- 
Tai. So vice versa the Nom. e.g. CEc. 1.14 o I 8e cpiXoi, tl <prjo~opev avTovs 
elvai. Compare further in § 141. n. 2. b) When a relative clause passes 
over abruptly into a demonstrative clause ; comp. espec. § 143. 7 ; e. g. Plat. 
Legg. p. 944. a, orroo-oi KaTa Kprrpvcav picpevTe? daiXeo-au 07rAa, r) pypi* av e^ot 
tis TOtavTa irapapyQoypevos eirdheiv. 

5. To the anacoluthon might also be reckoned many other examples, 
in which, from rhetorical or other causes, there is a departure from strict 
grammatical construction. But this would extend too far the idea of the 
anacoluthon, of which the freer poetic usage gladly avails itself, as well as 
the less restrained diction of prose, especially in colloquial language. Such 
instances, therefore, are already treated of in their appropriate places, as 
cases of laxer syntactical usage. We mention here, for example, the sud- 
den transition from the indirect to the direct style, § 139. m. 69; the transi- 
tion from the construction with the Infin. or participle to that with conjunc- 
tions, and vice versa, § 142. n. 2. § 139. m. 61 ; the instances where a par- 
ticiple does not agree in case with its substantive, § 144. n. 5; the construc- 
tion of the Nom. and Ace. absolute with the participle, § 145. n. 4; also 
many turns in relative clauses, § 143. 11. 

III. Inversion 

1. Inversions and displaced constructions [Hyperbata) are in general far 
less common in Greek writers, even in the poets, than among the Latins. 
In particular cases, however, the Greek inversions, even in prose writers, 
are stronger and more forced than the Latin. A very frequent cause of 
inversion was the propensity which prevailed especially among the Attics, 
to place together those words in a clause or in two clauses, which either re- 
semble each other, or are opposed to each other, or in any other way have 
a special mutual reference. Thus one would say e. g. 7rdvTd)v yap naai nav- 
Tes ex6iaTol elcri Kapxr]86vioi 'Papaiois; instead of TvdvTes K. ndvT<£>v exQiatoi 
elan Tram e P. — Plat. Phsedr. p. 277. c, TroiKikrj pev TTOutikoys "fyvxfl Ka ^ navap- 
uovloys dibov? Xoyov?, dnkoy? de aTrXfj. — In consequence of this propensity. 

Ff 



450 SYNTAX. § 151, 

tliey even separated the article from the noun, see § 127. n. 6; and preposi- 
tions from their cases, see § 147. n. 3. 

2. The natural tendency, moreover, to express as early as possible in a 
sentence the part on which the emphasis rests, also gives occasion for trans- 
positions ; e. g. Dem. 01. III. p. 36. infr. to pev npcoTov . . . aycnr-qTov rjv irapd 
tov drjuov TG)i> oXAco*' e/cacrra) na\ Tipi]s kcu dp^r/S 1 kcu dyadov tlvos peTaXafielv ■ 
vvv 8e Tovvavriov ktX. Here the Dative e/cacrro) depends on dyamjTov rju, 
1 formerly it was pleasant to every one of the other citizens, when he re- 
ceived honour from the people ; hut now just the contrary ;' but the irapd 
tov drjfiov which is dependent on peTaXafieh has the greatest emphasis, and 
therefore stands before that Dative. 

3. In the same manner the emphasis sometimes removes an adverb which 
should stand after a relative, and causes it to stand before it; e. g. vvv Srj a 
eXeyov, l what I said before,' Plat. Euthyd. p. 288. b. Hence ambiguity can 
sometimes arise, as in Theocr. 10. 17 e^eis 7raXat hv i-rreOvpeis, where nakai 
belongs not to eya?, tut to eVetfyueir. Comp. Spald. ad Dem. Mid. § 30. 

4. In the following example a want of perspicuity is avoided by means 
of inversion : Dem. 01. III. extr. d^ico vpd? . . . prj Trapa-^aipeiv ttjs Ta^ecos, r\v 
vp.lv ol npoyovoL tt)s aper?)r p.€Ta ttoXXcov kcu KaXcov Kivbvvav KTt]crdpevoi KareAi- 
7tov. Here the Genitive ttjs dpeTrj? depends on the other Genitive Ta£ea>s 
(tcl^i? Tij? dpeTrj? series or degrees of virtue) ; but both standing together 
would have occasioned confusion. 

5. It is often apparent, however, that a writer has gained by inversion, 
although it cannot be explained in the above ways. Thus in the fine pas- 
sage, Plat. Phsedr. p. 230. d, cocnrep yap ol to. TravavTa SpeppaTa SaXXov rj 
Tiva Kapnov TrpocreLOVTes ayovcn, o~v ipo\ Xoyovs ovtco TrpoTeiv&v . . . cpalvet. 7repi- 
df-ziv ktX. where ol is the article belonging to rrpoo-eiovTe?, and to. ireivoivTa 
SpeppciTa is dependent on dyovaiv, i.e. 'like those who, holding out boughs 
or fruits, lead hungry cattle,' etc.^ Xen. Cyr. 6. 4. 8 rjt-eiv clvtg> ere noXv 
'Apdcnrov avbpa kcu TTicrTOTepov kcu dpeivova, where the rroXv strengthens the 
comparative, and the Gen. 'Apdcnrov is governed by this latter ; precisely 
as in Dem. Mid. p. 573 ol 8e rjTtpcopevoi bid noXXa tovtcov elalv eXdrrco 
KpdypaTa, instead of r]Tipa>pevoi .eiai did npdypaTa rroXXa e'Aarrco tovtg>v. 

6. In the formulas of adjuration, Trpb? Se&v, npos yovdWav, etc. the expres- 
sion of emotion draws back the personal pronoun ere', without however caus- 
ing it to stand before the preposition; because this orthotone emphasis 
would announce an antithesis, which does not exist. For this reason the 
ere is inserted between the prepositions and their cases : co 7rpoy ere yovaTcov, 
•rrpos ere $ea>v, sc. iKeTevco, which however is usually omitted. Soph. OC. 
1333 Hpos vvv ere Kprjvoov, Trpbs Qeoov opoyvicov Atrco nLdeadai.f 

IV. Ellipsis. 

1. Ellipsis, or the omission of a word or words, opens a wide field, espe- 
cially in the Greek Syntax, upon which we can here enter only in a very gen- 
eral manner. This figure is used, for the most part, only when that which 
is omitted is already obvious from the nature of the clause or from the con- 

* I leave however to the learner the option between this explanation and that 
by means of an anacoluthon, viz. that the writer began with ol with the purpose of 
afterwards using the participle ayovres ; but then, in consequence of the disagree- 
able concurrence of two participles [ol — -rrpoadovTes &yovTes, Lat. ii qui — porrigen- 
do ducunt), passed over to the verb 'ayovaiv. 

t See Matthiae Gr. § 465. 3. Porson Adv. p. 220. — The necessity of leaving the 
<t4 in such connections enclitic, is apparent from the clear relation of the sense. Il 
is however neglected even by very accurate editors. 



§ 151. ELLIPSIS. 451 

nection; as e. g. in rll such expressions as Koipdo~6ai (3a0vv sc. virvov) irore- 
pav rpaTrrjar] sc. obov t eTvixTero tvoKKcls SC. Trkrjyds ; 6 QCkiirivov, etc. 

2. It is also easy to supply those cases of ellipsis, where in the second 
half of a period one or more words are to he repeated out of the first half. 
This is particularly frequent in conditional clauses; e.g. Arist. Ach. 380 
vrraKOVcrov, e'lnep 7rco7ror' dvdpa>TT(£>v rivl. An. 5. 3. 3 ol be aXXoi o.7tco\ovto vtto 
re tcov noXeplcov Kcu ttjS yiovos, kcu e'i ris v6o~co. Thuc. 4. 55 es ra 7ro\epiKci, 
etnrep iroTe, oKvrjporepoi eyevovTo. Also even shorter, so that only the particle 
remains : e'lwep, or emep cipa, i. e. if it be so, if it should be so, etc. Plat. 
Euthyd. p. 296. b, ovkovv r)pds ye acpaXXei, dXX', e'iirep, ere, l not us then does 
it deceive, but, if any one, thee.' — Vice versa also the main clause can be 
elliptical after a conditional clause; e.g. el br) tco a-ocparepos (fxtirjv elvai, 
tovtco av SC. (palrjv elvai. 

3. In like manner frequently the conjunction &<nrep av el (§ 149. m. 1) 
stands without a predicate ; whence also by degrees, like quasi, it came to 
stand almost adverbially with single words. E.g. Isocr. Paneg. p. 71 rfjv 
obbv 6jJLoico9 bieiropevQrfo-av, &anep av el TrponepTropevoi. Plat. Gorg. p. 479 
(poj3elrat cocnrep av el nats to Kaeadai Kal to Tepveadai. 

4. Customary also is the ellipsis of the thought after oti, in the two 
phrases brjXov on and ev old' oti, so that these hence become almost 
adverbial. E.g. Plat. Gorg. p. 475 ovkovv to dbiKetv k6.klov tov dbiKeladai ; 
8rj\ov br) oti. So too interjected: Dem. Phil. 3. init. noWcov Xdycov yiyvope- 
vcov Ka\ ndvT&v old* oti (prfo~dvTi£>v y' av, beboiKa kt\. 

5. The same holds true of relative clauses, in which the sense must be 
completed from the main clause; see § 143. n. 3. § 150. m. 8. This often 
happens, when a verbal idea is connected as a participle with the relative 
clause; as II. Q. 306 firjKoav cos ere'pcocre Kaprj (3aXev, rjr* evl ktjttco Kapna j3pi8o- 
fievr) sc. Kap-q /3dXXei er. And like e'inep above, so here the relative strength- 
ened by nep can stand in place of the whole clause ; e. g. Plat. Legg. p. 710 
TxdvTa ayebbv drreipyao'Tai tw Sea, arrep orav (3ovkr)0f) biacpep6vT<£>s ev Ttpd^al 
Tiva 7t6Xlv, i. e. 'whatever he is wont to do, when,' etc. 

6. In the same manner, the negative particles also stand without the word 
or clause which they render negative, and which is then to be supplied out 
of the preceding discourse. Thus especially pr) often in the middle of a 
clause (§ 148. 2. h), so that it then comes to stand before other words to 
which it does not belong, and thus occasions perplexity to the learner. 
E. g. Plat. Phsedr. p. 237 rco br) tov epavrd re Kal pr) Kpivovpev, where ko.1 fir) 
stands for /ecu tov fir) epoovra. Id. p. 258 t'ls ovv Tponos tov Kak&s Kal fir) ypd- 
cpeiv ; where /eaXcoy is omitted after fir). — dyadol r) pr) avbpes l good men or not 
good men;' — koi oiroTe, Kal fir), for /ecu oirore fir), Plat. Alcib. I. p. 109. d. 

7. The elliptical phrase el be pr) after another hypothetical clause, has 
become very frequent in the colloquial style. In such case, according to 
our feelings, the first hypothesis must always be positive ; but this ex- 
pression became so generally current as qualifying what precedes, that 
it is used also after negative clauses, and consequently then affirms; e. g. 
An. 4. 3. 6 ovk ev tco vbaTi ra 07rXu r)v eyeiv • el be pr), fjpira£ev 6 noTapos. 
Comp. ib. 4. 4. 17. Cyr. 3. 1. 35. Also, directly the reverse, we find the 
elliptical expression el be after positive clauses, where we should expect 
et be pr), e. g. Plat. Euthyd. p. 285 el pev /3ovXercu e\|/-eYco • et b\ o,tl fiovke- 
Tai, tovto 7rotetrco. Comp. further Plat. Alcib. I. p. 114. b. Soph. Ant. 722 ; 
also the formula of encouragement, et b' aye, on! come on ! 

8. Easily supplied, and current in all languages, is the omission of the 
Infinitive, when the verb has already been given in what precedes, or is 
readily suggested by the context. E. g. Od. y. 275 eKreXeVar peya epyov, o 
ovTTOTe f)\7:eTO Svpco Xen Conv. 8. 7 irdaa r) troKls olbe, noXXovs S' olpat Kal 



452 SYNTAX. * 151. 

rcov £evcav. Arist. Ran. 1275 eyco p.ev ovv e's to fiaXavelov (3ov\op.at I will to 
the bath. Hell. 2. 3. 54 eKehevaev 6 Krjpvt; rov? evbeKa eVt rbv Qr)pap.evqv. ib, 
20 Kehevcrai eVt to. oyrXa, to call to arms. 

9. We find also not only relative clauses (as above in no. 5), but also 
other minor and even main clauses, which instead of a finite verb have 
only a participle. Here too the predicate is to be supplied from the con- 
text. E. g. II. co. 42 Ae'coi/ coy, ocrr', eneX ap peydXrj re ftir} kcu ayrjvopi Svp,co 
elects; etcr' «rl p,r)Xa. Hdot. 7. 23 copvcrcrov 8e cobe • da.o~dp.evoi tov x&pov 
Kara eBvea kcu <XYOii>orei>es 7roi.rjo-dp.evoi. Comp. Thuc. 1. 25. 

10. The omission of the words tovto io~n, or tovt^ eanv 6Vt, after relative 
clauses, has already been explained in § 143. 11. The same takes place 
also, without any such relative connection, in some short elliptical phrases ; 
e. g. to 8e p.eyurTOv, ixdvTa TavTa p.6vos KareipydaaTO . . . kcu to ttovtccv 
a'io-xio~Tov, 7rpocr€\lsr]Cpio~ao~8€. Further likewise in the familiar formulas of 
proof: Te Kp,T) piov de or ar]p,e7ov 8e (sc. tovtcov ecrri tovto) 'the proof 
of it is this,' etc. E. g. arjjieiqv 8e, to!? Trovripols £vvovo-id£ei, i. e. ' and as a 
proof, he associates with bad men.' — This form of expression also usually 
takes ydp; e. g. Demosth. Androt. near the end: 'the people of Athena 
have ever prized honour more than money,' T€Kp.rjpiov Se, xPW aTa p.ev 
yap TrXelaTa twv 'JUXXrjv&v ttotc o~x-° v to. irdvd* virep <pi\oTip.ias dvt]h(ao-ev. 
Comp. § 143. 11. ex. 

V. Aposiopesis. 

1. This is the intentional suppression of some part of a clause, so that 
the whole clause or sentence appears grammatically incomplete. This 
may be done for rhetorical or other reasons. The same figure is found in 
all languages, as e. g. the well-known Quos ego of Virgil; but more espe- 
cially in the colloquial style. 

2. An aposiopesis very current in the Attic dialogue arises, when of two 
antithetic conditional clauses the first remains without apodosis. This takes 
place only when the first clause is in its nature a matter of course, and the 
speaker therefore hurries to the second as alone being of importance. So 
already in Homer, II. a. 135 aAA' el p,ev dcovovai yepas p.eyd6vpoi 'A^atoi • 
el 8e Ke p.r) 8coo-ovaiv, eyco Se k-v ovto? eXoopai. Plat. Protag. p. 325. d, where 
the exertions of a father to educate his son have been related : ko\ idv p.ev 
eKcov ue'i6r\Tai • el 8e p.rj, coar-rep £v\ov 8taaTpe<p6pevov evOvvovcriv d.Treika'is Ka\ 
-TXrjyalsy -and if he obeys voluntarily — (here the apodosis is a matter of 
course, good, it is well, or the like) ; but if not, they straighten him, like a 
crooked stick, by means of threats and blows.' Symp. p. 185 eav p,ev <roi 
eOekrj jraveo-dai r) \vy%' el 8e p-r), vbaTi avaKoyxv\Lao~ov, i. e. rinse the mouth. 
In all these examples the apodosis is indifferent : good, it is well, it needs 
nothing more, or the like. 

VI. Pleonasm. 

1. The figure opposite to the ellipsis is Pleonasm, that is, something 
added, either from rhetorical or other causes, and not in strict accordance 
with the laws of grammar or logic. We have already directed attention to 
some particular instances; e. g. the insertion of p.r\ after certain verbs, 
S 148. n. 9; that of ov after rj of comparison, § 149. m. 7 ; Tovbe or tovtov 
with the comparative, § 132. n. 22; the double or threefold ay, § 139. m. 
20; also some participles, as ecprj \eyav Hdot. 5. 36, Xrjpels ex<*v, etc. $ 144. 
n. 19. 

2. Sometimes, by a pleonastic addition, single words are rendered more 
emphatic, both in poets and prose writers; e. g. avdis av or irdXiv avdiSj 



$ 151. APOSIOPESIS. PLEONASM. EPEXEGESIS, ETC. 453 

?\r)6ei 7roXXoi, Hdot. Plat, tcarcopv^ev pe Kara rijs yrjs Karoo Aristoph. 
ecrco er rb ipbv eaehKvo-ai, Hdot. So the Homeric oloOev olo?, alvo&ev alvco? : 
the tragic 'Laos elv icrois 1 dvrjp, koivos ev Kotvoh) and many others. Here be- 
longs also the mode of expression so peculiar to the tragic writers, with the 
double negation J e. g. eKQvra ovk. aKovra • yvcord kovk ayvara- prjrd kovk apprj- 
ra Soph. 

3. For the sake of emphasis, a qualification already contained in the 
main clause is sometimes again repeated; e. g. Thuc. 5. 47 (3orj6ovai rponco, 
onoioi av dvv&vrai, lo~xvpordroi Kara to bvvarov. Hdot. 1. 79 Kpotcro) 
7rapa 86£av iV^e rd 7rpr)ypara rj a> s avrb? kut edoKee. Compare the next 
paragraph. 

VII. Epezegesis. 

This, as the name imports, is a word or clause added by way of explana- 
tion or illustration. Hence, in respect to mere form, it often appears as 
apposition or pleonasm ; but yet retains everywhere its own character of 
explanation. This takes place in a threefold way: 1) Either one word 
explains another; e. g. Eur. Hel. 1 NeiAo? Alyvirrov irehov, \evKr]S raKelaijs 
■ftiovos, vypalvei yvas. 2) Or a word is explained by a clause; e. g. II. i. 
125 "lttttovs ddXofpopovs, ot de6\ia noo-alv apovro. Compare Od. init. 
3) Or one clause explains and confirms another clause; e. g. Xen. Ag. 2. 7 el 
yap ravra Xeyoipi, 'Ay^crtAaoz/ r av pot 8oko> a(ppova d7ro(paiveiv Kal epav- 
rbv pcopov, el eTvaivoir]v rbv Treplrav peyicrrcov elicr/ Kivbvvevovr a. 

VIII. Zeugma. 

This is a figure current especially in the poets ; in w'iiich, for the sake 
of brevity, only one predicate is put in connection grammatically with sev- 
eral words, while in sense it can refer to only one of them ; and conse- 
quently from it the reader must infer a suitable predicate for the rest. E. g. 
Hes. ■&. 640 veKrap r' dpfipoo-tr) re, rdirep 3eo\ avrol edovcri. Soph. OT. 371 
rvcpXb? ra r cora, rdv re vovv, rd r oppar' el. Comp. II. y. 327. Hdot. 4. 106. 
— This usage passed over into the later prose and to the Latin writers; 
and was by many regarded as elegant; e. g. Virg. i£n. 1. 355 crudelis aras, 
trajectaque pectora ferro nudavit; comp. 2. 320. Floras 4. 12. 37 his oculos, 
aliis manus amputabant. Even the contrary can be thus supplied from the 
predicate; e. g. Cic. Nat. Deor. 2. 64 nee vero supra terram (sc. patet), sed 
ttiam in intimis ejus tenebris plurimarum rerum latet utilitas. 

IX. Asyndeton. 

1. Every regular clause in the progress of narration or other discourse, 
unless otherwise conjoined (e. g. by pronouns) with what precedes, musIT 
strictly have with it in Greek one of the short movable conjunctions, which 
serve to connect clauses. In like manner also, co-ordinate single words 
standing together must be connected by conjunctions. This rule is for the 
most part everywhere observed ; so that even the larger sections and books 
begin with a conjunction, by which they are joined back to the preceding 
one. Nevertheless, there occur instances where a connection is avoided ; 
and both clauses and single words are intentionally made to follow one an- 
other without any connecting particle. This is called Asyndeton. 

2. Between co-ordinate words the connecting particle is thus omitted : 
a) Commonly in enumerations ; e. g. Plat. Prot. p. 319. d, opolcos 8e ^aA/eei'?, 
o-Acuroro/xor, 7r\ovo-tos; Trevq?, yevvalos, dyevvf)?. b) When several epithets 
follow a substantive for ornament^ especially in Homer; e. g. II. tt. 140 
tyX oS eXero, ftpidi peya, ariftapcv. a. 97 vtto ttoo-q-Xv edr)o-aro KaXa nediXc. 



454 SYNTAX. § 151 

dfifipocria, xpvo-eia. — On the other hand, for the connection of two adjectives 
by mi or re icai, contrary to our English usage, see in § 149. m. 8. 

> t ote. For the apparently asyndetic construction of some participles, see 
$ 144. 4. 

3. Between whole clauses the connecting particle is omitted as follows 
^,) In the language of emotion, where the predicate is put first, especially 
in Homer: II. A. 196 firj 8e . . . eh"l\iov iprjv evp* vibv Tlpiapoio ktX. II 
yjs. 352 iv 8e KKrjpov? ifiakovro • iraW' 'A^tAeus- ktX. comp. x- 295, 391 ; so 
in Xenophon often : edoge ravra, or avereivav iravres^ etc. Also when the 
predicate does not stand first : II. p. 50 bovTrqcrev Se necraiv • aipari ol hevovrt> 
Kopai. Od. p. 428 rj\6e 6° em voto? cokci • 7ravvvx l os cpe po prjv, apa § 
ijeXicp kt\. In all such cases it will be found, that by inserting the parti- 
cle the clause loses in vivacity and warmth of description, b) In clauses 
for explanation, where we are accustomed to insert namely; especially in 
prose, after a preceding demonstrative which refers to what follows. Yet 
here yap can also stand. E. g. II. /3. 217 a'Lcrx L(Tros ^ °-vrjp vtto "ikiov rjXdev • 
(poXno? erjv, ^coXos §' ktX. Plat. Gorg. p. 450. a, at aXXai re^i/at ovt&s 
€X 0V(TLV ' etacrTr] avrcov Trepl \6yov? iarl tovtovs ktK. Dem. Phil. 1. p. 44 Seo- 
pai vp5» toctovtov • eVetSaz/ cmavra dicovo-rjTe, Kplvare. 



APPENDIX. 



On Versification.* 

1. For the full understanding of what follows, it is necessary to pre- 
mise some remarks on the different kinds of Greek poetry, and their con- 
nection with the dialects. All the species of Greek poetry have their 
origin in three principal classes of poetical diction, viz. 

The Epic, or poetry of narrative ; 
The Lyric, or poetry of song ; 
The Dramatic, or poetry of action. 

2. Each of these classes of poetry, in its most complete form, became 
ippropriated among the Greeks to particular tribes. The Epic was 
brmed and cultivated among the Ionics ; the Lyric among the Dorics 
tnd iEolics ; and lastly the Dramatic among the Attics. Hence it 
arose, that each of these classes, in language, metre, and adaptation to 
music and song, united the character and more or less of the dialect of 
the tribe, in which it was chiefly cultivated, to the peculiarities of its 
own nature. Comp. § 1. 10 sq. 

Note 1. It must here be noted, that in speaking of dramatic and Attic 
poetry, we mean chiefly the iambic and trochaic parts of the drama gener- 
ally, and the anapaestic parts of comedy, in which the strictly dramatic 
dialogue is contained. Tlie other parts belong more or less to lyric poetry, 
and the choruses wholly so. 

3. The chief influence which is hence exerted upon the metre and 
poetic quantity, is, that the epic diction has more softness, and, in order 
to bring the narration more into the restraints of metre, more license in 
the forms of words and in the pronunciation. Dramatic poetry, on the 
other hand, and particularly comedy, being derived from the language 
.)f ordinary life, confined itself more strictly to the customary forms ; and 
of course more particularly to the language and pronunciation of the 
Attic people, of which it sacrificed very little to the metre. The lyric 
diction approached in this respect more nearly to the epic ; from which, 
as the mother of all Greek poesy, it derived the greater part of its poet- 
ical language and forms ; while with these it mingled also the harsher 
and rougher peculiarities of the Doric dialect, and thus exempted the 
melody of song from the monotony of narrative recitation. 



4. The alternation of long and short syllables in discourse is called, 
from its impression on the ear, Rhythm. So far as this alternation fob 

* In order to render this work complete in itself, the following treatise on Greek 
Versification is here subjoined from the author's Schul-Grammatik. — Ta. 



4o(> Appendix A. — versification. 

lows certain laws, which limit it by a certain measure, it is called Metre. 
Single parts of such discourse, which can he embraced and recognized 
by the ear as a metrical whole, are called Verses. 

5. Verses are subdivided into smaller sections of a few syllables each, 
which are called Feet. The most usual feet are the following- ■ 



Spondee 


e. g. 


SovXovs 


Trochee - - 


e. g. 


8ov\os 


Iambus - — 


e. g. 


\6yovs 


Pyrrhic - - 


e. g. 


\6yos 


Dactyl 


~ e. g. 


rvTTTere 


Anapsest ~ ~ 


- e. g. 


Xeyerot 


Tribrach ~ ~ 


~ e. g. 


Xeyere 



Note 2. In the examples here adduced, each foot consists of a single 
word. All verses, however, are measured likewise by feet, of wiiich the 
beginning and end fall in the middle of the words. 

6. To determine the measure of the feet and verses, a short syllable 
is assumed as unity, and a long syllable as the double of this, or two. 
Every such unit is called a time or interval, onora. 

Note 3. Consequently the tribrach is equal in time to the trochee and 
iambus j and the spondee to the dactyl and anapaest. 

7. The length and shortness of syllables, or their quantity, is determ- 
ined by the rules and principles given in § 7. For the use of the Hia- 
tus and Synizesis in poetry, see § 6. n. 3. § 29 ; and § 28. n. 6. § 29. n. 
11. — It is here only necessary to remark further, that in most species 
of poetry the last syllable of every verse is common, i. e. a short syllable 
can stand instead of a long one, or a long syllable instead of a short one. 

8. In some kinds of verse, and likewise in sections of verses, there re- 
mains, after dividing them into their feet, a single syllable over and above. 
This is called the catalectic syllable. A verse whose symmetry requires 
that this syllable should be counted instead of a full foot, is called a cata- 
lectic verse ; while if the syllable is regarded as supernumerary, it is a 
hyper catalectic verse. The principles by which this is to be determined, 
must be sought in more extended treatises. 



9. The most common kinds of verse are those made by the repetition 
of one and the same foot. Among these, the dactylic, iambic, trochaic, 
and anapcestic, are the most frequent. 

10. The most usual dactylic verse is the Hexameter, which is em- 
ployed in epic and heroic poetry in uninterrupted succession, without the 
mixture of any other species. It consists of five dactyls and a spondee. 

— I — I — I — I — 1-- 

But instead of each of the first four feet a spo?idee may stand ; and as 
the last syllable of every verse is common (no. 7), instead of the sixth, a 
trochee, e. g. 

1. K\v6l pev, 'ApyvpoTo^, or Xpvarjv ap(pifie($T)Ka<:, 

2. KlXkav re £ader)v, Tevedoio re icpt dvaacreis, 

3. 'Zpivflev, e'lnore rot ^apt'e^r' im vrjbv epe^a, 



Appendix A. — versification. 



457 



4. 77 el S17 Trore rot Kara iriova p.r)pC i'tcrja 

5. ravp&v r)8' alya>v, rode pot Kprpr\vov eekdoop 

6. riaeiav Aavaol ep.d 8aKpva crotcrt (3e\eacnv. 

1- 1 ! - -I- H-~ 

2 _ _|_.„|„„|_ — 1^> 

3-- - 1 I 1 I"- 

4 - - |-_-|-_~ |-~_|_~ 

5 ,_ _|_ - | ^.|- -|- r 

6.- _|_^|„-| — |_ S 

Note 4. Sometimes also we find a spondee inserted in the fifth place in- 
stead of the dactyl. Such a verse is called a spondaic Hexameter. E. g. 

aKpordrr] Kopvcpfj Trohvbeipa&os OvXvjjnroio 

f f 1 1 — 1 — 

or 

fir} de *rar' Ov^vpuroLO K.apr]va>v ait-acra 

— — [ — I 1 : — I — i — 

1 1 . The (dactylic) Pentameter is composed of two parts or halves, 
separated by a close or cadence ; each of which parts consists of two 
dactyls and a catalectic syllable. 

— 1 — |_n — , — ,_ 

For the first two dactyls, and for them alone, spondees may be substi- 
tuted. The middle syllable is always long ; the last, as the final sylla- 
ble, may be also short. This kind of verse is commonly found only in 
connection with the Hexameter ; so that one Hexameter and one Pen- 
tameter follow each other alternately. A poem of this kind was called 
"EXeyoi, Elegi ; for which at a later period the Sing. Elegia became 
usual. Hence an apothegm or inscription in one such double verse 
(diarixov) is called e\eye7ov. 

1. 'EX7rtr iv avdpanroiai povt] Seos ea6\r] evecrriv, 

aXXoi §' OvXvpnoi'ft' eKTrpoXinovres e(3av. 

2. torero pev Hian?, peydXrj Seos, d>X eT0 ^' ^-vdpcov 

Saxppoavvr], Xdpire? r\ a> cpi'Ae, yr]v e\mov. 

3. OpKOL S' OVK€Tl TTKTToi iv dvOpcOTTOlCTl SlKCUOl, 

ovde Seovs ovdels a£erai d6a.va.T0vs. 

4. evaefie&v S' dvhpwv yevos e(p6iro, ovbe Sepnaras 

ovKeri yiyvd>o~Kovcr 7 ovde p.ev eiaeftias. 



I--- 



I 



-I I-r 



12. The iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse, is measured by dipodes, 
e. double feet or pairs of feet. In accordance with this, verses of four 



458 



Appendix A. — versification. 



feet are called dimeter, those of six feet, trimeter, etc. The Latin names, 
on the contrary, quaternius, senarius, etc. refer to the number of single 
feet. 

13. Every iambic diipode, instead of the first iambus, may also havp 
a spondee ; thus 

- - ~ - or , 

Hence it follows that in every iambic verse the spondee can stand in 
every odd place, in sede imparl, 1, 3, 5, 7. 

14. In every foot also a long syllable can be resolved into two short 
ones. Consequently the tribrach may stand instead of the iambus in 
every place except the last. Inasmuch, however, as the last syllable is 
common, the last place can be occupied by a pyrrhic ; and in all the 
odd places, instead of a spondee, the anapaest and dactyl may be sub- 
stituted. 

Note 5. Of the feet of four units or times, however, the anapaest can also 
stand in the even places. Still this does not hold of tragedy; which does 
not easily admit the anapaest even in the third and fifth places. 

15. Hence arises for the Iambic trimeter or Senarius the following 
scheme. 



But the other kinds of feet, especially those of three syllables, must not 
be so frequent as to obscure the iambic metre. 

rXcocrcr^y paXiara Tvavra-^ov Treipw Kparelv • 
6 Kal yipovri Kal vea riprjv (pepsi, 
fj yXcbcrcra aiyrjv aaipiav KeKTijpevr). 



Et to (jvve-^tiiS kol 7roAAa Kal ra^eosy Xakelv 
rjv tov (ppovelv Ttapdo-qpov, al ^eAiSdi/er 
zkeyovr' av rjpcov crco(ppoveaT€pai ndvv. 



UXovto? 5e fiaaavos iariv dvdpdnrov rpotroov. 
os av ev7rop5)v yap alcr^pa Trpdrrrj Trpdypara, 



* See § 7. n. 19. 



Appendix A. — versification. 459 

Aecnroiv', orav ris opvvovros Karacppovfj, 
a> prj ^vvoibe rrporepou eV.co pKrj koto, 
ovto? Karacppovelv rcov Secov epol doKel, 
kcu nporepov opoaas avrb? eV-G-pK^K-Vcu. 



16. Besides the senarius, the most common species of iambic verse is 
the catalectic tetrameter (no. 8 above). E. g. 

Ei' poi yevoiro Trapdivo? Kakrj re kcu repeiva 

--,—'(-- ,~|~-,~- | --,- 

The rules and licenses are essentially the same in this verse as in the 
senarius ; and the catalectic syllable is common. 

17. The trochaic dipocle, instead of the second trochee, may have a 
spondee : 

•, — ~ or - -. 

Hence it follows, that in trochaic verse a spondee can stand in every 
even place, in secle pari, 2, 4, 6, 8. — The rule holds also here, that in 
every foot a long syllable can be resolved into two short ones. The 
tribrach can therefore stand in all the places ; and the dactyl and ana- 
paest (instead of the spondee) in all the even places. 

Note 6. Among the feet of four units, however, the dactyl, though very 
seldom, is found also in the odd places. 

18. The most usual trochaic verse is the catalectic tetrameter. E, g. 

Nouy opa, kcu vovs dicovei • raWa noocpa kcu rvcpiXd 

'ireow a>9 avavbpov a/cXecos KarOavelv. Alva rdde. 



The catalectic syllable is common. 

19. In the anapcestic verse, the spondee can stand instead of the ana- 
paest, by uniting the two short syllables into one long one ; and then 
again, by resolving the second long syllable of the spondee into two short 
ones, a dactyl can be introduced. As an example we give the catalectic 
tetrameter so common in the comic poets. E. g. 

"Or eyco to. hittaia \eya>v rjvOovv kcu o~oo<ppoo~vvr) vevopiaro 

_„ v l rr _,__l__ _!_„_;_ . 

Qavepbv pev eycoy' oipcu yvoovcu rovr* elvcu ndaiv opoicos 1 
on rov? xpr)o~Tovs roov dudpooTTdiv ev rrpdrreiv earl biKCUov, 
rovs 8e Tvovr]povs kcu rov? dOeovs rovrcav rdvavria t)r]Trov 

---,-- -I--,- - |--,--|~~'-,- 

----- - I--.- - I- -,--|~~ -,- 

______ | ■ | _ | 

Xalpcre, daipoves; ot Aeftddeiav, Boiariov ovOap dpovpas 

,___!___,__ | _____ | , _ 



160 Appendix A. — versification. 

20. Arsis or elevation is that part of a foot on which the emphasis of 
the rhythm or the Ictus, beat, falls. In order to mark it, the ordinary 
acute accent (') is commonly employed, the regular accents being then 
omitted. The remaining part of a foot is called Thesis, depression. 
The natural arsis is on the long syllable of a foot ; and consequently the 

spondee ( ) and tribrach (*- - ~), considered in themselves, leave the 

arsis undetermined. But in every verse, the original or fundamental 
foot (as the iambus in iambic verse, the dactyl in dactylic verse, etc.) 
determines the arsis for all the other feet which are substituted for it. 
Consequently the spondee in iambic and anapaestic verses reads thus, 
' ; in trochaic and dactylic thus, -' -. Thus tovtov, (without refer- 
ence to its accent in prose.) when it stands instead of an iambus or ana- 
paest, is read tovtov ; instead of a trochee or dactyl, tovtov. Further, 
since the ictus on a long syllable necessarily lies on the first of the two 
units or times contained in the same, it therefore, when the long syllable 
is resolved into two short ones, necessarily falls, in like manner, on the 
first of these short ones. Hence the tribrach, when it stands instead of 
an iambus, is read thus - *-' ~, instead of a trochee thus -' ~ ~ ; and 

the dactyl instead of a spondee with the arsis on the last syllable ( '), 

is read thus -^-; but the anapcest where it stands for the contrary 
spondee (— ' -), thus -' ~ -. Consequently we must read Xeyere, Xeyerat, 
when these words stand as trochaic or dactylic feet ; and on the contrary 
AeyeVe, XsytTai, when these words stand as iambic or anapaestic feet. In 
doing this, however, the learner must be on his guard not to prolong in 
pronunciation the short syllables which have the arsis ; since by this 
means they would become long, and thus destroy the metre.* 

Note 7. The learner will do well first to exercise himself, hy marking 
with the ictus all the preceding schemes of verse, and then pronouncing 
the verses themselves accordingly. To facilitate his progress, we subjoin 
here some examples not there adduced, with their ictus. 

Hexameter. — Ground- Scheme. 

_- — ! _, — I _^ — ! -' - - ] -' — l -' - 

Example. 
ipya veoip, j3ov\al de jxeaoov, ev^ai 8e yepovToov 

-'~~|-'-|-'~H-'-l-'~~|-'- 



Pentameter. — Ground-Scheme. 

-'~~l-'~~l-Ml-'~~l-'~- 

Example. 
fir) peTpeiv a-)(ptv(o Hepaihi ttjv ao(pir]v 



* Compare on the mode of effecting this, the marginal notes on p. 19. We at 
least cannot make this ictus audible in any other way than we do the accent ; 
and consequently can only make it perceptible when we scan, i. e. pronounce the 
verse according to the metre, without reference to the grammatical accent. See 
p. 19. 



Appendix A. — versification. 461 

Senarius. — Ground-Scheme. 
--',--' | ~ -', ~ -' | ~ -', ~ -' 

Examples. 
(pvcriv TTOvqpav p.eTa(3a\eiv ov pabiov 

rapielov dp€T7]S eari adxppocrvur) p.ovrj 



Iambic tetram. catalect. — Ground- Scheme. 
- -', ~ -' | ~ -', - -' | ~ -', ~ -' | - -', - 

Examples. 
aXX' avro nept tov npoTepos eiireiv 7rpa>ra hiapa-^ovpai 

/ _ U _ I _ _/ _ ^ __/ I ' J _/ w I w _/ _ 

' 'I I ' I i 

Svvveia Sep pa Kara(payd>u kcit* Itvlttlwv aupdrov 

— ', — ' | - -' -^ - -' I — ' -> — ' ! — '. - 



Troclisiic tetram. catalect. — Ground-Sch 



erne. 



Examples. 
Trepiopqs p.' ovtcos vtt dvdpcav (3dp(3apa>v ^eipovpeuov 
U ~ J, -' 1 | -' ~, -> - | -' ~, -' - | -' ~, -' 

aXka p.6. At' ou pabi<x>s ourcoy av civtovs biefyvyes 
ei7rep erv)(ov rd>v pekcov tcov QiXoxiXeovs fiefipooKore? 

~'~, ~' — | ~' ^ -' ~ | -' ~ -' " | ~' - ~, - 

/ -_ ^ w w I _' w — ' — I U ~ ^ —t w I _' ~ ^ 

Aiiapcestic tetram. catalect. — Ground-Scheme. 

— '> — — ' I — — '> — - — ' { — — ^', — ' i ^ — , — 

Examples. 
akX oKoXv^dre (patvopevrjatv rcti? dp-^aialcnv A8i)vais 
kcli Qavp-acrTais k.cu Tiohvvpvbis lu' 6 Kkeivo? dr)p,os evoiicei 

_ u _, _ U ^ I _ u w / I / / I w _ _/ _ 

' I ' I ' I > 



21. The C centra is properly the division or separation, by means of 
the ending of a word, of something which rhythmically or metrically be- 
longs together. Hence there arises a Ccesura 1) of the Foot, 2) of 
the Rhythm, 3) of the Verse; all of which must be carefully distin- 
guished, since the word ccesura is very commonly used without addition 
for each of the three. 

22. The Ccesura of the Foot is where a word ends in the middle of a 
foot ; e. g. in the first (dactyl) of | Mrjviv a- | eiSe, and in the second 
(spondee) of | Ov\op,e- \ wjv ?} I -. This is the least important of all, and 



462 Appendix A. — versification. 

is without any influence of its own on the metre ; since the division into 
feet is in a great measure arbitrary. 

23. The Ccesura of the Rhythm is where a word ends with the arsis, 
i. e. where the arsis falls on the last syllable of a word ; by which means 
the arsis is separated from the thesis. Such a final syllable receives 
from the ictus a special emphasis; so that not unfrequently the poets 
place here a short final syllable, which by this means alone is made long, 
and fills out of itself the arsis ; comp. § 7. 15. Of this lengthening by 
the ccesura, the epic poets particularly avail themselves ; e. g. 

TnXep.a%e | ttoIov o~e ervos cpvyev epnos obovrcov ; 
Avrap €7T€iT y avToicri /BeAoy | e%e7revK.es ecpieis:^ 

24. The Verse-Ccesura is where the final syllables of words fall into 
such places in the verse, that a Rhythm which by this means is made 
full and pleasant to the ear, closes, and another begins. To judge of 
this requires a deeper knowledge of versification, than can be imparted 
here. — In a narrower sense, that is called a verse-caesura which occurs 
in certain determinate places, and of which every verse must have at 
least one, when it is not faulty. In this sense the name is understood, 
when we say of a verse that it has ?w ccesura. This point also we 
cannot here exhaust ; and therefore subjoin further only the following 
remarks : 

a) Several kinds of verse have their caesura in one fixed place. Such 
are, of the above kinds, the following : 1) The pentameter, in which a 
word must end at the division mentioned above. This caesura is never 
neglected. 2) The iambic, anapcestic, and trocJuiic catalectic tetrame- 
ter ; all of which have their natural caesura at the end of the fourth foot. 
This caesura is sometimes neglected. 

b) Other kinds of verse have more than one place for the caesura 5 
and the choice is here left to the discretion of the poet. Still some one 
caesura is commonly the principal one. In hexameter the predominant 
caesura is that in the middle of the third foot ; either directly after the 
arsis, e. g. 

Mrjviv aeihe, Sea, \ HnXrj'id8eoi 'A^iArjo? • 
Ovk apa p.ovvov erjv | epidcov yevos, dXX ezrt yalav • 
or in the middle of the thesis of a dactyl, e. g. 

"AfSpa p.oi euvene, Movaa, | TroXvrpoTTOv, os pdXa TroXXd. 
The first species is called, by a modern expression, the masculine caesu- 
ra ; the second the feminine (or trochaic). It rarely happens that both 
are wholly wanting in this verse. In such case, however, they are re- 
placed by a caesura in the second or in the fourth foot, which are then 
usually masculine, and produce the best, effect when both occur to- 
gether ; e. g. 

akXd veov \ crvvopivopevoi \ k'lvvvto (pdXayyes. 

* This usage is most known from epic writers ; and since, in hexameter verse, 
which always has the arsis at the beginning of the foot, this caesura and the caesura 
of the foot fall together, this circumstance has often occasioned the erroneous sup- 
position, that this prolongation is effected by the ccesura of the foot (no. 22). With 
this was connected another erroneous idea; for the name ccesura was also given to 
the case, where a word was cut in two in the division into feet. But it is easy to 
see, that in all cases where any effect is produced by a caesura, it has respect alone 
to the ending of a word; which therefore may be a monosyllable. 



Appendix B. — greek alphabet. 463 

Note 8. In order to guard against misapprehension and confusion, we 
remark here further, that writers on metre, when they speak of the caesuras 
of the hexameter, often understand, in a wider sense, only those which oc- 
cur in every place of the hexameter, and by the choice and alternation of 
which, depending as they do solely on the poet, the positive euphony not 
only of single verses, but also of the whole series of verses, is produced. 
But on account of the many final syllables in every verse, the mere ending 
of a word is not enough to mark a verse- esesura in this sense; but it must 
be connected with some perceptible break in the sense, or with some striking 
position of the words. In this way the verse-cgesura then forces itself upon 
the ear, even over those indispensable csesuras, which, as well as these op- 
tional ones, must not be wanting, but which also very commonly compre- 
hend the latter in themselves. 



B. 

History of- the Greek Alphabet, p. 5.* 

It may not be superfluous to give here a short view of the history of the 
Greek alphabet, as derived from the ancient accounts and internal evidence. 

The ancient tradition was, that Cadmus brought sixteen letters from 
Phoenicia to Greece, to which Palamedes afterwards added four more, viz. 
3, £, cf>, x> an cL Simonides still later four others, viz. (, rj, \^, a; Plin. 7. 56. 
On comparing, however, the Phoenician alphabet, as it has come down to us 
in the Hebrew, it is very apparent that this story must be thus understood ; 
viz. that the Phoenician alphabet was introduced into these western coun- 
tries in a more or less perfect shape; that some tribes, perhaps those in 
Greece Proper, were satisfied with sixteen letters ; that they were not how- 
ever unacquainted with the more perfect system of other tribes, but adopt- 
ed by degrees such other letters as they found convenient ; and this, accord- 
ing to the tradition, occurred at two different epochs. 

Taking away now the letters ascribed by Pliny to Palamedes and Simon- 
ides, there remain the following, as the sixteen ancient letters, viz. 

aj3y8eiK.\fJi,vo7rp(rTv. 
The same letters are also given in Schol. ad Dionys. Thr. p. 781. 1. But 
since this alphabet certainly ended, like the Oriental one, with r, there can 
be no doubt that the v was transferred to its present place from later alpha- 
bets ; since it was originally the same with the Bad i. e. Fav. Marius Vic- 
torinus, 2468. 

If now we restore this F or Y, which was used at a later period only as 
a numeral, the traditional alphabet of Cadmus was unquestionably the fol- 
lowing : 

A B P A E F I K A M N O H P 2 T 
and the names were J/ AX0a, B^ra, la/j^a, AeXra, Ef, Fav, 'icora, Karma 
Aa/x/3Sa, MO, Nu, Ov, lit, 'Pa>, Styjua, Tav. The letters which were after- 
wards adopted, so far as they belonged to the original Phoenician alphabet 
and were in use among other tribes, viz. £, 77, £, £, assumed their original 
places. The others, which were added later, and were formed either by a 
change of the old ones or in some other way, were annexed after the T. In 
this way T became the nineteenth letter : since the Y, which was formed 
from the Fav by splitting its upper part, was already placed after the T, 
while the F itself was omitted. Indeed the F was employed as a regular 
letter of the alphabet only by a few tribes ; in the others it was afterwards 
used, along with the Ko7T7ra, only in the system of numerals, and was 

* From the author's Ansfuhrliche Sprachleh e, Bd. II. Abth. ii: p. 375, Berlin 
1S27; or Edit. 2. Bd. I. p. 9-12, Berlin 1830. 



464 Appendix E. — greek alphabet. 

dropped in the alphabet. If now we count these two (Fav and KdVm:), and 
also reckon 2ty/xa and 2di> as two, which they were originally, we obtain 
from A to T inclusive just the twenty-two Phoenician-Hebrew letters ; and, 
as we shall see, also the very same letters. 

The Oriental alphabet contained four sibilants, Zain, Samech, Tsade, Sin; 
and there were likewise four in the Greek alphabet before T, viz. Z, S, 2, 
and 2dv. The names Samech, Tsade, Sin, correspond clearly to the names 
2/y/xa, Zrjra, 2dv ; and the name Zain is consequently merged in EI. Just 
as clearly, however, can we recognize in the forms of the Greek letters £, cr, £, 
the common forms of the Hebrew Tsade, Samech, and Zain (% t>, i). We 
see then evidently, that the four sibilants, in their wanderings from tribe to 
tribe, became confounded, and exchanged their places in the alphabet. But 
this took place in such a way, that a sibilant came to stand in the Greek 
alphabet in the place corresponding to each Phoenician sibilant ; as is evi- 
dent of itself in the case of £, £, cr. The place of the old 2dv consequently 
was between n and Komra. The Zain (Dsain), which along with £ was as 
superfluous as 2ai> by the side of cr, was not however dropped like the lat- 
ter ; but common usage employed it as a double sound or letter ; or perhaps 
it was retained because the original sound dsi passed over, in the dialects, 
into ksi. 

In the Oriental alphabet, several of the soft or gently-aspirated conso- 
nants were at the same time employed as vowel letters. This continued 
to be the case in Greek (including the Latin dialect) with 'lira and with 
Fav or Y, the Latin V. The *A\qba was considered in Greek simply as a 
vowel j inasmuch as the consonant power of the Oriental Aleph was re- 
garded by the Greeks merely as an affection of the vowel sound, or the 
spiritus lenis. The Phoenician He and Hheth were sounded alike by the 
Greeks, (because they could not easily make the distinction between these 
two aspirates,) and furnished therefore two. forms of the spiritus asper. Of 
these the one (E) still maintains its place in manuscripts in the form of the 
breathing placed over a letter £ or [-: while the other (H) is often found 
on coins and in inscriptions. In the Latin alphabet this H has retained its 
Oriental power, and occupies nearly the same place as the -q in the Greek 
alphabet, viz. immediately before the I, — the having been dropped by 
the Latins, like all other aspirates. At the same time this double form 
(E and H) furnished also two forms for the vowel E, and in thi? shape 
alone they remained in the Greek alphabet, and were early employed to dis- 
tinguish the quantity. This was afterwards imitated also in the case of O, 
by writing a double o, which still appears in the cursive co, and had pre- 
cisely the same form in the ancient cursive alphabet, as we still find it in 
Egyptian papyrus manuscripts.* The Greek O corresponds of course to 
the Oriental Ain, and has the same place in the alphabet. 

Of the five letters then which were annexed after the T, the origin of Y 
and Q, has been already shewn. <£l and SE"I are simply modifications of lit, 
as is evident from their names and value. XI in like manner is a modifi- 
cation of EI* since this latter in the Italic-Greek and Latin alphabets was 
written X, and corresponds to XI both as to name and value, precisely as 
^t to <±>I. Moreover, 
sound ch, has its parallel in the Spanish language 

Of the remaining letters of the Ionic- Attic alphabet, viz. those which 
were ultimately employed only as numerals, the F retained the same posi- 
tion in the Latin alphabet, with a more strongly aspirated pronunciation; 
hence the V stands there likewise after T, and in its double capacity of 
vowel and consonant. The KoWa (Latin Q) has in all the ancient alpha- 
bets, the Phoenician included, the same name with Kdnira, except that it was 

* The form £2 seems to have been derived from <a by shortening the side strokes 
i.nd swelling out the middle. 



Appendix B. — greek alphabet. 46*5 

pronounced with the deeper vowel u or o. We see therefore that the sound 
it. which it requires in Latin, was also originally connected with it. In 
the Greek dialects which are most known, the Konna appears to have early- 
lost this peculiarity, and "become, as in some of the modern European lan- 
guages, equivalent to a simple &, and consequently to }Ldima ; while it pre- 
ferred nevertheless a connection with u or o, as is still to he seen on coins 
and in inscriptions. See Boeckh's Corpus Inscript. Grsec. I. n. 166, with 
the note; where too may he seen the old form of the KdV7ra (<P) corre- 
sponding to the Hebrew and Latin letter ; its form in the numeral system 
Cl) being merely simplified for the convenience of writing. The 2oV, in 
consequence of the ahove-mentioned exchange of places among the sibilants, 
assumed the place of the Oriental Tsade, and stood accordingly between ri 
and KoTnra. It is therefore singular, that in the numerical system it does 
not stand in the same place ; at any rate, we may hence draw the conclu- 
sion, that this system did not become fixed until a long time after the dif- 
ference between 2dv and 2iyp.a had vanished. In order to complete the 
numerical system, the letters last adopted were also employed ; but with 
these the system reached only to 800 ; and therefore to mark 900 the sign 
2ap.nl was added, by an arbitrary procedure, quite at the end. In doing 
this, however, some reference was probably had to the usage of other tribes, 
who, like the Orientals, used the ancient alphabet in a complete form as a 
series of numerical signs, and consequently with the 2dv in its ancient place. 
The abbreviation Sampi 'Jfo was without doubt similar to the letter 2ai/, 
(which was everywhere conspicuous as a brand upon horses,) if not entirely 
the same. See Scaliger ad Euseb. p. 115. Indeed it seems to me probable, 
that this numerical sign received the name 2apm, as well as this more 
modern form of abbreviation, only at a later period ; and that earlier it had 
merely the name of 2dv, and was the simple ancient letter ;* which how- 
ever had prohably long since lost its original place in the alphabet, and 
received this new one by arbitrary convention. 



[For the sake of illustration, the Hebrew alphabet, with the correspond- 
ing Greek letters, is here subjoined : 

ABTAEFZHeiKAMNSOn q P 2 T 

a/3ySe f " 1/ 3 J K \ |i y |(cr) o tt p j- t 

It must however be borne in mind, that the present Hebrew square char- 
acter is not the proper one with which to compare the Greek letters. The 
latter were derived from the Phoenician alphabet, the characters of which 
are for the most part extant in the ancient Hebrew letters as found on coins. 
To these the Greek letters bear a close resemblance ; particularly r, A, E 
(Phen. 3), H, A, O, IT, 2, etc. 

As to the four sibilants, the ancient Hebrew or Phoenician forms of Zain 
and Samech are unknown ; the power and place of the former at least have 
passed over to the Greek Z. Samech and Sin appear early to have been 
confounded by the Greeks, who finally retained the name of the former in 
the place and with the form of the latter; perhaps too the form of Samech 
(cr) was retained in the small alphabet. The place of Samech was after- 
wards filled by the double letter S, the small form of which (£) bears a 
strong resemblance to the old Hebrew Tsade. The place of Tsade remained 
vacant in the Greek alphabet ; though probably it was not so originally, 
but was filled by the ancient Idv, as supposed by the author above. 

* In a Greek sentence upon an Egyptian papyrus of nearly two hundred years 
before Christ, the Sampi appears with only one stroke in the middle, and is there- 
fore the same as an inverted Sin. See the explanation of this papyrus by the au 
thor, p. 25. 

Go 



466 Appendix C. — abbreviations. 

If this last hypothesis be well founded, we can perhaps easily explain the 
origin and name of the later numeral sign 2a/x7rl. In order to find a sign 
for 900, the old letter 2dv was adopted ; hut as both its name and form had 
long since been confounded with those of 2iy/xa, it became necessary to dis- 
tinguish it by marking its ancient place in the alphabet, viz. 'the lav which 
stood next to EK. 5 This was done by appending the lit to its name, and 
combining the forms of both letters. 

On the relation of the Greek letters to the Oriental alphabets, see Hug's 
Geschichte der Buchstabenschrift. Gesenius Geschichte der Heb. Sprach?. unci 
Schrift, § 44. 

The ancient Hebrew coin-letter may be seen in Beyer de Nummis Hebr. 
Samaritanis, p. 224. Eckhel Doctr. Nummorum vett. T. III. p. 404. Also 
in the alphabets of Gesenius's Lehrgebdude der Heb. Sprache, and in his 
Script. Literature Lingaceque Phczn. Monumenta. — Tr. 



c. 

Characters and Abbreviations in Writing. 

1. Besides the Abbreviations given in § 2. n. 
modern printing, it is necessary, in order to read the early editions, to be- 
come acquainted with a multitude of other characters. This object how- 
ever would be less completely effected by giving a full catalogue of all the 
characters employed, which would only serve to confuse the eye, than by a 
selection of such as we here subjoin in a tabular view, where they can 
easily be committed to memory, or readily referred to. The method here 
adopted is, first, to give certain simple elements which everywhere occur 
in the compound characters; and then also certain compounds, by the anal- 
ogy of which other compound characters may be recognized, wherever then- 
ar e met with. 

2. In this Table therefore, Series I. contains only forms of single letters 
which are no longer used in ordinary printing ; and even not in the earlier, 
except as elements of more complicated characters. Thus, e. g. the two- 
fold form of €, which is found in the characters for iv and eVi in Col. IV ; 
and the form of cr, found in like manner in the characters for aa, ao, crco, 
in Col. V. Both these letters, however, serve also as elements in charac- 
ters not here given. 

3. The unusual figure of the k in Series I. must not be confounded (1) with 
the rj, as an element of rjv in Series II ; nor (2) with the character for n at 
the end of the same series; especially when the upper part of this charac 
ter is not bent far enough back, as is the case with some kinds of type. 

4. Of the three forms of v in Series I, the first was formerly very com- 
mon, and the second is the same furnished with the stroke of union on the 
right. It is obvious, that the letter in this shape stands in the same rela- 
tion to the common /i, as N to M. The third form of the v was used as a 
final letter, and is common in many current editions, especially those print- 
ed at Bale, e. g. of Eustathius ; and must not be confounded with the very 
.similar character for aa in Col. V. 

5. Series II. contains several characters, the elements of which would 
not at first sight be obvious ; and which are therefore separated from the 
alphabetical columns III-VI. This might indeed have been done also 
with some of those beginning with in in Col. IV ; but it was thought pref- 
erable to leave these latler all standing together, for the sake of easier 
comparison. 

6. The Columns III-VI contain therefore only such characters, whose 
initial letter, with the help of Series I, may be easily ascertained. They 
all stand in alphabetical order. 



Appendix C. — abbreviations. 



467 







TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS. 






I. 


X 


r 


c P L (/ \r 


a 


7 


6 € K V V 



w C 



II. 



% i • . » 4 f •'■ S ^ or ■ & J 

~ov yap yap eo el e\ r\v ov tco v 



Be 



e <i 



Kai TV 



IV. 
in elvai 

Of €V 

V7ry eireihr] 
%rdj eirev 

hlTX €7TC 

» \ 
eiTi 



urn eirl 



III. 
^3t a6i 
o§ a\ 
ty aW 
dyj av 
"Sy dp 

OUJ& CLVTO 

yfrfry 

;k>* yap 

y^f yap 

y§ yeX 

fy yep 

<$ yep 

ffi yiverau fl ^Q 

y* 7° 

«ft? Be% 

M> Bev 

2y^ Bia 
oJg> Bca 



ev 
Kara 



4, 



V. 

JUjffi flCOV 

(Tvpv 

Of OLOV 

~* » 

CtfX. owe 
^^5 irapa 

^* 7T6/J 

§* 7T€/)t 

Tf 7TO 

C5 />° 



VI. 



^ty fiarwv 






yLtez^ 



4 






fjbev 
fiifyj fJiev 
juSlt/ p*v 

fievos 



(TO 

COT (TIT 



09 



fK$> fiera 
fiUi^x. fiera 



OS 

& 

3 

r 



era 

ltco 

rat 

rat? 

ravQa 



V rrjv 

3* 

nr 
y 

r 

Cub- TOV9 

£9 rpo 

(9§ TCO 



TO 



TOl 



TOV 



TOV 



T 3 ^} T&P 
T TCOV 



H vi 

VJJ vv 

f \S5f VTT 

$ x° 

<£ CO 

4 ep 



468 Appendix D. — technical expressions. 



Technical Grammatical Expressions. 
I. Greek. 

1. Letters, crrot^eia letters; cpcovrjevra kcu avp-cpoava voivels and conso- 
nants ; acpoava mutes, r)p.[<poc>va semivowels, vpyd^ liquids ; Sacrea, x^tXa, [xeo-a, 
rough, smooth, middle. — iirla^fiov, an old letter used only as a numeral, p. 6. 

2. Accents, etc. Tvpoacohiai accents ; but under this name are also com- 
monly included quantity, breathing, apostrophe, and hypodiastole (§ 15. 2 7 
comp. § 7. l) : o£e!a, /3apeTa, Tvepiurrcop-evr}, grave, acute, circumflex. — irvev p.ara 
breathings ; Sacreia kcu ^l\tj (sc. Tvpoa-cobla) rough and smooth. — orriyp-r], rekeia 
(TTiyfirj, point, period, uearj crriyur] colon, vTroo~Tiyp.r] comma.— xpoi/os quantity. 
o-vXkafir] Sixpovos (anceps) doubtful syllable. — xaoyxwSta f hiatus. 

3. Parts of Speech. ovop.a noun (ovop.a Trpoo-rjyopucov substantive, iiride- 
tikov adjective, Kvpiov proper name) ; dvTcowp.ia pronoun, dpdpov article (ivpo- 
raao'op.evov, vnoTaacrop.evov., or -ciktikov, prepositive, postpositive) ; /xero^ par- 
ticiple, prjp-a verb, iir'ipprjpia adverb, irpoOecris preposition, avvdeap-os conjunc- 
tion. The interjections are included under adverbs. 

4. Accidents of Nouns, etc. yevos dpo-evikov, StjXvkov, ovberepov, Masc. 
Fern. Neut. — dpi6p.b$ £vikos, bv'iKos, TrX-qdwriKov, Sing. Dual, Plural. — kXlctis 
declension, TTToocreis cases; 6p6r) or evdela, or also ovop-ao-riKr], Nom. yeviKrj 
Gen. doriKT] Dat. alriaTLKr] Ace. kK^tikt] Voc. Trraaeis irkdyiai oblique cases. 

ovop.a d7r0X.ekvp.ev0v or dnokvTov, also dnkovv and Sctikov, positive J arvyicpi- 
tikov comparative, vnepOeTiKov superlative. 

5. Accidents of Verbs, etc. avfyyia conjugation, under which how- 
ever the Greeks understand different classes of verbs which are conjugated 
alike, e. g. the verbs X, p., v, p. What we mean by the verb conjugate, as 
also by declension, is called in Greek KXiveiv, /cXtVir, inflect, decline ; inflec- 
tion, declension. — $ep.a theme § 92. 6. — 7rpoo-co7ra persons. 

avgrjen? cruXXa/3tK?) ml xpovucfj, Augm. syllab. and, temp. — dvahnrXacriao-pLos 
reduplication. t 

diddeais character of the verb, according to which it is a p^p,a evepyrjriKov, 
naOriTiKov, p.ecrov, Active, Passive, Middle. — avroTraBes intransitive, aXXonades 
transitive. 

eyicXicreis Moods ; opict'Tikrj Indie. vtxotgktikt] Subj. cvktikt] Opt. 7Tpoara- 
ktikt] Imper. dirape p.(paros Infinitive. 

XpovoL Tenses ; eveo-rcos Present, irap(x>xw* vos Preterite, p,eXXa>v Future • — 
TrapaKe'ip-evos Perfect, TraparariKos Imperfect, virepavvTeXiKos Pluperf. dopicrros 
Aorist. — 7rapdraaL9 duration, avvreXeia completion, momentary action. 

avvBe a i9 proper composition ; TrapdQeo-is loose composition, i.e. arising from 
mere juxtaposition; Trapao-vvdera words derived from compound words. 



II. Latin and English. | 



Prosody, see § 7. 1. 

Pure vowels, § 28. 1. 

Synccresis, the contraction of vowels 



Position, § 7. 8 
Hiatus, § 29. 1 



* These are also called aperafioXa, because they are not changed in declension 
and conjugation. 

t The form x a <rpy$' ia , as ^ * s sometimes written, is false ; for there is nothing 
of aSco in this word, which comes from x a <rpd>$vs having gaps. 

t From the author's Schid-Grammatik. 



Appendix D. — technical expressions. 469 

§ 15. 3. 

Resolution into a double sound, § 105. n. 10. 

Synalcephe, the union of two syllables in one, chiefly in two words follow- 
ing one another. It includes both 

Elision, § 28. 3. and || Crasis, § 29. 2. 

Synizesis, Synalcephe, Synecphonesis, § 28. n. 6. § 29. n. 11. Append. A. 7. 

Jphceresis, the taking away of one or more letters from the beginning of the 
usual form of a word; e. g. eificD poetic for X<t//3g>, rj for </)# or €<f>rj t § 29. 
n. 11. § 109. I. 4. 

Syncope, the same in the middle of a word ; e. g. ripaos for reparos; narpos 
for narepo?, § 47. § 106. n. 6. $110. 

Apocope, the same at the end of a word, e. g. irdp for 7ra/x£, § 117. n. 2. 

Prosthesis, the addition of one or more letters at the beginning of the usual 
form of a word, e. g. a-piKpos for iwcpos. 

Epenthesis, the same in the middle of a word, e. g. 7rTo\ep,os poetic for 

7ToXe/LlOf. 

Paragoge, the same at the end of a word ; e. g. ivi for eV. 
Metathesis, the transposition of letters, § 19. n. 2. § 110. 11. 
Diastole, Hypodiastole, § 15. 2. 



Heteroclite, § 56. 5. 

Genus Epicanum, § 32. n. 3. 



Theme, § 92. 6. 



|§ 113. 2. 



Metaplasm, § 56. 5. 

Abundans, § 56. 4. 

Characteristic, § 91. 2. 

Union-vowel, § 87. 5, and n. 1. 

Anastrophe, § 117. 3. 

Tmesis, the separation of the preposition of a compound verb from the verb, 
e. g. air* &v ehovro Ionic for diredovro ovv> § 147. n. 7. 

Correlatives, § 78. § 116. 

Fer&s Transitive, those which take an immediate object in the Accus. upon 
which the action passes over, § 131. 2. 

Intransitive or Neuter, those which take no immediate object, §131.2. 

reflexive and reciprocal, $ 89. 1. § 135. 2, 7, 8 ; comp. § 74. 3, 4 and 

marg. note. 

causative 

immediate 

impersonal, § 129. 18. 

Apposition, when one noun is joined to another in the same case, for the 
sake of explanation or further description; e. g. Kvpo? jUao-ikevs, Cyrus 
the king; ifiol era narpi, to me thy father. § 123. 1, 

Hypothetical or Conditional Construction, § 139. m. 22. 

Attraction, § 142. 2. § 143. 3. § 151. I. 

Asyndeton, § 151. IX. 

Inversion or Hyperbaton, when one or more words are placed out of their 
natural order ; e. g. iv aXKore oXXg>, for akXore iv aXXo, c another time in 
another; 5 § 151. III. 1. 

Ellipsis, the omission of one or more words, § 151. IV. 

Pleonasm, when one or more words, strictly taken, stand superfluously, in- 
asmuch as their sense is already contained in the context, § 151. VI. 

Anacoluthon, § 151. II. 

Aposiopesis, § 151. V. 

Epexegesis, § 151. VII. 

Zeugma, §151. VIII. 



470 



Appendix E. — tables for declension. 



Tables of Woeds for Declension. 



dyopd market 
'Ayximjs (long t) 
ddoXeorxy? prattler 
'Adrjva Minerva 
Alveias JEneas 
arnvda thorn 
apiWa combat 
apovpa ploughed land 
dfTxpKla business 
yaKrj weasel 
yrj earth 
yXaxrcra tongue 
86ga opinion 
e^toVa adder 
£02/77 zone 
fjpepa day 
SaXaacra sea 
Svpa (short v) door 
Keicpo7rldr)S (short 1) 



FIRST DECLENSION, p. 47.* 

Kecpakrj head 
k\€7ttt]9 thiej 
Koprj maiden 
Kpirfjs judge 
ktktttjs founder 
Xavpa lane 
\v7n] (long v) grief 
pa6r)TX)$ scholar 
peXicrara bee 
pepipva solicitude 
Midas (short 1) 
poipa portion 
v'ikt] (long t) victory 
vvpcprj bride 
dpyr) wrath 

6pvi6odi)pas G. a, bird- 
catcher 
Hep<rr)s a Persian 
7r\evpd side 



7tvktt}s boxer 
nv\ri (v) gate 
pi£a root 
a-Kid shadow 
2kv6t]s (v) a Scythian 
(rreyn roof 
(Trod porch 
(TCpaipa sphere 
acpvpa hammer 
o-^oXt; leisure 
criorr]p[a deliverance 
rapia? steward 
rexy'iT*}? artisan 
vkr) (long v) forest 
cpikia friendship 
X a pd joy 

X^aiva outer-garment 
X<*>P a country 
y\rvxr) soul 



SECOND DECLENSION, p. 49. 

Feminines in 0?. 

1. Besides trees (§ 32. 4) also the following plants : 
77 /3t/3Xos or /3u/3Xor the papyrus-plant 
fj kokko? the scarlet- oak 

berry 
dxolvos bulrush 

With these connect: 
fivcrcro9 fine linen 
/3t/3Xos- and dekro? book 



but 6 kokkos a berry, and especially the sca?'lei 
vdphos spikenard * pd<pavo? cabbage 



fidAavos ) 



boKos beam 

pdfibo? rod aicvhos 

The following stones and earths : 
6, t) Xidos, as Fem. chiefly of rare and precious stones. 



apyiXos clay 
aacpaXro? asphaltus 
Qdaavos touchstone, trial 
yv-^ros gypsum 

rjXeKrpos (also to rjXeKrpov) am- 
ber 

With these connect : 

appos, i\rdppos, apaBos, yjsdpados, 
ylrrj<po? pebble, vote 
vaXos glass 
Kairpos filth 
o~tto§6s ashes 



Kpvo-TakXos crystal; but 6 upvaTak- 

Xos ice. 
p'iKtos cinnabar 
adTTCpeipos sapphire 
crpdpaybos smaragdus 
TiTavos lime. 

sand 

tt\Lv6os tile 
/3a>Xor clod 
ov6os dung 
aV/3oXor soot 



* These Tables of Words for Practice are ai-ranged simply in alphabetical order, 
that the learner may be exercised in judging which of the l'ules given in the gram- 
mar is to be applied in each instance. 



Appendix E. — tables for declension. 



471 



3. Belonging to the idea of vessel, 
KifSaros ark 

XqXo? chest 

cropos coffin 

appi^os basket 

Kapdonos kneading-trough 

dadpivBo? and 

nveXo? bathing-tub 

4. Belonging to the idea of way : 
686? and KeXevOos way 

oipos (6, fj) path 

5. The following single words : 
Xepo-o? and rjiveipos continent 
vrjaros island 

v6(ro? disease 
Spocro? dew 
yvdOos jaw-bone 
Kepico? tail 
pivos (fj, 6) hide 
ty'iado? (fj, 6) mat 

and with a difference of meaning 
rj XeKidos yolk 



receptacle, etc. 
Xtjvo? wine-press 
oLKaros (fj, 6) kind of ship 
crrdpvos (fj, 6) jug 
XtjkvBos oil-jlask 
irpoxoos, 7rp6)(ovsj watering-pot 
Kapivos stove 
SoXos (rj, 6) cupola 

arpaTTos and rpifios footpath 
rdtppos and Kantros trench 

p.f]piv6os twine 
rrjfievvos toga 
fidpfiiTos (fj, 6) lyre 
rdpto-os runnet 
yepavo? crane 
Kopvdo?, Kopv8aXo9 y lark 
ko^Xo? (6, fj) snail 



6 XeiciOo? pea-soup 



ayyeXos messenger 
aeros eagle 
aOXos combat 
affXov prize 
fj apTrdkos vine 
avdpanros man 
apyvpos and 
dpyvpiov silver 
epyov work 
evpo? east- wind 
{ecpvpos west-wind 
Ipdrcop over-garment 



Words for Practice. 

top violet 

KapKtvos crab 

KacrcTLTepos tin 

6 icepaao? cherry-tree 

6 kotlvos wild olive-tree 

prjXov apple 

fj prjXo? apple-tree 

poXifio? or p.6Xv(S8o$ lead 

popcou part 

votos south-wind 

f-vXov wood 

oIkos house 



TraibLov child 
p'68ov rose 
aldrjpos iron 
(iTvacrpos spasm 
a-rparos army 
ravpos bull 
(pdppaKov medicine 
fj cpt]yo9 beech-tree 
cpopriov burden 
XclXkos copper 
Xpvcros and 
Xpvcriov gold 



THIRD DECLENSION. 

Catalogue of words which have the syllable before the case- ending long * 

$ 41. n. 1. 

Nouns in ir and v? which in flexion have 8 ; all Feminines. 
d\lrls vault KrjXi? spot, stain pacpavis radish 

fiaXfils goal kXtji? (Ion. for kXcl?) key yjsrjcpLs pebble 

mpis sea- crab Kv-qpL? greave dayv? puppet 

nrjids sap Kpr)7ris stand, base 

or which in flexion have 3- : 

fj ayXi? clove of garlick 6, fj opvis bird 

fj peppi? string fj Koopvs bunch, tuft. 



* The learner must here pay particular regard to the accent, in respect both to 
its position and form, according to the general rules, and also the special ones re- 
ferred to in § 43. 2. 



472 



Appendix E. — tables for declension. 



( n tr and vs which in ilexion have v : 
t] 'Is smew r) pis nose 

rj a.KTi? ray 
f) yXco^t? point 
'EAeuo-i'y Toprvs 2a\apis 

In av, vv, ap : 
6 naidv paean 
6 -ty-ap starling 

In ap G. to? : 
to cppeap well 

In £ G. ko? : 

/3Xa£ fiXaico? stupid 
6 Sa>pag breastplate 
6 Upa£ kite 
6 i£ (an insect) 
r) (pi!- sphinx 
r) (ppi£ shudder 



6, rj Sis heap, shore 
6 diXcpi? dolphin 
fj co8ls throe 
Tpa%i? $6picvs 

6 poo-vv vjooden tower 
6 Kdp a Carian 

to areap tallow 



6 avpcpat- filth 
cpevat- deceiver 
Qalag a Phceacian 
r) pahit; branch 
6 a-Kavbi$- chervil 
r) cnrabi^ palm-branch 

r) o-avhvt; vermilion 



6 Kopda£ sort of dance 

6 \d(3pag shark 

6 o'Lat- rudder 

r) aig crowd, press 

r) /3<='p/3i£ child's top 

6 7rep§t£ partridge 
6 <$>oivi$- Phoenician, palm, redness 
6 /3op/3u£ silkworm 6 Krjijg (a sea-bird) 
6 doidvg pestle Krjpvg herald 

In £ G. yo?: 
r) pd£ grape 6 kokkv^ cuckoo 

r) pdcrTi£ scourge r) 7re/x(pi£ bubble, blister 6 tItti^ cricket 

In £ G. x os: 1 ^ 4 '£ crumb. 

In yjs G. iTos : 

6 n//, Kvty, Qpty, names of insects 

6 pi\jf bulrush 6 yv-^r vulture 6 ypv^r griffin, condor 



Words for Practice, p. 57. 

The letters before the case-endings, which cannot be determined by the 
general rules given in the grammar, are subjoined in parentheses. 

All the following words have the vowels a, i, v, before the case- endings 
short. Those which have them long are given in the preceding lists. 

1. Words having a consonant before the case-ending. 



o dyicav elbow 

r) drjdoov (o) nightingale 

6 dr)p (e) air 

6 aWrjp (e) ether 

7 at'l (7), 8 oat 

r) akcoirrji- (e) fox 
6 dvdpid? (vt) statue 
6 a£a>v (0) axle 
r) avka£ (k) furrow 

h Pj£ W cou S h 

6 yepcov (out) old man 

r) dais (t) feast 

r) 8a? (h) torch 

6 dpaKcov (ovt) dragon 

r] 'EXXd? (d) Greece 

6 "EXXrjv a Greek 

h iXni? (5) hope 



r) epis (8) strife 

6 Sepdn&v (ovt) servant 

6 Ipd? (vr) thong 

r) KaTrfkiyjs (cp) ladder 

6 icXoiv bough 

?/ Kopvs ($) helmet 

6 ktzl? (ev) comb 

r) kv\i£ (k) cup 

to Kvpa wave 

rj XcuXcn//' (it) hurricane 

6 AaKedv 

6 Xdpvy£ (y) larynx 

6 Xiprjv (e) haven 

r) Xtyl (k) lynx 

6 pr)v month 

to veKrap nectar 

6 owg (x) nail, claw 



x4_PPENDIX E. TABLES FOR DECLENSION 



473 



6 vprv£ (y) quail 
so ovOap (r) udder 
6 nevrjs (t) poor man 
6 7rlva£ (<) tablet 
6 7roi[Mr]u (e) shepherd 
r) ivrepv^ (y) wing 

V *tv£ (x) f old 
r) crdp£ (/c) flesh 
rj aeiprjv siren 
to crrofxa mouth 

V 2™g (y) 
37 ScpLyg (y) 
r) Tipvvs (3) 



6 cpdeip louse 

fj (pXeyjs (/3) vein 

r) cp\6g (y) flame 

6 <pa>a thief 

to <pa>s (t) light 

6 ^dXv^ (/3) steel 

6 x €l H-^ v tempest, winter 

r) ^eXiSooi/ (o) swallow 

6 xv v goose 

rj yd<° v (°) earth 

r) ■x i( *>v (0) snow 

r) xkap-vs (S) war-garment 

r) a>yjr countenance 



2. Words having a vowel before the case-endings, and more or less con- 
tracted, p. 61 sq. 



to av6os flower 
6 fiorpvs bunch of 

grapes 
to yivos race 
r) yews jaw-bone 
to o-KzTras cover 
r) dpvs oak 
6 imrevs rider 



to Kop.p.c gum 
r) ArjTo* Latona 
6 udvTis seer 
6 fivs mouse 
6 opevs mule 
to opos mountain 
r) o\jns face 
r) 7rei0a> persuasion 



6 7re\env? axe (§51) 
to neTrepi pepper 
rj ttltvs pine 
r) 7voir)o~is poetry 
r) irpagis action 
6 a-Taxvs ear of grain 
r) (pvcns nature 



ADJECTIVES, p. 78. 

Examples of adjectives in or of two and three endings, for applying the 
rules in § 60. 2 and 4. 

All are to be considered as having three endings 3 which are not limited 
to two by some definite rule. 



ayairrjTos beloved 
ahiKos unjust 
adXios unhappy 
ap-axos invincible 
agio? worthy 
dpLarepos left 
j3ap(>Tovos barytone 
(3ao-i\iKo? royal 
yecopyiKos agricul- 
tural 
yvp,vos naked 
def-ios right (dexter) 
drjXos manifest 
SiaXidos set with 

stones 
Stdcpopos different 
dUatos just 



dwaros possible 
e\a(pp6s easy 
ipvOpos red 
evKaipos opportune 
£rj\6rv7ro? jealous 
r)p,lyvp.vos half-naked 
3avp.daios wonderful 
$e7os divine 
Seppcos warm 
Svijtos mortal 
'idios own 
lepos holy 
Kadapos clean, pure 
kolvos common 
\d\os talkative 
Xelos smooth 
XevKos white 



p-aXanos soft 
pidvos alone 
gevos strange 
6£v6vp.os wrathful 
op66s right, straight 
7ro\v(pdyos gluttonous 
irp66vp.os ready, willing 
o-ep.vos venerable 
o-Kkrjp6s hard 
aocpos vjise 
andvios rare 
o~T€vos narrow 
Taka'nv&pos miserable 
tv(J)K6s blind 
(pikoreKvos loving 

children 
^coXoy lame 



474 



Appendix F. — catalogue of regular verbs. 



Catalogue of Regular Verbs. 
Preliminary Notes. 

1. In this Catalogue, it is to be assumed of every verb in respect to which 
nothing is specified, that it has the Aorist and the Perfect after the first 
form ; and that its whole conjugation is sufficiently obvious from the rules 
given in the grammar. This is also the case in respect to every particular 
tense, which is not expressly specified. Consequently, when e. g. under 
any verb there stands simply Aor. 2, in order to show that this verb has 
this form of the Aorist, it refers solely to the Aor. Act. (and Mid.) while 
the Aor. Pass, and Perf. Act. are to be made according to the first form. 

2. Where the Aor. 2 Pass, is specified, the Aor. 1 Pass, must neverthe- 
less be always formed • since it very often exists as a less frequent form 
together with the Aor. 2 ; and the verbs in which it was not used at all 
cannot with certainty be specified. 

3. The whole Catalogue serves at the same time as an Index of all the 
Verbs treated of or cited as examples in respect to form, throughout the 
whole discussion on the Verb ; if tljey have not already found their place 
in the anomalous Catalogue, §114. 

4. The expression — Pass, takes a — refers everywhere to the Perf. the 
Aor. 1, and the Verbal Adjectives; but stands only with verbs in which this 
does not follow as a matter of course. §§ 98, 100, espec. § 112. 20. 






I. Barytone Verbs, p. 146. 



dydXXco adorn. MID. be ostentatious. 
dyyeXXco announce. — MID. — Aor. 2. 

Act. and Mid. see § 101. 8. 
dyka'i£co make splendid, Fut. § 95. n. 

14. 
ay^co strangle trans. MID. (drrdyxo- 

/xat) strangle oneself, § 135. 2. 
a'Sa) contr. from dei'Sco sing. Augm. 

§ 84. 5. Fut. Mid. 
ddpotfa assemble. — MID. 
ddvpca play 
oIkl^co abuse. — MID. 
dtWco Act. also Pass. Depon. spring, 

hasten. Att. arrco or arrco, Aor. 

M a i ?£ a£ > a l s0 without i subscript. 
alarxvvoi shame. Pass, am ashamed, 

$113. n. 5. §135. 2,5. Perf. Pass. 

see § 101. n. 8. 
dtco hear, only Pres. and Impf. — 

Augm. (inrj'ia-a) § 84. n. 2. 
dKovrlCu hurl. MID. in comp. § 135. 

7. 
duovco hear, Fut. Mid. very rarely 

Fut. Act. § 113. n. 7.— Perf. dtf- 

Koa, Plupf. TjKr)Koeiv § 85. 2, 3. — 

Pass, takes a ; Perf. Pass, without 

redupl. 
dXaXd^co shout for joy, F. £co and £o- 

jiai Eurip. § 92. n. 3. 



d\a7rd£a) overcome, Fut. £co. 

dXei(pa> anoint (t). — Perf. § 85. 2. 

Perf. Pass. a\r)\ip.pai and rfXei/xfiat. 

Aor. 1. P. rarely Aor. 2. P. — MID. 
dXkdo-o-co, tt<£>, change; Charact. § 92. 

n.2. Aor. 2. P. §104. n. 2.— MID. 

in comp. (Fut. 1. M. and Fut. 2. P.) 

§ 135. 7. 
d/ijSAvj/co blunt 
d/iei/3ci) exchange. — MID. comp. dnap.. 

§ 113. n. 5. extr. 
dpekyio milk 

dfxvvco ward off. — Perf. wholly want- 
ing.— MID. § 135. 2, 5. 
dvTidfa go to meet, § 112. 9. 
dvvca complete, § 95. n. 3. — Pass, takes 
^ o-.— MID. 

aTroXavco enjoy, Fut. M. see § 114 
aiTTco kindle 

dVrco fasten to. MID. seize, touch 
dpdcrcrco smite 
apdio water. Pass, only Pres. and 

Impf. 
dp/xoTTOi, dppofa, adapt, § 92. n. 5.— 

MID. 
dpyco draw water, forms its tenses like 

di/vco. — MID. 
dpx& rule. — MID. begin 
danalpo) palpitate 



Appendix F. — barytone verbs. 



475 



daTpdiTTco lighttn, glisten 

avaivm become dry. Angm. § 84. n. 2. 

/3a8t£oo go. Fut. Mid. 

/3a7rra> dip. Char act. (p, § 92. n. 1. — 

Pass. Aor. 2. 
/3SaXXco miZ& 

8rj(T(ro>, tt(o, cough. Char. § 92. n. 2. 
@i(3d£(o, see /3aiVco, § 114. 
SkaiTTGi injure. Charact. /3, § 92. 5, 

and n. 1. — Pass. Aor. 2. — Redupl. 

$ 83. n. 1. 
BXeVco see. Fut. Act. and Mid. 

Pass. Aor. 2. § 100. n. 5. 
SXlttco gather honey, § 92. n. 2. 
8Xv£co spring up (as water). 
BovXevco counsel. — MID. 135. 7. 
Qpabvva be slow. Perf. § 101. n. 8. 

marg. 
3pa£<0 or j3pdo-(r(£>, ttg>, boil, ferment, 

winnow. Fut. o-co, § 92. n. 2. 
QpepLco murmur, roar, only Pres. and 

Impf. 
fipex<o, wet, soak. — Pass. § 130. n. 5. 
ye'juco am full, only Pres. and Impf. 
y\v(p(£> carve, v, § 7. n. 8. Redupl. 

§ 83. n. 1. 
yXcorrt^a) &iss, § 83. n. 1. 
yvcoplfa recognize. Redupl. § 83. n. 1 . 
ypdcpio write. — Pass. Aor. 2, and Fut. 

2, § 100. n. 4.— MID. § 136.. n. 3. 
ypv£oo grunt, Fut. £co. 
yvp,vdg<£> practise. — MID. § 135. 2. 
daicpvti) weep 
baveifa lend on interest — MID. bor- 

row on interest 
depcoflay. — Pass. Aor. 2 (a). 
decnroC^ rule 
devco moisten 

diKd£a> judge.— MID. § 135. 8. 
6Wra£co dow&f 

Sicukco pursue, Fut. Act. and Mid. 
8ovkevc£> serve 
SpeVco pluck. — MID. 
dpvTTTco (Spucpco) tear, § 92. 5. marg. 
eyKG)/zia£co praise, Fut. Mid. rarely 

Fut. Act. Augm. § 86. n. 3. 
iyxetptfa hand over. Augm. § 86. n. 3. 
iOLfa accustom. Augm. «, \ 84. 2. 
etm^co conjecture. Augm. § 84. 5. 
eucco 3/ie/d. Augm. § 84. 5. Not to 

be confounded with the Anom. 

eipyo) exclude. Augm. § 84. 5, and 

n. 4. See also in § 114. 
€KKkr]aid£ai hold an assembly. Augm. 

§ 86. n. 3. 
e'Xey^co confute. — Att. redupl. — Perf. 

Pass. § 98. n. 7. 



eXiVorco, TToo, wind. Augm. ei, § 84. 

2. — Perf. Act. does not occur. 

Perf. Pass. eiXiyuai and eXrjXiyuai. 

MID. 
iXirtfa hope. — eX7rco see Anom. § 114. 
ep.(pavl£(x> make clear. Augm. § 86 

n. 3. 
ivTvoi and ivrvvm equip, forms tenses 

only from the latter 
e^era^co search out. Augm. § 86. n. 2. 
eoprdfe celebrate. Augm. § 84. n. 9. 
eWyco (not a compound) impel; Pass. 

hasten, § 113. n. 5. 
imfiarizvui sail in a ship. Augm. 

$ 86. n. 3. 
emTrjdeva) be diligent. Augm. § 86. 

n. 3. 
epeidco prop. — Att. redupl. § 85. 1. — 

epeVo-co, ttco, rot<7. Fut. o-co, § 92. n. 2. 
epevyoa spit out, see anom. epvyydvco, 

§ 114. 
epecpco deck, crown. — MID. 
ept<fcD strive, emulate. — Att. redupl. 

$ 85 ; 1. 
eppjpevco interpret 
eprroj creep*, Augm. ei, § 84. 2. (Pres. 

and Impf.) Flexion from ep7n5£co. 
evdvvco make straight 
evcppaiva rejoice. Pass. § 113. n. 5. 
ewo, comm. acpeva, roast, singe 
exdaipco hate (poet.) Aor. § 101. n. 2. 
fjda) delight, trans. Pass, rejoice, 

§ 113. n. 5. 
tJkco come, am here. No Aor. and n** 

Perf. § 137. n. 8. 
SdXXco sprout. — Perf. 2> § 97. 4. b. 
$0X77(0 warm 

&avp.dfa wonder at. Fut. Mid. 
SeXyco enchant 
3epi£<o harvest 
SeanLfa prophesy. Fut. Att. § 95. 

n. 14. 
$r]yu> whet 
Srjpevto hunt 

3\i(3o) crush. — Pass. Aor. 2. 
3pava> break in pieces. — Pass, takes <r, 

$ 112. 20. c. 
%ca and %vai be furious. Pres. and 

Impf. 
topuo sef, see $ 114. — MID. 
Wvvco make straight 
UeTevco supplicate. Augm. § 84. 3. 
tpacrcrco (poet.) scourge, Char. § 92. 

n. 2. 
tp?6ipco desire. Pass. § 113. n. 5. 
t7T7reuco Wcte 
icrxvaivco make dry. Aor. 1 . § 101. n 2. 



476 



Appendix F. — catalogue of regular verbs. 



laxvco am able. Augra. § 84. 3. 
Kadaipco (not a compound) purify. — 

Aor. 1. takes 77, rarely a. — MID. 
kcuVco kill. — Aor. 2. — Perf. wholly 

wanting. — Pass, only Pres. and 

Impf. 
KaXvTTTd) wrap up. — MID, § 135. 4. 
KajiTTTOi bend. — Pass. Perf. § 98. n. 8. 
Ktipia shear. — Fut. crco in Horn. § 101. 

n. 3. Aor. 2. Pass.— MID. § 135. 

2, 4, 8. 
KeXevco command. — Pass takes <r, 

§ 112. 20. c. 
*e'AAco land. F. KeAcrco, § 101. n. 3. 
Kcpbaiva gain; Aor. 1, § 101. n. 2. 
Kr)pvacr(£>j Tree, proclaim 
<iv8vvevc£> be in danger 
KXeVrco steaZ. Fut. Mid. — Perf. Act. 

§ 97. n. 1. Perf. Pass. § 98. n. 3. 

Aor. 2. Pass. § 100. n. 5. 
<k'iv(£> incline, § 101. 9. — Pass. Aor. 

and Fut. 1 and 2.— MID. 
kAv£oo rinse 
Kvat'co scratch. Pass, takes <r, § 113. 

20. a. 
jwi&o itch, burn 
Kvaaaco sleep (poet.) Fut. § 95. 6. 

marg. 
KoiXatVco hollow out; Aor. 1, § 101. 

n. 2. 
KoAa£co punish. Fut. KoAdcra), KoAa- 

cropai, and KoXoapai. 
ko/u'£cd bring. MID. receive, § 135. 6. 
koviio bedust, kovIo-oo, KeK.6vZp.ai, later 

Kei<6vLcrp.ai from kovl^co. 
kotttoh cut. Char. §92. n. 1. Perf.l. 

(Epic Perf. 2.) Pass. Aor. 2.— 

MID. § 135. 5. 
Kopucro-co equip. Char. § 92. n. 2. 

§ 98. n. 5. 
Kpaiv<£> accomplish. Perf. § 101. n. 7. 
Kpivco judge, § 101. 9.— MID. § 135. 7. 

— aTroK.pLvop.ai answer, § 113. n. 5. 
K.pov(£> strike. Pass, takes a-, § 112. 

20. c— MID. § 135. 6. 
KpvTTTO) conceal. Charact. /3, § 92. n. 

2, and marg. — Pass. Aor. \ and 2. 

—MID. 
KTeariCoo gain. Augm. § 83. n. 1. b. 
.<r/£co found 

KV7TTl£> StOOp. Perf. KCKVCpa 

kukvco howl. Fut. Mid. 

fccoAiJa) hinder 

\a/n7rco shine. Fut. Act. and Mid. — 

Perf. 2 XeXap-na 
Aeyco sai/.— MID. — See in § 114. 
Aei'/3co powr ow£ 
Aei'jToo (eaue, secondary form Xipirdva), 



§ 112. 4. 11. Aor. 2. Perf. 2.— 

MID. 
AeVco shell. — Pass. Aor. 2, § 100. 11. 5. 
XevKalva make white. Aor. 1, § 101. 

n. 2. 
Xevcro-co see (poet.) Fut. § 95. 6. marg. 
Aewo stone. Pass, takes cr, §112. 20. a. 
A^y© leave off 

Xvy'ifa bend, § 95. n. 2. marg. 
Aup.au/co spoil, see Depon. Xvp.aivop.ai. 
Aixd loose, see Anom. § 114. 
fiaAacrcrco, rrco, soften 
p.apalv<o cause to wither. — Aor. 1 takes 

d. — Pass, wither 
p-acro-co knead. Char, y, § 92. n. 2. — 

Aor. 1. and 2. Pass.— MID. 
/xao-ri'tco scourge. Fut. £co, § 92. n. 3. 
p.epi£(o divide out. — MID. 
prjvvai point at 
p.iaivi& soil. — Aor. 1. takes rj, § 101. 

n. 2, and n. 8. marg. 
pLoXvva) stain* soil, Perf. Pass. § 101. 

n. 8. b. 
vevco nod, (eVtreuco assent, dvavevoa dis- 
sent,) Fut. MM. in Horn. Plat, also 

Fut. Act. 
vlo-o-op.ai go away (poet.) Fut. § 95. 6 

^ marg. 
vlcpoj snow 
vop.i£a> suppose 
£r]paivca make dry. Perf. Pass. § 101. 

n. 8. 
£uco raa/ce smooth. Pass, takes o - , 

§ 112. 20. a. 
otaKiXco steer. Augm. § 84. n. 2. 
olicTeipcD bemoan 
olpLGofa wail. Char. § 92. n. 3. — Fut. 

Mid. 
olvifa smell of wine. Augm. § 84. 

n. 2. 
oKeXXoa land, trans, and intrans. 
oXoXvfa cry out. Fut. £op.ai. 
6£vv<£> sharpen, irritate. Perf. Pass 

$ 101. n. 8. 
tWtSi'£co reproach, revile 
6vopa£o) name 
67rAt^co arm. — MID. 
dpeyco reach out. Att. redupl. — Aor. 

Pass, and Mid. § 113. n. 5. 
optica bound. — MID. 
opyat'z/co make angry. Aor. 1, $ 101 

n. 2. 
dpiaaoo, tto), efc'gj Char. § 92. n. 2. — 

Att. redupl. $ 85. 1.— MID.— Sec- 
ondary form opvxa, § 92. 5. marg. 

§ 114 in ^u^co. 
o£ra£o> wound, § 84. 5. §112. 9. f 1 14 

in oirao). 



Appendix F. — barytone verbs. 



477 



TraiSevco educate. — MID. 

7raXai'co wrestle. Pass, takes or, § 112. 

20. a. 
ndWoi brandish. — Pass. Aor. 2. see 

in § 114. 
naa-aco bestrew. F. crco, § 92. n. 2. 3. 

—MID. 
nelpco pierce, § 101. 8. — Pass. Aor. 2. 
n-epnco send. Perf. § 97* n. 1. — Perf. 

Pass. § 98. n. 8.— MID. 
7re7raiv(£> ripen. Aor. 1, § 101. n. 2. 
nrjaa-o), see § 114 nfj-yvvfju 
ttuuvo) fatten. Aor. 1, § 101. 4. 
■Kiefa press . (megevv §112. n. 5.) 
7rtcrT€va> believe 
n-Aacro-co, rrw, /brm, Fut. crco, § 92. n. 

1. B.— MID. 

rrAe/eco 6raid — Pass. Aor. 2, § 100. n. 

5— MID. 
TrXvvio wash, § 101. 9. 
irvlym suffocate trans. Fut. Mid. £o- 

pu. — Pass, suffocate intrans. § 113. 

n. 5. 
TTopevai bring, conduct. — Pass, jour- 
ney, $ 113. n. 5. § 135. 3. 
7ropi<fco procure. — MID. gain, acquire, 

$ 135. 6. 
npaaaoy, ttg>, do, find myself (well or 

ill), §113. n. 3. extr. 
TrpeTTco become; only Active 
7rpe(r(3ev(A> am ambassador. — MID. 

§ 135. 8. 
TtpLio saw. — Pass, takes cr, § 112. 

20. a. 
Trpo(pr]Tevoi prophesy. Augm. § 86. 

n. 3. 
7JTata> stumble. — Pass, takes <r, $ 112. 

20. a. 
nrfjacrco stoop down. Char. § 92. n. 2. 
TTTiaaat stamp. Fut. trco, § 92. n. 2. B. 
nTvaaco fold. — MID. 
7TTVU) spit. Flexion in § 95. n. 3. 

$112. 20. b. 
irv6<£> (long v) cause to rot. — Pass, am 

rotten 
paiu) smash, shiver. Pass, takes a-, 

$ 112. 20. a. 
pdnrco sew, § 92. n. 1 . c. — Aor. 2. Pass. 
peVco sink 
valve* wag, flatter;, only Active. — 

Aor. 1. takes t?, also a. 
craipco sweep. — Aor. 1. takes rj. — Perf. 

2. has the special signif. grin, as 
Present 

0-ei'co shake.— Pass, takes a, § 112. 20. 

a.— MID. 
TTjpaiva mark. — Aor. 1. takes rj, later 

a.— MID. 



0-JJ7T6) cause to rot. — Pass, am rotten, 

Aor. 2. and Perf. 2, $ 113. n. 3, 5. 

$ 135. n. 1. 
ctku£cd fo'mp 
vKcmToa excavate. Charact. cp, 4 92 

n. 1. c. — Pass. Aor. 2. 
cTKeTra^cD couer, $ 112. 9. 
aKevdCoa prepare, eo-Kevdbarai $ 103 

m. 23.— MID. § 135. 2. 
(tkt]itt(£> Act. and Mid. teem upon, sup 

port myself 
aicidfa overshadow, § 112. 9. 
crKC07rrcD scoff. Fut. Mid. 
a-rreipoi sow. — Pass. Aor. 2. — MID. 
anevdd) hasten. — MID. 
o-7roi;Sa£co do with zeal. — Fut. Mid. 
crra£co drop, trickle, § 92. n. 3. 
areyco cover 

o-ret/3<» tread upon. — Pass. Aor. 2. 
o-ret^co stride, proceed, Aor. 1. and 2. 
o-reXkco send, § 101. 8. — Pass. Aor. 1. 

and 2.— MID. § 135. 3. § 136. n. 2. 
o-reW sig/&; only Pres. and Impf. 
(rrei>a£co groan. Char. § 92. n. 3. 
arepya) love, am contented. — Perf. 2. 
crre^co s£w/J, crown. — MID. 
o-T-qpifa prop, support. Char. § 92. n. 

3.— MID. 
(TTifa prick. Char. § 92. n. 3. 
arparevco Act. and Mid. take the field 
<rTpe(f)cd turn. Perf. Act. § 97. n. 1. 

Perf. Pass. § 98. n. 3. Pass. Aor. 

1. and 2, § 100. n. 3.— MID. 
avpifa and avpimn pipe, whistle 

Fut. avpi^op-at Att. 
o-upco draw, drag. — Pass. Aor. 2. — 

MID. 
acpdXXd) deceive. — Pass. Aor. 2. 
crcpdrra) and o-<£d£co slaughter, § 92. n. 

5. — Pass. Aor. 2. 
acpiyym fasten, bind fast. — Pass. Perf 

§ 98. n. 7. 
acpvfa taatf, palpitate. Char. § 92. n. 3 

o-;(oAd£cD Aa-ue leisure 

rdo-o-co, Tree, arrange. Char. $ 92. n. 2, 

—Pass. Aor. 1. and 2.— MID 
reyyio moisten, wet 
reivoa extend, § 101. 9. 
re'ipm rub away, only Pres. and Impf. 

— For repaai see Ausf. Sprachl. 
T€icp.atpa> fix, limit. — Aor. 1. takes 77 . 

— MID. prove 
TeKTaiv<& work as carpenter, etc. — Aor. 

1 . takes 77. 
reXXco, only in compounds, e. g. eVt- 

TeAAco order, give commission, $ 101 . 

8.— MID. 



478 



Appendix F. — catalogue of regular verbs. 



rerpcuVco bore, § 101. 4. § 112. 13; see 

§ 114 riTpaisi 
TrjKca soften, melt. — Pass, melt intrans. 

§113. ii. 5. Aor. 2. Perf. 2. §113. 

n. 3, 5. § 92. 9. But Aor. 1. Pass. 

was melted, § 113. n. 6. 
tlKKco pluck, pull, § 101. 4.— MID. 

§ 135. 5. 
Tivdcrcra shake vehemently. — MID. 
rpaxvvco make rough. Perf. Pass. 

§ 101. n. 7. b. 
rpepco tremble; lias no Aor. and no 

Perf. 
rpeVco turn. Perf. Act. § 97. n. 1. 

Perf. Pass. § 98. n. 3. Aor. 2. Act. 

Pass. Mid. § 100. 4. Aor. 1. Pass. 

ib. n. 3. — Verbal adject. rparvryriov 

§ 134. n. 5. 
rpi/3co rub (l). — Pass. Aor. 2, § 100. 

n. 4. 
Tpifa chirp, Fut. |co, § 92. n. 3. — Perf. 

rerplya as Present, § 113. 7, and 

n. 13. 
rpuco rw6 away. Secondary form rpv- 

X<*>, see § 114. 
T(£>dd£a> mock. Fut. Mid. 
v(3pi£& insult, abuse 
v7T07TT£v<si suspect. Augm. § 86. n. 3. 
v<palv<s> weave. Aor. 1. takes 77. 
uco ram. Pass, takes <r, § 112. 20. a. 
(paiVco, see § 114. — Perf. Pass. § 101. 

n. T. 



cpappdcrtrco, rrco, £re#£ with medicine 
(pep/3co feed. Perf. 2, § 97. 4. c.-Has 

no Fut. nor Aor. 
cpXeyco burn trans. — Pass. Aor. 2, 

§ 100. n. 5. 
(povevco kill 
<ppdcro-co, rrco, s/ra£ in, inclose. Char 

§ 92. 11. 2.— Pass. Aor. 2.— MID. 
(ppicrcroo, rrco, shudder. Char, k, § 92 

n. 2.— Pert 2, § 97. n. 5. 
(ppovrifa take interest in 
cppvyio roast. — Pass. Aor. 2, § 100 

n. 4. 
(pvXdaaco, rrco, guard. — MID. § 135. 

2,5. 
cpureuco pan£ 
Xak€7raiva act harshly. Aor. 1, § 101. 

n.^2. 
Xopeva dance 
Xpf]£«> need, require; only Pres. and 

Impf. — Comp. Anom. xpdco, §114 
Xptco anoint. — Pass, takes <r, § 112. 

20. c— MID. § 135. 2. 
\JmXXco play the lyre, sing 
yjsaiHA) touch. Pass, takes <r, § 112 

20. a. 
^e'yco censure. — Aor. 2. Pass. § 100 

11. 5. 
yj/evB(o belie. — MID. am false, lie 
yg<£;/£a> count, reckon. — MID. decide. 

by vote 
a>SiVco am in travail 



II. Contracted Verbs, § 105, comp. p. 177. 



dy<mda> love 

dyvoeoa know not. Fut. Mid. (Fut. 

Act. in Demosth.) 
dStKeco do wrong 
aipaTod) make bloody 
alveco praise, § 95. n. 4; alvio § 105. 

n. 7. 
aipeco, see Anom. § 114. 
atreco ask, demand. — MID. § 135. n. 2. 
dtcoXovdeod follow 
aKpifioco know accurately. — MID. 
dXyeco suffer pain 
d\od(j) thresh. Fut. dtrco and 770-0), 

§ 95. n. 6. 
apace mow. — MID. 
dp<p£cr/3^reco strive, am of a different 

opinion. Augm. at the beginning. 
avian (not a compound) afflict. — Pass. 

with Fut. Mid. afflict myself grieve, 
. •§ 113. n. 5. 
dvop66i£> sit upright. Augm. § 86. 

n. 4. 



avriftdXeaj meet, entreat. Augm. §86.2. 
dvTi^LKeoD join issue. Augm. § 86. 2 
d£toco esteem worthy. — MID. 
doidida> sing (poet.) § 105. n. 1. 
d7rai/rdco meet. Fut. Mid. (later Act.) 

— Augm. § 86. 11. 2. 
awarded (not a compound) deceive 
a7reiXeco (not a compound) threaten 
dpi0peto number. — MID. 
dpKeco suffice, retains e in flexion § 95. 

11. 3. — Pass, takes a-, § 112. k>. b. 
dpdea till, plough, retains o in flexion. 

§ 95. n. 3. Att. redupl.— Pass' 

without a; § 112. 20. b. 
dprda hang up, fasten. — MID. 
dcr/ceco exercise. — Pass, train myself 
do-^aXdco am unwilling, § 105. n. 10. 
dnpdco dishonour, Fut. 3, § 99. n. 2. 
avddio talk, § 105. n. 16. 
duXe'co play the flute 
deppoveco am foolish. Augm. § 86. 2. 
/3odcj cry out, § 95. 5. See in s N 114. 



Appendix F. — contracted verbs. 



479 



ftovKo\eoi pasture trans. § 105. n. 12. 
(sptdco am strong, § 113. 2. 
(3povT(ioo thunder 
yeXaco laugh, Fut. Mid. — Has a short 

in flexion, § 95. n. 3. Pass, takes 

o-, § 112. 20. b.— Dialects, § 110. 

n. 10, 14. 
yewaco 6ege£. — MID. 
hatravdm Act. and Dep. Pass, expend, 

lay out, §. 113. n. 5. 
6yi*da>, Att. Sj]6oo, treat as an enemy, 

§ 105. n. 11. 
IfyXeco injure. — MID. 
i^Xoco wm&e known 

biairaa) (not a compound) am arbitra- 
tor. Augm. § 86. n. 4. — Pass. 

§ 113. n. 5. 
dictKoveco (not a compound) minister 

to, serve. Augm. § 86. n. 4. — Also 

MID. Depon. 
8iKai6(o hold to be right, § 105. n. 13. 
8tyjrd(o am thirsty, § 105. in. 5. 
SovXdco enslave. — MID. 
dva-apearea) am displeased. Augm. 

§ 86. 3. 
5u0-rt>x«<> «w unhappy. Augm .§86.3. 
dva-coTreo) put out of countenance. 

Augm. $ 86. 3. 
idco let, permit, § 95. n. 7. — Augm. 
' ei, § 84. 2. 
iyyvdm give*as pledge, pawn. Augm. 

§ 86. n. 3.— MID. pledge myself, 

$ 135. 2. 
e Vx 6t P"° ^ e * n Aawd. Augm. § 86. 

n. 3. 
eXeeco compassionate 
t/zeto vomit, retains e in flexion, § 95. 

n. 3. Att. redupl. — Pass, takes o-, 

§ 112. SO. b. 
e/i7reSo'co wiafo /as^, ^rm. Augm. 

$ 86. 2. 
ipTroXdco traffick. Augm. § 86. n. 3. 
eVo^X eco trouble, molest. Augm. § 86. 

n. 4. 
eTriOvpeoo desire. Augm. § 86. n. 3. 
dniopicea) swear falsely. Augm. in 

middle. Fut. Mid. 
fmxeipeco undertake. Augm. § 86. 

n. 3. 
epevvdeo Act. and Mid. search out, in- 
vestigate 
eprjpooo make desert. Fut. § 95. n. 13. 
ipv6pida> blush, § 97. 2. b. 
epcoraco ask, question 
eaTida entertain. Augm. ei, § 84. 2. 

— Pass. § 113. n. 5. 
erepoiota make otherwise, § 105. n. 1. 
evepyereco do good to. Augm. § 86. 3. 



e£o-e/3e<3 am pious 

evco^eco entertain. Pass, feast, revel. 

$ 113. n. 5. § 135. 3.— Augm. § 86. 3. 

£ea> 6o&7 intrans. retains e in flexion, 

§95. n.3. § 112. 20. b. Secondary 

form {ewvpi. 
^Xo'co emulate, rival 
£r]pi6a> punish 
£r)T€& seek 
£coypa(pect> paint 

fjftda) am young; see § 114 rj^do-Koo. 
Tjpepoco tame. — MID. 
rjx*(*> sound; j^eovce § 105. n. 12. 
Sappeco, Japo-eco, have confidence 
Srjpdo) hunt, Fut. Mid. and Act. 
SXdco crush, has a short in flexion, 

§ 95. n. 3. — Pass, takes o-, 9 112. 

20. b. 
^prjveoa lament, bewail 
$vp,Laco burn incense 
Svp6a> become angry. — Pass. § 113 

n. 5. 
IBpoco sweat, contr. § 105. n. 6. 
lpd(£> draw sc. water. — MID. 
l7T7rorpocpe(£> keep horses, § 86. n. 5. 
io-TopeoD search into, inquire 
Kaicoti) injure, weaken 
Kar?jyopeco accuse. Augm. § 86. n. 3 
Kevrea prick, sting 
Kivea) move 

/cXaco break, see Anom. § 114. 
Kkrjpoco choose by lot. — MID. cast lots, 

§ 135. 6. 
Kvdoa scrape. Flexion, § 105. n. 5. 

Pass, takes <r, § 112. 20. a. — Sec- 
ondary form Kvi]6a>, § 112. 12. 
Koipd&put to sleep. Pass, (epic Mid.) 

sleep, k 113. n. 5. § 135. 3. 
KOLvom Act. and Mid. make common, 

share 
KotvoaveoD participate 
KoXXdca glue 
KoXvpfidio swim 

Kopdoi wear long hair, § 105. n. 10. 
Kopeco sweep; diff. from Anom. ko- 

pevvvpi * 
/coo-pea adorn, § 105. n. 15. 
Korea Act. and Mid. excite a grudge, 

irritate; retains « in flexion, § 95, 

n. 3. 
Kparem have power, hold fast 
Kporeco beat, clap 

KTV7rea> resound, make a noise, § 114. 
Kvfiepvdco steer, guide 
XaXeco speak 
Xwrape'co implore 
XotSopeco Act. and Pass. Dep. rc« 

proach, revile, § 113. n. 5. 



480 



Appendix F. — catalogue of regular verus. 



Xu7reco grieve, mortify. — Pass. ^ 113. 
n. 5. 

Aoxpdco relax, yield 

pap-rupeco testify 

fieididco smile 

peXoTroieco make songs. Augm. § 86. 2. 

perpeco measure. — MID. 

piaeco hate 

veiKeco wrangle. Flex. § 95. n. 3. 

j/ea>, see Anom. § 144. 

viicdtii conquer 

voeco think; see Anom. § 114. 

vovBerea) admonish 

£ea> scrape, polish; retains e in flex- 
ion, § 95. n. 3. Pass, takes cr, 
§ 112. 20. b. 

o25aco make swell. Pres. secondary- 
forms -dvi£>, -aivco. 

oiKetoai make my own. Fut. § 95. n. 13. 

oIksco inhabit; oiKearai, § 105. n. 9. 

olKodofxeco build. — MID. 

oi/coupeco keep the house. Augm. § 84. 
n. 2. 

oiVo^oeco pour out wine. Augm. § 84. 
n. 8. 

olvooi get drunk 

olooa leave alone. Augm. § 84. n. 2. 

olarrpeco make wild. Augm. § 84. 
n. 2. 

owed) am slothful, will not 

ouaprea) accompany, § 105. n. 16. 

6/iiAeco have intercourse with 

opoXoyeco agree, confess 

6tttcl<£> roast 

opdoco set upright, erect. — MID. — 
Compound dvopdoa, Augm. § 86. 
n. 4. 

dppdto Act. and Dep. press forward, 
endeavour, § 113. n. 5. 

dppeco lie at anchor 

d^eco drive trans. — Pass, drive intrans. 

Trapavop-eco transgress the laws. Augm. 
§ 86. n. 3. 

Trapoii/eo) am enraged. Augm. § 86. 
n. 4. 

Trareco tread • 

TTeivdd) am hungry, contr. § 105. 
n. 5. 

iretpdoi tempt, prove. — 7reipdop.cn with 
Fut. Mid. and Aor. Pass, attempt, 
undertake, § 113. n. 5. 

Trrjbdco leap. Fut. Mid. 

TrXavdco cause to wander. Pass, wan- 
der, ) 113. n. 5. 

TrXeoveKTfOi am greedy, covetous 

TrA^pda/ Jill, £ 105. n. ]3. 



7roj/eco labour; see Anom. § 114; also 

§ 113. 2. 
TTordopai, see Anom. 7reYopcu, $ 114. 
7rpo£ez/eco aw a public guest. Augm. 

§ 86. n. 3. 
7rpoo-So/caco expect. Augm. § 86. n. 2. 
777-epdco furnish with wings 
moil* frighten. § 83. n. 1. c. 
7rwAeco seZZ 

ptyda) am co?d ; contr. § 105. n. 6. 
pi£oco cause to take root. Pass, take root 
poi^eco whirr. Iterat. -ao~Kov § 103. 

m. 11. 
pocpeat gulp down. — MID. 
pWaco am filthy. Redupl. § 83. n. 4. 
arjpeLoco mark. — MID. 
o-iydoa am silent. Fut. Mid. 
o~i(D7rdco am silent. Fut. Mid. 
o-Kipraco leap about, spring 
apace, see Anom. § 114. 
a-7rdco draw, has a short in flexion, 

§ 95. n. 3. — Pass, takes cr, § 112. 

20. b.— MID. 
aneipdio coil up 

o~T€(pav6ti> crown. — MID. § 135. 2, 4. 
o-uAdco plunder 

o~vvepyi& work with. Augm. § 86. n. 3. 
o-cppiydas swell from fullness 
reAeco finish; retains e in flexion 5 

§ 95. n. 3.— Pass, takes <r, § 112. 

20. b.— MID. 
Ttjpeod watch 
n/xdeo honour. — MID. 
ri/xcopeo) Ae/!p, avenge. — MID. 
roApdco dare 
rpea) tremble, § 105. n. 2. Flexion In 

§ 95. n. 3. \ 112. 20. b. 
rpv7rdco oore 

Tpv(pd<a am effeminate, revel 
vpveoa hymn, praise. Augm. § 84. 3 
vTrv6<& sleep, § 105. n. 11. 
<pdoveo) envy 
cpikeoa love 
cpoLrdoa visit 

(pvo-dco blow ; <pvcrdvT€S § 105. n. 14. 
cptopdeo detect 
XaAdco relax, remit, yield; has a short 

in flexion, § 95. n. 3. Pass, takes 

cr, k 112. 20. b. 
xapdeo Act. more comm. Mid. subdue, 

subject to myself 
^oAdco make angry. Pass, and Mid. 

am angry. KexoXcoaro § 105. li. 9. 
^cope'eo go away, yield. Fut. Mid. and 

in comp. Fut. Act. 
i^dco rub, see Anom. § 114. 



Appendix F. — deponent verbs. 



481 



III. Defonent Verbs. 

1. The most of the verbs here following are Middle Deponents; since the 
Deponents Passive or Passive- Middle have already been enumerated in 
§ 113. n. 5. p. 218 ; and need not be repeated. Yet many of these form the 
Pcrf. Passive or Aor. 1. Pass, with passive signification, according to § 113. 
n. 6. 

2. As in § 113. n. 5, many are to be taken as pure Passives; so here 
many must be regarded as the Middle of their less usual or obsolete Active 
form. 



ayopaojxat meet in debate. Homer. 

Double- sound, § 105. n. 10. 
dy<£>vi£op.ai contend together, § 135. 7. 

Fut. Mid. 
atSeo/xat feel shame, am ashamed, 

Dep. Pass, and Mid. § 113. n. 5. 

Flexion § 95. n. 3. §112. 20. b. 
alKi£op.ai maltreat 
alulaaofxaL speak in riddles 
alndofxcu accuse 
aK.eop.at heal. Flexion § 95. n. 3. 

§ 112. 20. b. 
a.Kpodofj.ai hear. Flex. § 95. n. 6. 
d\a£ovevop,ai boast 
dpao/jicu pray 
dcnrd£op.ai salute 
degioofiai welcome 
dexofj-ai receive, admit, § 113. n. 6. 
8r]\eofxai injure 
drjpidop-ai contend 
8<x>peop,ai present 
elpoivevofxai dissemble 
evavTioopai am opposed, Dep. Pass. 

§ 113. n. 5. Augm. § 86. 2. 
ev6vpeop.ai lay to heart, (evdvp.. irpo- 

Ovji.) Dep. Pass. §113. n. 5. Augm. 

§ 86. n. 3. 
i7np.rj6evop.a1, rrpoprjO. think of after- 
wards, beforehand. Augm. after, 

§ 86. n. 3. 
epyd£op,ai work, \ 113. n. 5. Augm. 

ei, § 84. 2. 
evxop.ai entreat. Augm. § 84. 5. 
fjyeopai lead on, see Anom. § 114. — 

egrjyeo § 105. n. 7. 
rjTTaop.at am inferior, worsted^ § 113. 

n. 5, also Text 5. Augm. § 84. 4. 
%dop.ai view ; see Anom. $dop.ai 

§ 114. 
ldop,ai cure 
lo-xvpifajiai affirm 

H 



Kav)(dop,ai boast ; Kav^dcrai § 103. m. 

16. marg. 
\oyi£op,ai reckon, conclude 
Xvp.aivop.ac cause ruin. Perf. § 101 

n. 7. 
\(£>(3a6p.ai maltreat 
p,a\aKi£op,ai am effeminate 
p,avTevop.ai prophesy 
p.aprvpop.ai call to witness, invoke 
p.r)dop,ai devise 
p.r)TLop.ai. devise (poet.) § 95. 11. 5 

marg. 
p,r]xavdop.ai invent, contrive, § 105 

11. 9. 
p.ip.eop.ai imitate 
p.vdeop,at tell; p.v6e1ai, p,v6eai, § 105. 

n. 7. 
p.u>p.dopLai find fault with 
vrj^op-at swim; see Anom. ve'co § 114. 
6dvpop.ai lament 
ol&vi^op.ai take omens 
6pxeop.ai dance 
Trapprjo-id£op.ai speak plainly. Augm. 

§ 86. 2. 
Trevop-ai am poor ; only Pres. and 

Impf. 
7ro\iTevop.ai live as a citizen, Dep. 

Pass, and Mid. see Passow 
Trpayparevopai carry on business, §113. 

n. 5. extr. 
Trpooip-idCofxai make a preface 
TTpo(pao~i£op,ai set up as pretext. Augm. 

after, § 86. n. 3. 
7T(£>\eop,ai frequent, Lat. versari in 

loco; § 112. 8. 
aivop,at harm. Perf. aeaip.p.ai 
aiTeop-at eat, feed 
o-iceiTTop.ai look upon, consider; see 

Anom. o-Konea) § 114. 
a-7:ovboTroieop.ai make a truce, § 135. 7. 
o-Ta6pdop.ai measure 
H 



482 



Appendix F.— catalogue of regular verbs. 



o-Toxa£ofxai aim at 
(TTpaTOTTedevo/iai encamp 
(r<j)ayia£ofxai slay in sacrifice 
raXai7rcopeo/xat endure hardship, Dep. 

Pass. 
reKfj.aipop.ai prove ; see reKpalpoi 
reKTaivoixai. work as a carpenter; see 

TeKTaivca 
rexvdofxai work skillfully 
4>€idofjLai spare 



cpOeyyofiai utter a sound. Perf. like 
crcptyya) 

(6o/3eojuai fear ; Dep. Pass. § 112. 8. 
$ 113. n. 5. § 135. 6.— $o/3eo § 105. 
n. 7. §28. n. 7. 

XapievTL&fxai speak with grace, Lat. 
festive loqui 

Xapi£op,ai gratify, favour 

yjrevdoixai lie, deceive, Mid.— am de- 
ceived mistaken^ Pass. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



Note. The following Index embraces only the more important principles and 
particular examples, which are scattered throughout the work. The general di- 
vision and arrangement of the subjects must be sought in the Table of Contents, 
after the Preface. The figures refer to the sections and subdivisions. — Tr. 



A. 

Abbreviation of letters 2. n. 2, 3 ; 
App. C. p. 466. 

Ablative by the Dat. 133. 4. 

Absolute, see Case absolute. 

Absorption of diphth. in crasis 29. n. 
4, 7. — of o in contract verbs, 105. 
ii. 14. 

Abstract into concrete 119. m. 21. — 
expr. by neut. sing. 128. 2. — in 
Ace. after verbs 131. n. 3 ; 134. n. 
2. — as Inf. 140. 5. c. 

Abundans 56. 4. 

Accent on diphth. 6. 2. — on comp. of 
vovs and irkovs 60. 5. — on verbs 
103. m. 1 sq. — never back of augm. 
84.n.4; 103. m. 10; p. 224, marg. 
— on compounds with Ses and fids 
107. m. 13, comp. m. 19. — on Gen. 
and Dat. 33. 7. — drawn back 12; 
45. n. 1; 47. n. 2; 49. n. 7; 103. 
m. 1 sq. 107. m. 31.— shifted 12; 
14. n. 3. — on contr. forms 28. n. 9; 
41. n. 7. — Rules of accent in com- 
position 121. 9. — See also Ana- 
strophe. 

Accusative, in v, 44. 1 . — as form of ad- 
verbs 115. 4; 128. n. 4; 131. 10. 
— as abstract after verbs {naxqv 
ixd x .) 131.4; 134. n. 2. — after adj. 

130. n. 3; comp. 131. n. 6, and 
text 7. — without prep, with verbs 
of motion and rest 131. n. 5. — with 
eu v. KaKcos \eyeiv v. Troiciv 131. 2. 
—double 131. 5 sq. n. 12; 135. 
n. 2. — Greek 131. 7. — pronom. ex- 
pressions for other cases 131. 8. — 
of time and distance 131. 9, and n. 
15. — as Appos. to a whole clause 

131. n. 13. — appar. for the Voc. 
131. n. 16. — with verbs Pass. Mid. 
and Intrans. 131. 1, 3, 7 135 4; 



136. 2, and n. 1. — instead of a Dat. 
with verbal Adj. 134. n. 4. — in- 
stead of a Gen. with Infin. 140. n. 
9, 10. — See also Object. 

Accus. with the Inf. c. art. 141. 1, 2 ; 
142. 2. b, sq.— Ace. c. Inf. 141. 2 
sq. — for the Nom. c. Inf. 141. n. 
4; 142. n. 3. — after on, as, see 
on. — instead of a finite verb in the 
direct style 141. n. 3. — in minor 
clauses of the indirect style 141. 
n. 5. — as exclamation 141. n. 7. 

Accus. with Particip. 144. 6. b. — in- 
stead of a Nom. c. Part. 144. n. 8. 

Accus. after olda, a/covco, instead of 
the subject of the depend, clause 
151. 1. 6. — for other cases with the 
Inf. 142.n. 1, 2. — absolute 145. n. 
6, 7. 10; comp. 131. n. 13-16; 
with cos 145. n. 7 ; instead of Gen. 
absol. 145. n. 8. 

Active used passively 134. 2. 

Acute accent on contractions 9. n. 1 ; 
28. 6. — in elision 30. 3. 

Adjectives 59 sq. 119. m. 66 sq. — ac- 
cent of feminines 34. III. 1, 3. — of 
one ending 59. 1 ; 63. 4 sq. — for- 
mation of the neut. 59. 4. — Synt. 
Adj. instead of a subst. 123. 5 sq. 
— as adverb 123. 6. — with a subst. 
but without art. 125. n. 4. — refer- 
red to a diff, subst. 123. n. 7. — 
made by the Genit. in poets 132. 
n. 12. — with an Ace. see Accusa- 
tive. — Adj. in Dat. 133. n. 6, 8.— 
in neut. plur. instead of subst. 128. 
n. 2. — as predicate 129. 7; in neut 
sing. 129. 8 ; in neut. plur. 129. n. 
11; comp. 134. n. 3. 

Adject. Verbal in reos and ros 102 ; 
129. n. 18; 134. 8 sq.— withou! 
copula 129. n. 18. — with Ace. in 



4S4 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



sread of Dat. 134. n. 4. — in neut. 
plur. 134. n. 3. — from Deponents 
134. n. 5. 

Adverbs 119. 15. — Synt. 146. — in- 
stead of adj. and subst. 125. 6, 7. 
— Adverbial phrases with the art. 
125. n. 8. — Adv. as predicate 129. 
13. — made by an adj. (x@ L & s e ^ c -) 
123. 6. — by the neut. of an adj. 
128. n. 4, 5. — by a verb with a foil, 
particip. 144. n. 6. — suffers attrac- 
tion 143. n. 5, 6; 151. I. 8. 

Adverbial endings in cor, a, etc. 115. 
3, and n. 3. — adv. adjuncts with 
subst. 125. 1, 3.— with art. with- 
out subst. 125. n. 6. — Adverbial 
pronouns 116. 2 sq. and n. 7. 

Alexandrine dialect, 1. n. 8. See 
also Aorist. 

Alphabet, history of, App. B. p. 463. 

Alternate vowel or sound (Umlaut) 
27. 1 y 92. 3. — r) and co in adj. 63. 
2. — in Aor. 2, 96. 2, and n. 6.—o. 
oi, co, in Perf. 1 and 2, 97. 4. c, 
and n. 1, 2 ; 101. 6.— in Perf. Pass. 
98. n. 3.— a in verbs \fivp, 101. 8. 
— o in first syll. of dissyll. bary- 
tones 112. 8. — in adv. 119. m. 79. 
— omitted in Perf. Pass. 98. n. 3 ; 
in Aor. 1. Pass. 100. n. 3 ; in Aor. 
2. Pass. 100. n. 5; in verbs \pvp 
101. 8, and n. 5. 

Anacoluthon 151. II. Comp. 141. 
n. 2, 3- 143. 17; 144. n. 5; 145. 
n. 4; 139. m. 61. 

Anastrophe 117. 3 ; 147.. n. 10. 

Ancipites 7.6. 

Animals, names of, gender, 32. n. 3. 

Aorist 96: 100.— Synt. 137. 2 sq.— 
for the Perf. and Plupf. 137. 3.— 
instead of the Pres. 137. n. 9. — 
impl. what is customary, and in 
comparisons, 1 37. n. 5. — in hypoth. 
constr. 139. m. 28. — Aor. and Impf. 
in Homer 137. n. 4. — in clauses of 
wishing 139. m. 8. — relations of 
time in the moods of the Aor. 137. 
5, marg. — See also Participle and 
Preterite. 

Aorist, Alexandrine, in a, 96. n. 1, 
marg. Aor. in aa in verbs \pvp, 
101. n.3. 

Aorist 2, accentuation 103. m. 4. — 

. with long penult 96. n. 7. — Syn- 
copated Act. in rjv, w, etc. 110. 6; 
106. 7, and n. 4-8. — Syncop. Pass. 
(Xvro, tWo) 110. 7, 8.— with re- 
dupl. 83. n. 10: 85. n. 4. — gives 



rise to new theh.es 111. 3. — want- 
ing in derivative verbs 96. 4; 104. 
2. — Act. is rare in verbs \pvp, 101. 
n. 4. — in o~ov, croprjv, 96. n. 9. — 
Aor. 2 Pass, more used than Aor. 
1. 100. n. 6; 101. n. 4. — without 
alternate vowel 100. n. 5. 

Aorist Pass, as Mid. 113. 4, and n. 5. 
— Aor. Mid. as Pass. 113. n. 9.— 
Aor. 1 Pass, in poets 100. n. 6; 
101. n.6. 

Aphceresis 29. n. 10. 

Apocope 117. n. 2; see Elision. — 
Apoc. forms of nouns, 56. n. 8; 57. 
n. 3. — of particles li5. n. 7 ; in 
compos. 117. n. 2. 

Apodosis omitted 151. V. 

Aposiopesis 151. V. 

Apostrophe 30. — with enclitics 14. 7. 
2.— sign of, 15. 3. 

Apposition 123. 1 sq. — with the Voc. 
129 a. 2. — with an impl. subject 
129. n. 15. — in the Ace. instead of 
a whole clause 131. n. 13. — in Gen. 
with a possess. 127. n. 13 and marg. 
— Art. with Appos. see Article. 

Arsis 7. n. 15. 2. App. A. 20. 

Article, prepositive, in cr.asis 29. n.3. 
— signif. 75. 1, and marg. — Synt. 
124. — with pr. names 124. 3. — with 
Appos. 124. n.2; 129. n. 15; 129 a. 
2. — with cardinal numbers 124. n. 
5. — with pronouns 124. n. 2, 3, 4; 
127. 9. — for our indefinite 124. n. 
6; 144. n. 1. — separated from its 
subst. 125. 1 sq. 140. 6.— repeated 

125. 3, 6, 10.— with foil. Gen. or 
adverbial phrase 125. 4; 147 napa 
c. Gen. — with an adv. 125. 6. — re- 
dundant 125. n. 8. — with the Inf. 
125.8; 140.5 sq. 6; 142. 3.— with 
a Particip. 124. n. 6; 144. 1 sq.— 
before relat. and other clauses 125. 
8. — with the predicate 129. 2. — 
Art. in Homer 126. n. 7. — and post- 
positive, as originally demonstr. 

126. 1 sq. — See also 6, and to, rd. 
Article omitted 124. n. 7 ; 125. 3.— 

in poets 125. n. 10. — with Partici 
pies 144. 1 fin. — with the Infin. 
140. n. 5, 7. — with pronouns in cer- 
tain cases 127. n. 15 sq. — indefinite 
124. 2, and n. 7; 144. n. 1. 
Aspirates 17 ; 21. 3 sq. — become 
smooth in Ion. 27. n. 1. e. — Neglect 
of the aspiration by the Ion. and 
Att. 17. n. 1; 108. II. 3; 114 &\- 
\opai. — before Srjv 18. n. 2. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



485 



Asyndeton 149. m. 9 : 151. IX. 

Atona 13. 3. 

Attraction 142. 2 ; 151. I. — with the 
relat. 143. 13; see Relative. — with 
adverbs 143. n. 5, 6 ; 151. 8.— with 
participles 144. n. 12. — with the 
Inf. 142. 2 sq. 144. n. 11; 151.1.3. 
— neglected with Inf. 142. n. 1. 

Augment 82-86. — before a vowel 84. 
n. 5. — before the prep, of a com- 
pound 86. n. 2. — retained in the 
moods of the Aor. 108. II. 1. — neg- 
lected 83. n. 6-8 ; 84. n. 2, 3 ; 103. 
m. 2. — syllabic with the temporal 
83. n. 5 ; 84. n. 5-9. — before or after 
the prep. 86. n. 2-4. — in to-r^fii 
107. m. 7. — Accent never back of 
augm. see Accent. 

Authority in prosody 7. 11. 

B. 

Barytones 10. 2 : 13. n. 1. Barytone 
Verbs 103. — Catalogue of, App. F. 
Breathings, see Spiritus. 
Byzantine dialect 1. n. 8. 



Caesura, App. A. 21 sq. — lengthens a 
short vowel 7. 15 sq. App. A. 23. 

Canon of Dawes 139. m. 6, and 46 
marg. 

Case absolute 145. 1 sq. — apparent 
145. n. 3 sq. 

Cases of verbs put with derived nouns 
and adj. 130. n. 3. 

Catalectic syllable, App. A. 8. 

Causal clauses, 139. m. 42 and 35 a. 

Causative signif. of verbs 113. 2; 
135. n. 1. 

Changes, see Mutations, Interchange. 

Characters, abbrev. in writing, 2. n. 
2; App. C. p. 466. 

Characteristic of Verbs 91 sq. — often 
difF. from that of their derivatives 
92. n. 2. marg. 

Circumflex in contractions 28. 6. 

Circumlocution, see Periphrase. 

Cities, names of, gender, 32. 4 sq. — 
as place where, 133. 4. f, and n. 15. 
—in Gen. 132. 14. b. 

Classes of Verbs 91. 4; 100 a. 1. 

Clauses, whole as object, 130. n. 4. — 
with Infin. and art. 140. 5. c. — de- 
pendent on a prep. 147. n. 4. 

Common gender 32. n. 2 ; 60. 3 sq. 
62. n. 1. 

Commutation, see Interchange Muta- 
tions. 



Comparison 65-69. — double 69. n. 3. 
The Comparative governs the Gen. 
132. 11 sq.— signif. too, 123. 7. — 
strengthened 123. n. 8. — double 
123. 8. 

Composition 120, 121. — with numer- 
als 70. n. 3. — loose and close in 
verbs 121. 2, 3. — elision in compos, 
as Kaj3j3ds: etc 117. n. 2 ; 120. 3.— 
changes the signif. 130. n. 2, and 
marg. 

Conatus, see De conatu. 

Concrete made by neut. sing. 128. 3. 
See Abstract. 

Conditional clauses 139. m. 22. — m 
Ace. c. Inf. 141. n. 5. — elliptical, 
see eiVep. 

Conjunctions, their origin 146. 5. — 
clauses with, made by Infin. with 
art. and prep. 140. 5. c. See Par- 
ticles. 

Consequential (ecbatic) clauses 139 
m. 52 sq. 

Consonants, division of, 4. — at the 
end of words 4. 5. — simple instead 
of double 21 . n. 2. See also Doub- 
ling, Aspirates, Tenues. 

Constructio ad sensum, Kara avveaiv, 
123. n. 3; 129. 11, and n. 2.— 
with the relat. 143. 5. — with Par- 
ticip.l44.n.5. — Personal construc- 
tion 151. I. 7. 

Contraction 28. — double 53. 3. — omit- 
ted 49. n. 3; 50. n. 3; in dissyl. 
in eco, 105. n. 2. — of adjectives 60. 
5; 63. n. 3. — elision in contr. 28. 
n. 7. — mixed sound short, 28. n. 
10 ; 53. n. 3. — See also Resolution. 

Copula agrees with predicate 129. 
12.— omitted 129. 20. 

Coronis 15. 3 ; 29. n. 2. c. 

Correlatives 78, 116. — in attraction 
151. I. 5. 

Crasis 29. 2 sq. 

Customary, wont, idea expr. by ehai 
and Gen. 132. n. 13.— by the Impf. 
137. 4.— by the Aor. 137. n. 5. 

D. 

Dative, elision of t, 30. n. 3. — Sing, 
and Plur. in compounds 120. n. 4. 
—Synt. 133. — with subst. 130. n. 
3.— for the Gen. 133. n. 9.— With 
verbs of approach 133. 2. a, b. — 
of setting upon, ib. 2. b. — of com- 
mand, admiration, entreaty, ib. 2. 
c. — of censure, reproach, ib. 2. d. 
— after 7rpen(i etc. ib 2. e. — of like 



486 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



ness, 6 avro?, etc. ib. 2. f. — of subj. 
judgment and in parenth. with o>y, 
133. n. 7. — with compounds in- 
stead of a prep. 133. 3. — with verbs 
of motion ib. n. 11. — double 133. 
5. — Dat. of instrum. 133. 4. a. — 
with verbs signif. emotion of mind 
ib. 4. c. — with compar. and superl. 
ib. 4. d; 123. n. 8. 9. — commodi et 
incommodi 133. 2. g, and n. 5-10; 
1 31 . n. 2. — without avv for divisions 
of troops, and with avros, 133. n. 
13, 14.— with the Pass. 134. 4.— 
as form of adv. 115. 4. — as marking 
time 133. 4. e; also place where, 
ib. 4. f, and n. 15. — with the Inf. 
with or without to, 142. 2. b; ib. 
3. — with a particip. in attract. 
144. 7, and n. 12. — absolute 145. 
5; comp. 133. n. 6 sq. — with par- 
ticiples 144. 6. c. — Dat. of partici- 
ples 133. n. 8; 145. n. 3. — instead 
of Ace. with naXelv, 131. n. 11. 

Dawes' canon, see Canon. 

Declensions 33 sq. — their original 
identity 56. n. 7. marg. 

De conatu, verbs, 137. n. 10; 144. 
n. 4. 

Defective nouns 56. n. 8; 57. — def. 
adjectives 64. 4. 

Demonstratives 76; 116. 5, 6. — Synt. 
127. 1.— strengthened 79. 4; 116. 
7. — several strengthen each other 
127. 1. c. — in like gender with the 
subst. 129. 9. — in Neut. sing, and 
plur. 129. n. 9, 10.— with the art. 
124. n. 2; 127. 9,— between art. 
and subst. 125. n. 2. — flow together 
with the relat. 127. 1. d; 143. 8. 
— for the relat. in second clause 
143. 7 ; 151. II. 4.— See also Omis- 
sion. 

Deponents 113. 4, and n. 5. — Pass, 
ibid. 

Derivation 118, 119. — verbs from 
nouns 119. 2. — of nouns 119. 6 sq. 
—of the Adj. 119. 13 sq.— of Adv. 
119. 15. — by composition 120. 1 sq. 

Desideratives 119. 5. 

Desire, verbs of, construction, 132. 
10. f. 

Diceresis, sign of, 15. 3. 

Dialects 1. 1 sq. 16. n. 1; 27. 3 sq. 
28. n. lsq. 34. IV; 35. n. 4; 116. 
n. 10; 117. n. 1. 

Diastole 15. 2. 

Digamma. 6. n. 3. — causes a position 
7. n. 15 3. — special instances 84. 



n. 6; 114 ayvvfii marg. ib. avhava. 
mafg. 

Dimeter, App. A. 12. 

Diminutives 1 1 9 . m . 6 1 . — gender 32.2. 

Diphthongs 5. — diphth. and long 
vowels used as short 7. 16. — im- 
proper diphth. 5; 28. 3. 2. a. — ab- 
sorbed in crasis 29. n. 4. — See also 
Mixed Sound. 

Diplasiasmus 21. n. 1 ; 17. n. 14 ; 95 
n. 5. 

Dipode, App. A. 12. 

Direct style instead of indirect, 139 
m. 69. 

Distribution, verbs of, c. dupl. Ace 
131. 5.— c. Gen. et Ace. 131. n. 9 

Distributive usage of ava 147. n. 1 ; 
els ib. Kara. ib. iiri ib. 

Double Letters 22. — interchanged 
with kindred single ones 16. n. 1. 
g. — Double Forms and Themes 56. 
5; 67. n. 3 sq. 92.1 sq. Ill, 112. 
— Double Questions 139. m. 62; 
in the Subjunct. ib. m. 65. — Double 
sound, see Resolution. See also 
Doubling. 

Doubling of consonants 21 ; 27. n. 
14; 95. n. 5; 114 ayvv\ii marg. ib. 
delo-at marg. 116. n. 10. — not writ- 
ten 27. n. 15 sq. — after a long 
vowel 27. n. 17. — Doubling of vow- 
els 28. n. 3. 105. n. 10; 114 Kpal 
voa. See also Resolution. 

Doubtful vowels 7. 6 sq. 

Dropping of a consonant 28. n. 4, 
117. n. 2.— of a vowel 28. n. 7; 
see Elision. — of the vowel of the 
stem 110. 4. — of a in the 2 pers. 
Sing. Pass. 103. m. 17 ; 107. m. 37. 

Dual for Plur. 33. n. 4; 129. 6. — in 
verbs, 2 pers. instead of 3d, 87. n. 7. 
— Synt. 129. 6 sq. comp. 87. n. 7 .— 
of subst fem. with adj. masc. 123. 
4.— Dual as neut. Plur. 123. n. 4. 



Ecbatic or consequential clauses 139 
m. 52 ; comp. m. 35 b. 

Elision 28. 3, and n. 7 ; 30. 1 ; 34. 
IV. 5; 53. n. 2; 105. n. 7.— in 
composit. 120. 2. — not with v, irepl, 
Dat. sing, and plur. of 3 Decl. on. 
and the like, 30. 2, and n. 3, 4.— 
removes the accent of Prep. 117. 
n. 4. — in words in k\t}s, 53. 3. — 
in composit. Kaj3(3ds etc. 117. n. 2. 
— See Apostrophe, Aphceresis, Drop- 
ping, etc. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



487 



Ellipsis 151. IV. See also Omission. 
Emotion of mind, verbs of, 131. n. 3; 

133. 4. c; 147 em c. dat. p. 417. — 

with a Particip. 144. n. 6 fin. and 

text 6. 
Enclitics 14. 
Entreaty, verbs of, 132. n. 11, 14; 

133. 2. c. — with firj 148. 2. c. and 

text 3. 
Epenthesis 19. n. 3; see Insertion. 
Epexegesis 151. VII. 
Epic language and dialects 1. n. 2, 

and text 11 ; 114. 6. See Dialects. 
Epicene gender, Genus epiccenum, 32. 

n. 3. 
Etacism, 3. note, marg. 
Exclamations 132. n. 31; 141. n. 7. 
Expletives 149. m. 24. 



Fear, anxiety, etc. expr. with oTrcor, 
/if), oriy el, &o~Te, and Infin. 139. 
m. 50. 

Feminines with masc. see Dual. 

Final letters 4. 5. — movable, y, s, etc. 
26. — Final clauses 139. m. 45 ; com- 
pare ib. m. 35 a; 144. 2. 

Formation of words, see Derivation. 

Forms, double, 56. 2 sq. — simpler of 
subst. 56. n. 8. — various of adjec- 
tives 64. 

Fractions, j?/u-, etc. 71. n. 2. 

Frequentatives 119. m. 14. 

Future retains the short vowel 95. n. 
3.— Mid. instead of Act. 113. 5; 
instead of Pass. 113. 6.— Synt. Fut. 
Indie, after el, 139. m. 23; after a 
relat. 139. m. 34; after O7rcoy in- 
stead of Imperat. 139. m. 46 ; after 
ov [xr), 139. m. 6, 46 marg. — with 
av 139. m. 12.— Fut. exactum 138. 
4 ; 139. 16. — Periphrase with pek- 
Xeiv 137. n. 11. 

Fut. Attic 95. 7. — Doric 95. n. 17. 

Fut. 2, 95. 10; 114 6aco 4. marg 

Fut. 3, 99.— Synt. 138. 

G. 

Gender, rules of, 32. — of 3 Decl. 38. 
— of a part the same as of the 
whole 132. n. 3 ; of the predicate 
129. 9-11 sq. — Genus epiccenum 32. 
n. 3. 

Genitive, Attic 51. 2, and n. 3; 52. 
n. 2. — as form of adv. 115 n. 3. — 
Synt. Position with the art. 125. 1, 
2, and n. 2. — Gen. with to, to., oi, 
etc. ib. 5, and n. 6. — of country with 



cities 132. 2.— -partitive 132. 5; in 
distribution 131. n. 9; position 125. 
n. 2. — Gen. of time and place 132. 
5.b; ib. 14. b. — of separation after 
verbs and adj. 132. 4. — after Iva, 
7rov, Trot, els tovto, toctovto, etc. 132. 
n. 6. — after the idea capable of, etc. 
132. 10. d.— with elvai 132. 5. c, 
and n. 13. — of price, etc. 132. 10. 
c. — after Comparatives 132. 11. — 
for nepl 132. n. 29. — in exclam. 
and protestat. ib. n. 31. — special 
examp. Seeiv 7re8ioioi, etc. ib. n. 28. 
marg. — ev eldoos twos ib. 10. d ; ayeiv 
X^pos, etc. ib. n. 10. — Gen. for Dat. 
fiov for pot, 133. n. 10; comp. 145. 
n. 1, 2. 

Genitive of object, after subst. 132. 1 
sq. 9 ; after verbs and adj. 132. 10. 
— of quantity, quality, degree, ib 
n. 5, and text 7. — partitive with 
verbs, etc. 132. 5. c, d, e. — with 
the idea of partaking, ib. d ; and 
of entreating, klcraopai, iKereva), ib. 
n. 11; delaOai 132. 10. a.— Gen. 
of material 132. 7. — possessive, ib. 
— causal 132. 8. — With words sig- 
nif. fullness or want ib. 10. a. — 
— worth or the opp. ib. 10. b. — re- 
membering or forgetting ib. 10. d. 
— care for, admire, contemn, spare, 
ib. 10. e. — accuse and condemn, ib. 
10. g. — with verbs of sense, per- 
ceiving, etc. ib. 10. h. — enjoy, prof- 
it, ib. 10. i. — with superlatives 132. 
n. 23. — surpass, rule, and opp. 132. 
12. — after adj. and Particip. e. g. 
in ikos, with a priv. 132. 13, and n. 
27.— with cos, nas e^ei, etc. ib. n. 
28. — with subst. omitted, ib. n. 30. 
— absolute in beginning of a 
clause, ib. n. 29. — double, ib. n. 14. 

Genitive of a Subst. with pron. possess. 
127. n. 13. — in apposit. with an 
adj. ib. marg. — in answer to the 
question whence? 132. 3. — after 
neuter pronouns 132. n. 5. 

Genitive with Particip. 144. 6. c- 
Gen. of the Infin. (eW/ca), 405. 5. c. 
—with the Infin. 142. 2. b.— Gen. 
in main clause instead of subject 
in minor clause 151. I. 6. 

Genitive absolute 145. 2, and n. 7. — 
laxly instead of the particip. alone, 
145. n. 1, 8.— instead of Dat. 145. 
n. 2; 133. n. 10. — without subject 
expr. 145. 4, and n. 9. — from an 
impers. verb, 145. n. 9 sq. — from 



4.S8 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



verbs Pass, as drfKo)6evros, o-quav- 
OevTcov, 145. 3, and n. 10. — with 
cor, 145. n. 7. 

Gentile nouns 119. m. 49 sq. 

Gerund made by Infin. 140. 3. 

Grave accent 9. n. 1 ; 13.2. and n. 1. 

H. 

Hearing, verbs of, constr. 132. 10. h. 
Heteroclites 56. 5, and n. 4 sq. 
Hexameter, App. A. 10. 
Hiatus 29. with Horn, digamma 6. 

n. 3. — after ti, on, etc. 29. n. 1 ; 

comp. 30. n. 3. 
Hyperbaton 151. III. 1; comp. App. 

D. p. 469. 
Hypercatalectic verse, App. A. 8. 
Hypodiastole 15. 2. 
Hypothetic clauses, see Conditional. 

I. 

Ictus 7. 15 sq. App. A. 20. 

Imitative verbs 119. m. 13. 

Immediate signification 113.2; 135. 
n. 1. 

Imperative 88. 6 — in Si, see Si. — of 
the Fut. 96. n. 9.-3 Plur. 103. m. 
15. — 2 pers. for 3 pers. with iras 
etc. 129. n. 13. — in Plur. instead 
of Sing. 129. n. 13. — in Sing, in- 
stead of Plur. ib. — Dual 129. 6. — 
Perf. Act. and Pass. 137. n. 13. — 
Pres. and Aor. 137. 5. — in relat. 
clauses and after on, 139. m. 36. — 
after wore, 139. m. 55 marg. — with 
negation 148. 3. — Periphrases for, 
103. 15. — made by ov and 2 pers. 
Fut. Ind. 137. n. 6. — by rt ov ; ib. 
— by oVcor, 139. m. 46. — by 1 pers. 
Plur. and Sing, of the Subj. 139. 
m. 3. — by the Subj. with p.r}, ib. 
m. 4. — by the Opt. and Opt. with 
• av, ib. m. 7, 15. — with (fiddveiv, 150. 
m . 37.— by the Infin. 140. 7.— by 
the Ace. c. Inf. 141. n. 6. — omitted 
129. 20. 

Imperfect, Synt. 137. 2, and n. 7 marg. 
— Impf. and Pres. de conatu 137. 
n. 10. — impl. what is customary, 
wont, 137.4.— with av, 139. m. 12, 
28, 29.— instead of Aor. 2, 96. n. 3. 
—instead of Plupf. 139. m. 29.— 
in clauses of wishing 139. ra. 8. 

Impersonals, 129. 18. — in the Par- 
ticip. 145. n. 9, 10. — in the Ir.fin. 
141. n. 6. 

Inchoative verbs 112. n. 7; 119. m. 14. 

Inclination of the accent 14. 1 sq. 



Indefinite pronoun 77 ; see t\?, n, ir. 
Greek Index. 

Indicative in the indirect style and 
parenthetic clauses 139. m. 23, 34, 
69. — Preterite without av, as \PV V . 
e'Set, etc. 139. m. 13. 

Indirect style, see Oratio. 

Infinitive 88. 7. — of contr. verbs 105. 
4. — in vai, accent, 103. m. 6. — Aor. 
2, 103. m. 4. — in p.ev, [xevai, ib. m. 
33. — in ev, nv, eiv, ib. m. 34. — in 
ais, oi?, 105. n. 18. Infinitive with 
and without art. 140. 1 sq. see Ar- 
ticle. — as subject 129. 18. — with av, 

139. m. 18, 54. — after coo-re, cVor, 
ofor, 139. m. 53 sq. 140. 4. — after 
demonstr. without coo-re 127. 1. e; 

140. n. 3, 5; comp. 132. n. 22. — 
as neut. subst. 140. 5 sq. — Act. in- 
stead of Pass. 140. 2. — as object, 
ib. 5. b. — after a prep. ib. 5. c. — in 
oblique cases, ib. n. 9-11. — with- 
out art. after subst. adj. or prep 
ib. n. 8. — instead of Imperat. 140. 
7; 141.n.6. — Pres. instead of Aor. 

141. n. 1. — Aor. instead of Fut, 
140. n. 1. — after on, cor, see on. — 
with relat. and conjunct. 141. n. 5. 
— expr. entreaty, command, 141. n. 
6. — instead of Ace. c. Inf. 141. 3; 

142. n. 4. — in parenthetic clauses 
140. n. 4. — with other subst. ad 
juncts, Inf. epexegeticus, 140. n. 2, 
11. — in apposit. with a subst. 140. 
n. 6. — after the idea of fearing, 
etc. 139. m. 50. 

Infinitive in Gen. with rov, 140. n. 10, 
11 . — with to instead of tov, ib. n. 9, 
10. — in oaths, see rj p.f]v. — absolute 

140. n. 4. — Fut. and Aor. after pek- 
\eiv, i\7rl£eiv, etc. 137. n. 11 ; 139. 
m. 18; 140. 1. c — Attraction of 
cases with Infinit. 142. 2 sq. — near 
adjuncts with the Infin. 140. 5,6 

141. 1. — with negatives 148. 2. g 
— omitted 151. IV. 8. — with Norn 
or Ace. see Nominative, Accusative 

Infinitive and Particip. as comple 
ment of a verbal idea, 140. n. 7 
144. 6, and marg. 

Inseparable particles 120. 5. 

Insertion of conson. 19. n. 1. — of a 
vowel, as e, 28. n. 3. — in aurdr, 74. 
n. 1. 

Interchange of consonants in the dia- 
lects 16. n. 1. — of forms in declen- 
sion 56. 2. See Mutations, Meta- 
plasm, etc. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



489 



Interjections 115. n. 7. 

Inter rogativcs, direct and indir. 17. 2; 
78. 1-3 ; 79. 2-5.— Synt. 127. 5 sq. 
139. m. 62 sq. — with art. 124. n. 3. 
— Interrog. clauses, direct and in- 
dir. 139. m. 62 sq. — several in one 
clause 127. 5. 

Intransitives 113. n. 1; 130. n. 2. — 
with an object 131.1-3. See Verbs. 

Inversion 151. Ill; 143. 14. — of the 
suhst. in relative constructions 
143. 1'2. See Transposition. 

Ionics sometimes contract 28. 5 ; 105. 
n. 1. 

Itacism, 3, note, marg. 

Iterative forms of verbs 83. n. 8 ; 103. 
m. 11; 105. n. 12; 107. m. 34. 

L. 

Labials, changed into fx, 23. 1. 

Latin words in Greek 3. n. 1. — Lat. 
mode of writing Greek words 3.2; 
5. 1. 

Lengthening of vowels 27. n. 15, 16 ; 
28. 3 sq. 54. n. 2.— of the stem- 
vowel in verbs in yn, 106. 7, and 
n. 7; 110. n. 1. See also Long. 

Let, expr. by Mid. 135. 8. 

Linguals before liquids, changes, 24. 

1 . — sometimes unchanged before 
fi, 24. 1 ; 98. n. 5. 

Liquids doubled 7. n. 15; 83. n. 2. 
Local endings en, aiv, 26. 3. — <fii, <piv, 

56. n. 9. 
Long syllables by caesura 7. n. 15. — 

before double consonants 27. n. 17. 

— long by nature 7. 6. 

M. 
Macedonian dialect 1. n. 8. 
Masculine forms with subst. fern. 123. 

n. 1 ; see also Dual. — Masc. Plur. 

with fern. Sing. 129. n. 14. 
Material, Gen. of, 132. 6. 
Metaplasm 56. 5, and n. 7 sq. 
Metathesis 110. 11, and n. 7. See 

Transposition. 
Middle 89. 1 sq. — Synt. intrans. and 

transit. 135. 
Minor clauses in Infin. 141. n. 5. 
Mixed Sound or diphth. in contr. verbs 

105. n. 15, 16.— in verbs in fit, 106. 

5.— short 28. n. 10. 
Monosyllables, accent of, 11. 3; 43. 

2. 2.— quantity 41. n. 3; 42. n. 2. 
— omit contraction 50. n. 3. 

Moods, of the Perf. and Fut. 137. n. 
12, 13. — after primary and histor. 



tenses 139. m. 9 sq. comp. m. 67. 

— their relations of time 137. 5. — 

See Subjunctive, Optative, etc. 
Movable final letters 26. 
Mutations of the consonants 16. — of 

vowels 27. — in particles 117. 
Mutes before liquids ; no position 7. 

9, and n. 13, 15. — in reduplication 

83. n. 1. a. 

N. 

Names, proper in vos from vov?, 60. 5. 
a. marg. — with and without art. 
124. 3. — Names of cities 32. 4, and 
n. 4. — of animals 32. n. 3. — of 
trees ib. 4. — of rivers, months, ib. 3. 

Nasal sounds 4, 4. — inserted 112. 10. 

Nedum 150. m. 3, 6. 

Negatives, see ov, \xr\, etc. — double 
148. 6. — accumulated, destroy each 
other, or also strengthen each oth- 
er, ib. n. 6-8. 151. VI. 1.— after 
negat. verbs 148. n. 9. 

Neuter, of the adj. 60, 62. — supplied 
63. n. 3. — Synt. 128. — as adv. 115. 
4; 128. n. 4; 129. n. 5.— of the 
compar. and superlat. as adv. 115. 
5.— of the art. 125. n. 6; 128. n. 
2 ; see Periphrase, also to, tcl, etc. 
— of the adjective as predicate 129. 
8.— Plur. with sing. 129. 3. — Plur. 
as predicat? instead of sing. 129. 
n. 9 ; 134. ii. 3. — Plur. referred to 
persons 129. n. 10; to abstracts 
129. 8, and n. 11. — Plur. with sev- 
eral subjects 129. 4 sq. — Plur. of 
adj. instead of a subst. idea 128. 3. 
— of Pron. in Ace. instead of Gen, 
and Dat. with verbs 131. 8. 

Neuter verbs and predicates con- 
strued personally 151. I. 7. 

Nominative, its formation 40-42. — 
Synt. 129 a. — for the Voc. in appo- 
sit. ib. — for the Voc. after nai, ib. 
— with the Infin. 142. 2. a. — double 
131. 6. — Nom. of the relat. suffers 
attract. 143. 13 marg. — with Inf. 
instead of Ace. c. Inf. 142. n. 3. — 
with Inf. c. to, tov, r», wore, 142. 
3, 4. — Nom. of the Particip. 144, 
n. 5 ; ib. 6. a. — Nom. absolute 145= 
n. 4. See also Anacoluthon. 

Numerals 70, 71. — Numeral signs 2, 
n. 3, 4. 

O. 

Object, not expressed 130. n. 2. — com- 
mon, expressed only once 130. n. 1 ; 



490 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



143. 7. — remoter 130. 2 ; passes 
over into the Nom. in Pass, and 
Mid. 134. 7; 135. 6.— new object 
with the Mid. 135. 5.— with \eiav 
iroieio-dcu, etc. 131. n. 7 ; comp. 145. 
n. 6. — in main clause instead of 
subject in minor clause 151. 1. 6. — 
with Intransitives, see Accusative. 

Objective clauses, i. e. which express 
an object, 130. n. 4. 

Omission, of the art. see Article. — of 
a subst. between the art. and Gen. 
125. 5 sq. 132. n. 30. — with adjec- 
tives 123. 5sq. — of the copula 129. 
20; 143. 9 sq. — of the demonstr. 
127. 1. d; comp. 130. 5. 143. 7; 
causes attraction 143. 13, andmarg. 
— of the object 130. 5, and n. 2. — 
of the subject with Ace. c. Inf. 141. 
3 ; comp. 144. 6. a. — of the apodo- 
sis 151. V. 2. — of the predicate 143. 
n. 3. — of the preposit. see Preposi- 
tions. See also Ellipsis. 

Optative, formation 88. 5. — 3 pers. in 
oi and ai, accent 103. m. 7. — in otrjv, 
carjv, 103. m. 13 ; 105. n. 4. — in vrjv, 
Ifirjv, 107. m. 33 ; 110. n. 1. — Aor. 
in eta 103. m.14.— Perf. 98.4; 103. 
m. 13; 137. n. U.—Synt. 139. m. 
1, 7 sq. — as expr. wish, command, 
ib. m. 7. — with av for the Fut. ib. 
m. 15. — after primary tenses ib. m. 
48, 67. — after cnciddv, qtclv, ib. m. 
68. — in or at. obi. ib. m. 67. — with 
the idea of repetition, ib. m. 39. — 
Perf. and Fut. 137. n. 12.— with 
firj, 148. 3, and 2. c. — instead of 
Inf. in orat. obi. 139. m. 69. 

Oratio obliqua 141. 2 sq. — passes over 
into the direct style 139. m. 69. 

Ordinal numbers in Ace. 131. 9, and 
n. 15; 128. n. 6. 

Orthotone 14. 7. 

P. 

Parathesis 121. 2. 

Parenthetic clauses in orat. obi. 139. 

m. 69. 
Part in like gender with the whole, 

as rf/r yr]s rj dpicrrt], 132. n. 3. — in 

like case with the whole 132. n. 4, 

comp. 131. n. 10. 
Parts of speech 31. — names in Greek 

with art. 125. n. 7. 
Participles, form 88. 8; accent 103. 



m. 8, 



— in ens, 110. n. 6. c. — 



Pres. oxytone 108. V. 7. — Perf. 
fern, in cm 110. 10. — Perf. with 



pres. form 111.2, and n. 2. — Synt. 
Dual instead of Plur. 129. 6.— in 
diif. gender and number 129. 11. — 
with aV, 139. m. 17; 144. 6. a, and 
n. 14. — with case changed 142. n. 
1; 144. n. 5. — depend on other 
Particip. 144. 4. — Neuter 145. n. 
10. 2; instead of abstract 128. 3. 
— Part, and Inf. as complement of 
a verbal idea 144. 6; comp. 139. 
m. 17. 

Participles in Sing, with several sub- 
jects 129. 10. — in neut. plur. ib. n. 
11. — constr. Kara avvccriv, ad sen- 
sum, 129. 11, and n. 2; 144. n. 5. 
— c. Gen. (o-vfxepepov,) 132. n. 26. — 
in Nom. for another ease 145. n. 4. 
— in Nom. for Dat. 144. n, 9. — ab- 
solute, see Case absolute. 

Participle of the Aorist, relation of 
time, 137. 6; 144. n. 3.— of the 
Fut. 144. 3. — of the Aor. instead 
of Pres. 144. n. 3. — Pres. instead 
of Aor. and Fut. 144. n. 3, 4.— 
Pres. de conatu, 137. n. 10 ; 144. n. 
4. — Pres. continued and simulta- 
neous 137. 6; 144. n. 3; 145.2.— 
Pres. with eVi, 145. n. 5. — Lat. 
Fut. Pass. Part, by the Inf. 140. 3. 

Participles, several successive ones 
without teal, 144. 4. — Part, contains 
the main action, instead of the 
verb 144. 5. — connected with par- 
ticles 144. 8 sq. — serves in peri- 
phrases 144. 9. — has declinable 
adjuncts in same case 144. 7. — in 
the various oblique cases 144. n. 
5, 8, 9. — case of the Part, attract- 
ed 144. n. 11. — Part, itself attract- 
ed 144. n. 12. — seemingly redun- 
dant 144. n. 19; 150. m. 34, 40- 
42. — with negatives 148. 2. f. 

Participial construction in Dat. 133. 
n. 6, 8; 145. n. 3. — ipol /3oiiXo/xe- 
va, etc. 133. n. 6. — Gen. absol. see 
(xenitive. — in connection with other 
constructions 144. 4, and n. 5. — 
elliptical turns in a main clause, 
in relative and other minor clauses 
151. IV. 5, 9. 

Particles, copulative, omitted in enu- 
merations 151. IX. 2. — between 
two Particip. 144. 4. — where the 
predicate stands first 151. IX. 2. — 
Inseparable particles, 120. 5, and 
n. 10-13.— expletive 149. 2.— 8c, 
re', etc. between art. and subst. 125. 
9. — between prep, and subst. 147 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



491 



n. 3. — "between irep. and art. 126. 
n. 3. — modified by the mood 139. 
m. 21. — with Participles 144. 8 sq. 

Passive, natural 89. 2. — Synt. 134. — 
personal constr. 151. 1. 7. — Passive 
tenses in Deponents 113. n. 6. — 
Pass, signif. with Act. form 113. 
n. 4. 

Patronymics 119. m. 55. — Vocat. 
34. 5. 

Paulopost Future, see Future 3. 

Pentameter, App. A. 11. 

Perceiving, verbs of, 132. 10. h. — 
with irapa, 147 napd c. Gen. — in 
Pres. 137. n. 7, 8. — with Particip. 
144. 6. 

Perfect 81. 4, 5; 97; 137. 1.— not 
yet aspirated in Horn. 97. n. 6. — 
little used by him, ib. — in ytca, 102. 
n. 9, and marg; see also Peri- 
phrase. — with signif. of Pass. 113. 
7, and n. 3. II; 107. m. 22.— takes 
also a pres. form and accent 111. 
2; 108. II. 3, marg. — Syncopated 
97. n. 7 ; 107. m. 23; 110. 9, 10. 
— gives rise to new themes 111. 1, 
2. — without redupl. 83. n. 9. — 
moods of, 137. n. 12. 

Perfect 2 of verbs in eco, aco, 97. n. 4. 
—not Perf. Middle 89. n. 2; 113. 
n. 3. II. 

Perfect Pass, accent 103. m. 5. — with- 
out augm. 84. n. 3. — without re- 
dupl. 110. 8, and marg. — 3. plur. 
Pass. 103. m. 20 sq.— as Perf. Mid. 
136. 3. 

Periphrase, in numerals 70. n. 1, 3 

** and marg. 71. n. 1. — of the Perf. 
Act. 97. n. 6.— of the 3 plur. Perf. 
Pass. 98. 2.— of the Opt. and Subj. 
Perf. Pass. 98. 4.— of the Opt. and 
Subj. Perf. Act. 137. n. 12.— of the 
Fut. with fiiXkeiv, 137. n. 11. — of 
the Fut. exactum 138. 4. — with 
the art. 125. n. 6. — of a pr. name 
with nepi, etc. 150. m. 25. — of a 
preterite with e^co, 144. n. 18. — 
with the Particip. 144. 9, and n. 
16-18. 

Person, see the articles -aai, -ei, -arai, 
-vtl, etc. in Greek Index. 

Personal pronouns, omitted as sub- 
ject 129. 15.— in Ace. with Inf. 
and Part, instead of Nom. 141. n. 
4; 142. n. 3 ; 144. n. 8. — in Nom. 
instead of Ace. with the Inf. 141. n. 
4 ; 142. n. 3. — of 3 pers. when used 
127. n. 4. — periphrase 128. n. 2. 



Personal construction, with brjkos dp,i ) 
^eyojxai, etc. 144. 6. a; 151. I. 7. 

Pleonasm 151. VI. 

Pluperfect Act. Ion. and Att. forms 
in ea and 77, 103. m. 12. — 3 Plur. 
Pass. 103. m. 22. — has in Pass, 
same form with Aor. 2, 110. n. 4. 
— with signif. of Impf. 113. 7 ; of 
Aor. 110. 8 marg. 137. n. 1.— 
'without syllab. Augm. 83. n. 7. — 
made by Aor. or Impf. 137. n. 1. 
—with Sv, 139. m. 12. b; 139. 
Hi. 28. 

Plural instead of Sing, in pronouns 
72. n. 6. 10 ; ib. n. 7. — in dialogue 
— 129. n. 13. — with collectives, ib. 
n. 12. — in direct address instead 
of Sing. ib. n. 13. — Plur. masc. 
with fern. Sing. ib. n. 14. 

Position, 7. 8, 14 — by mid. mutes be- 
fore X, fx, v,7. 10. — by the Digam- 
ma, 6. n. 3 ; 7. n. 15. — Positio de- 
bilis 7. 9. 

Positive instead of Comparative 139. 
m. 56; 149. m. 7. 

Possession expr. by the Gen. 132. 7. 

Possessives 127. 7. — periphrase of, 
ibid. — with art. see Pronoun. — for 
the objective Gen. of pers. 132. n. 
1. — not expressed 127. 8. — with to 
for personal proh. 128. n. 2. 

Predicate without art. 129. 2. — alsc 
stands first, ibid. — in Neut. of the 
adj. 129. 8. — in difF. gender and 
number from the subject 129. 11, 
and n. 12 sq. — -in Plur. instead of 
Sing. 129. n. 5. — in Sing, instead 
of Plur. 129. 5, and n. 4. — omitted 
143. n. 3; 151. IV. 3. 

Prepositions 115. 2. — Synt. 147.-r-Ae- 
cent 117. 3 sq. — stand without case 
147. n. 5.— adverbial, ib. — before 
pron. pers. 72. n. 3. — omitted? 130. 
4; 131.7; 132.3; 132. 10. c; 133. 
2. a;, 140. n. 10. — are abridged., 
icdy, etc. 117. n. 2. — separated from 
their case, 147. n. 7; see Tmesis. 
— improper, 146. 4, and n. 2 sq. — 
Compounds with prep. 121. 2; 
147. n. 5-8 ; govern the cases of 
their prep. 133. 3; 147. n. 9. 

Prepositions, put only once with two 
ideas 147. n. 2. — omitted before 
relative and like clauses, ibid. — 
before the participial construction 
145. n. 5. — govern whole clauses 
147. n. 4. — repeated alone instead 
of a compound verb 147. n. 7; 



192 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



comp. 117. 3. — with Infin. 140. 5. 
c , see Infinitive. 

Present, strengthened form, 92. 1 sq. 
112. 1 sq. 119. 4. — synon. with 
Perf. 113. 7 sq.— Indie. Synt. 137. 
n. 7 : Prces. historicum, ib. — with 
signif. of the Perf. as tJkod, etc. 137. 
n. 8. — Pres. and Impf. de conatu, 
ib. n. 10 • comp. 144. n. 4. — in- 
stead of other tenses 137. n. 8. 

Preterite, Indie, in clauses of wish- 
ing 139. m. 8. — with av, ib. m. 12, 
28. — without av, ib. m. 13, 30 b, 
51. 

Proclitics 13. n. 3. 

Prolongation, see Lengthening. 

Pronouns, see Demonstrative, Rela- 
tive, Personal, Adverbial, etc. — As 
predicate, gender, 129. 10 sq. — 
often have the art. 124. n. 2-4. — in 
Aec. instead of other cases 131. 8, 
and n. 12. — not inserted 130. 5. 

Proper names, see Names. 

Property, expr. by the Gen. 132. 7. 

Prosthesis 19. n. 4. 

Protasis with Infin. 141. n. 6. 

Protestation, forms of, 151. III. 6. 

Punctuation 15. 1 sq. 

Pure vowels 28. 1. — verbs 91. 4. 

Purpose expressed by Inf. c. tov et rd, 
140. n. 10; comp. 132. 8. — Verbs 
of, with foil. Inf. 140. 1.— See tua, 
etc. 

Q. 

Quality, expr. by the Gen. 132. 7. 
Quantity, 7. 1. — by authority 7. 11. — 

of syllables in the poets 7. 12 sq. 

— of the penult in Gen. 41. n. 1 ; 42. 

3 sq. — of the last syllable in Nom. 

41. n. 2; 42. 2. 
Quivis, how made, 143. n. 7. 

R. 

Reciprocal pronouns 74. 4. — recipr. 
signif of the Mid. 135.7. 

Reduplication of the Perf. 82. 4 sq. — 
falls away 110. 8. marg. — of the 
Pres. 112: 13; 114evw, marg. — of 
the Aor. 82 ult. 83. n. 10; 85. n. 
4. — in verbs in pi, 106. 6. — Att. 
redupl. 85; in Aor. 2, 85. n. 3, 
and marg. in Pres. 112. 13; in 
subst. 119. m. 24. 

Reflexives 74. 3.— Synt. 127. 3 sq.— 
separated in Horn. 74. n. 3. — of 3 
pers. for 1 and 2 pers. 127. n. 5. — 
omitted 130. n. 2. — reflex, signif. 



of Act. forms 130. n. 2: comp. 113. 
3 sq. — expr. with Mid. 135. 8.— 
with Ace. c. Inf. 141. 3 sq. 
Relative, in crasis 29. n. 3. — Synt. 
127. 6. — construction 139. B. m. 
31 sq. 143; 151. I. 2, 5. — agrees 
with predicate of the same clause 
143. 4. — with the art. 125. n. 9. — 
with the Inf. 141. n. 5. — instead 
of a demonstr. 143. 6; comp. 139. 
m. 35 a, old p, 3 eopyas. — for two 
clauses 143, 7, 8. 
Relative clauses 143; 139. B. — with 
causal signif. 139. m. 35 a. — in- 

• stead of aa-re, ib. m. 35 b. — in 
Opt. impl. repetition, ib. in. 39.— 
person of the verb with the relat. 
143. 2 ; after Vocat. ib. n. 1 ; after 
several subst. ib. 3. — constr. Kara 
o~uveo-iv, ib. 5. — omission of the 
copula and of the verb 143. 9, 16 ; 
151. IV. 5.— Place of the relat. 143. 
10. — with foil, on or yap, 143. 11. 
— elliptical, turns in relat. clauses 
143. 7 ; 151. IV. 5.— they take the 
antecedent in themselves 143. 12. 
— Attraction 143. 14; 151. I. 4; 
also with the relat. in the Nom. 
143. 13 marg. and 16 ; and with de- 
monstr. expr. 143. n. 4. — Attr. of 
the antecedent noun or pron. 143. 
17. — Relat. clause with prep. 147. 
n. 2. — with negative 148. 2. f. — 
instead of subst. 127. 1. d. 

Repetition, particles of, and clauses, 
139. m. 39. 

Resolution of long sounds 28. n. 2. — 
of the Subjunct. in verbs in pi, 107. 
m ; 40. — in Seco, 114 8ea>fail. 

Resolution into the double sound, 105. 
n< io. — of a vowel 28. n. 3. — of the 
Inf. elv into eeiv, 95. n. 11; 103. 
m. 4 marg. m 38. — of the Subjunct. 
Aor. Pass, in eco, eico, 103. m. 38. — 
of the diphth. in verbs in dco, dec, 
and in pi, in epic writers 105. n. 
10, 11 ; 107. m. 40. 

Rhythm, App. A. 4. 

Rivers, names of, gender, 32. 3 — 
Synt. 124. 3. 

Root 39. 1, and n. 1 ; 91. m. 2. 



Sampi, figure, 2, n. 3 and marg, 

App. B. 
Schema Alcmanicum 129. n. 5. — Pin- 

daricum 129. n. 6. — <ad 3 okov koX 

pepas 131. n. 10; 133. 5. 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



493 



Secondary forms, short, as <p2, dot, 
etc. 57. n. 3; 64. n. 3. 5. — Second- 
ary clauses, sec Minor. 

Self, 127. 2. 

Semivowels 4. 3 marg, 21. 1. 

Senarius, App. A. 15; comp. 1. 10; 
7. n. 15. 

Sense, verbs of, onstr. 132. 10. h. 
See Perceiving. 

Sermo, see ratio. 

Shifting of the accent, see Accent. 

Short syllables used as long 7. 14, 
15 sq. 27. n. 13. 

Shortening of the vowel after Att. 
redupl. 97. n. 3. — in the Subjunct. 
103. m. 39 ; 107. m. 44.— of 3 pers. 
Plur. 103. m. 27; 107. m. 39; 110. 
n. 1. — in Particip. fern. Perf. aeo-a- 
pvla, 97, n. 3. 

Singular instead of Plur. 129. 3 sq. 
— in addressing several 129. n. 13. 

Smooth mutes, see Tenues. 

So called 144. n. 10. 

Spiritus on diphth. 6. 2. — changed in 
crasis 29. n. 6. — lenis for asper 6. 
n. 1, 2. — in the digamma makes a 
position 6. n. 3; 7. n. 15. — passes 
over into o~, 112. 17; 114 eWco, 
marg. 

Stem 33. 6 sq. 39. 1, and n. 1 ; 92. 
2-7. — Stem- vowel in verbs in /xt, 
106. 2. 

Stigma 2. n. 2, marg. 

Strengthening of demonstratives 79. 
4; 116.7. See also Superlatives. 

Style, indirect, see Oratio. 

Subject 129. init. — omitted 129. 14, 
15 ; with Ace. c. Inf. and Particip. 
141. 3; 142. 2; 144. n. 8; with 
Gen. absolute 145. 4. — several, 
number 129. 4, 5; gender 129. 9, 
10. — Subj. in Ace. c. Inf. is put 
against rule in Ace. 141. n. 4; in 
Nom. ib. and 142. 4. — of the foil, 
verb as object of the preced. 151. 
I. 6. 

Subjunctive, formation of 88. — in eco, 
eico, 3 p. 7777, etc. 103. m. 38. — short- 
ens the mood-vowel 103. m. 39. — 
in cofii, 103. m. 37. — Subj. and Opt. 
of verbs in v/xi and of the Aor. in 
vv 107. m. 33; 110. 6, and n. 1.— 
Aor. Pass. 103. m. 38.— Perf. Pass. 
98. 4. — periphrase for Perf. Act. 
137. n. 12.— Synt. of Subjunct. 139. 
m. 1 sq. — delib. v. dubitat. 139. m. 



theFut.l39.m.6.— a^ter 



ov fir], 



h, ibid . 



— in indirect questions ib. m. 62,63. 
— with av, ib. m. 14. — Aor. with ov 
for Fut. exact, ib. m. 16. — after 
historical tenses ib. m. 45, 67. — 
with fir) ib. m. 50; 148. 4. 

Subjunct. and Opt. in one clause in 
Horn. 139. m. 7, 14 marg. — Sub- 
junct. and Fut. in one clause ib 
m. 5. 

Substantives, derivation, 119. 6 sq.— 
withDat. or Ace. of ^erb 130. n. 3. 
— stand as adj. 63. n. 7 ; 123. n. 1. 
— are compared 69. 3. — With two 
attrib. adjuncts and the art. 125. 
n. 3 a. — represented by clauses 
127. 1. d; 130. n. 4.— by the Inf, 
140. 5 sq. — See Omission. 

Superlative strengthened 123. n. 9. 

Supine in u, 140. 2. 

Swearing, verbs of, constr. 131. 2. 

Syllables, division into, 120. n. 9. 
See also Long and Short. 

Synalaphe 28. n. 6. 

Syncope 47. — in conjugat. 110. 1-10. 
— as basis of the form in pi, 106. 11. 
6 sq. See Elision, Perfect, Aorist. 

Synecphonesis 29. n. 11. 

Synesis, see Constructio Kara o~vvecriv. 

Synizesis 28. n. 6; 29. n. 11. 

Synthesis 121. 3. 

T. 

Technical words and names, App. D 
Telic or final clauses 139. m. 45 sq. 
Tenses, primary and historical 81. 5: 

87. 3, and n. 5; 93. — with the 

moods 139. m. 9, 45 sq. 67. — usual 

and unusual 104. 
Tenues for aspirates 17. n. 1 ; 21. 3, 
That, clauses with, made by on, <»r, 

etc. 139. m. 58-60. — by Ace. c. 

Inf. 141. 2, and n. 2. — by Particip. 

144. 6.— by ore 139. m. 59.— by el, 

ib. m. 60. 
Themes 92. 6. — double, ib. — unusual. 

ib. 5. — new 111. — difference of 

themes 112. 1 sq. — Verbs made up 

from several themes 112. 18. 
Thesis 7. n. 15; App. A. 20. 
Thessalian Genitive 35. n. 4. 
Tmesis 147. n. 7 ; comp. 117. 3 ; 147 . 

n. 3. 
Transitive and intrans. in the same 

verb, 130. n. 2; 131. 3. 
Transposition of letters 30. n. 2 ; 110 

11 sq. — fidpSiaros, etc. 67. n. 3. — 

Aor. 2, 96. n. 7. — of the accent, 

see Accent. 



494 



ENGLISH INDEX. 



Trees, names of, gender, 32. 4 sq. 
Trimeter, App. A. 12. 

U. 

Union-vowel 87. 4 sq. — omitted in 
verbs in /u, 106. 3 • comp. n. 6 sq. 



V. 

Verbs pure, contracted, liquid, peri- 
spomena (circumflex), barytone, 
91.4; 103.2; 105. — Intrans. and 
transit, differ from Immediate and 
Causat. 113. n. 1. — Intrans. with 
Ace. see Accusative. See also 
Predicate. 

Verbals in ikos 132. 13; comp. 130. 
n. 3. — in reos, tos, see Adjective. 

Versification, App. A. 1 sq. 

Vocative, in a from tjs, 34. 5. — quan- 



tity 34. n. II. 4. — like the ]\om. 
35. n. 2 ; 45. 1 sq.— of the Parti- 
cip. 45. 1. — Synt. 129 a. — instead 
of Nom. as predicate, ib. n. 2. 
Vowels, doubtful, ancipites, 7. 3, and 
n. 2. — pure 28. 1. — long and 
diphth. when short 7. 16 sq. — See 
also Doubling, Lengthening, Short- 
ening. 

W. 

Whole, see Part. 

Wishing, clauses of, 139. m. 8; 141. 

n. 6; 148. 2. c; ib. n. 7; 149. m. 

1. lilt. 
Wont, see Customary. 
Writing, ancient mode of, 27. n. 14, 

117. n. 2, marg. 



Zeugma, 151. VIII. 






GREEK INDEX. 



Note. This Index is not intended to supersede the necessity of constant refer- 
ence to the Catalogues of Barytone, Contracted, and Deponent Verbs, in App. F ; 
as also to the Catalogues of Irregular Nouns and Verbs in § 58, and § 114. The 
forms there given and explained are for the most part not included in the present 
Index. — The figures refer to the sections and subdivisions. 

A. dyopd£eiv C gen. 132. 10. C. 

ayopaios as adv. 123. 6. 
ay pel, dypetre, 115. n. 7. 
dypolai Tvyxdvei, 133. n. 15 ) 144. 

, n - V 

dyvievs, 53. 2. 

ayXh ao-o-ov, etc. 67. n. 7; 115. 7.— 

c. gen. 146. 4 ; comp. 133. 4. c, 

marg. 
ddarj? c. gen. 132. 10. d. 
ddeXcpide 36. marg. 
adrjv, adrjv, c. gen. 132. 10. a. 
a^rjs, "Aidrj?, 5. 2. — els ddov 125. 5; 

132. n. 30. 
aSiKeli/ c. acc. 131. 2. — c. dupl. ace 

131. n. 12. 
adiKo? ddiKiav 131. n. 6. 
dhvvaros, C wore 140. 4. — dbvvarov 

sc. ov, 145. n. 10. 2. — ddvvard eari, 

129. n. 9. 
del, diet, 117. 2. — 6 del, 150. m. 29. 
-dc>, flexion 92. 10, and n. 3; 95. 6 

sq. — derivat. and signif. 104. 3; 

119. 2; ib. m. 14. See -do. 
drjdav 56. n. 7. 
'addvaros 7. n. 14. 

'AOrjvd 34. n. 1. — sec. forms 56. n. 2. 
-adov, -ddeiv, verbs, 112. 12. 
ddpoos, adpovs, 60. n. 1, 5. — ddpoos as 

adv. 123. 6. 
ddvpelv Trpdyp.a(Ti, 133. 4. c. 
-ai, elided 30. n. 5. — three like verbal 

forms in -ai, 103. m. 7, marg. — 

-at and -oi short 11. 7; exceptions 

ib. n. 3. 
at yap, aWe, at k«t, 117. n. 1 : 139. m. 

at ice iridrjrai, tvx&P-i, 139. m. 66. 
aiSor etc. 56. n. 8. — d'idoade 116. n. 3 
-air) instead of rj, 56. n. 2. 
atKta 7. n. 10. 



a Dor. for 77, 27. n. 5; 34. IV. 1. 4; 

(piXdo-co 95. n. 8. — Ion. into e, 27. 

n. 9 j 105. n. 8. — alternate, see 

Alternate, 
a for 77, 27. n. 5; 34. IV. 1, 4; 95. 

n. 7. — after p, e, t, 34. 2; 53. 1 ; * 

60. 2, 6; 95. 5, and n. 6; 101. 4; 

110. n. 1, 2. 
a for 77, 27. n. 6; 97. n. 3 dpapvla. — 

a and o before e into at and 01, 27. 

n. 2. 
a impr. diphth. 5. 2. 
a privative 120. 5 sq. comp. 26. n. 2. 

— with adj. fem. 60. 4. — Adj. with 

a priv. take the gen. 132. n. 27. 
a intensive 120. n. 11. — copulative, 

ib. 
-a, quantity, 34. II. 1-4; 43. n. 3; 

long in acc. sing. 52 ; in adj. fem. 

60. 2. — As ending of acc. sing, in- 
stead of v (/3o'a) 44. 2, and n. 2. — 

of adv. 115. n. 3. —of subst. 119. 

m. 24. 
-a in neut. plur. of words in or, rd 

oW/na, etc. 56. 6. 
-aa in hypothet. Perf. 97. n. 7. 
ddaros 114 ddco. — aaro? 114 aco. 
liyapai constr. see 3avp,d£ co. 
ayav in compos. 25. n. 3. 
dyavanTelv, see Emotion, 
dyaivav c. acc. 132. 10. f, marg. — with 

Particip. 144. n. 6. — with «, 139. 

m. 60. 
dyyek\op.ai in pers. constr. 151. I. 7. 
a'yf, for plur. 115. n.7; 129. n. 13.— 

before 1 pers. Subj. 139. m. 3. — 

aye dr), 149. m. 28. 
dyeiv and compounds, signif. 130. n. 

2. — x 6t P°' y 132. n. 10. — aycoj/, with, 

150. m. 33; comp. 144. n. 3. 



496 



GREEK INDEX. 



-aiva subst. fern. 119. m. 46. 

alvodev aiva? 151. VI. 2. 

-mW, verbs in, flexion 101. 4, and 

n. 2. — derivat. and signif. 104. 3; 

119. m. 2, 9. — from verbs in dco 

and to, 112. 10, 11. 
-aio?, adj. in, constr. 123. 6. 
alpelv constr. 132. 10. g. — alpelaBai 

Mid. and Pass. 135. n. 3; 136.. n. 3. 
u'lpeiv and compounds, signif. 130. 

n. 2. 
-atpco, verbs in, flexion, 101. n. 2. 
-ai?, ending of Particip. and Inf. -accra 

Part fern. 103. m. 29 ; 105. n. 18. 
aladdvofj.cn in Pres. 137. n. 8. — c. gen. 

132.10. h.— with Particip. 144. 6. c. 

alaxpov sc. ov, 145. n. 10. 2. 

alcrxvveo-daL c. ace. 135. 5. — c. Inf. et 

^Part. 144. 6.— with d, 139. m. 60. 

alrelv, dnaiTelv, c. dupl. ace. 131.5. — 

with napa twos 131. n. 8. — alrovp-al 

o~e tovto, 135. n. 2. 
aiTiaddai, constr. 132. 10. g. 
-ou'co, see -dco. 
dtco, augm. 84. n. 2. 
dicfjv as predic. 129. 13. 
Hkovtl rfkOev, etc. 133. n. 6; see ckcoiv 
clkovt'i^lv c. gen. 132. 10. f. 
aKoveiv and compounds, constr. 132. 



10. h, and marg. 144. 6, marj 



-m 



Pres. for Perf. 137. n. 8. 

d<parrj? c. gen. 132. 12. 

aK.pa.Tos, dupaTT]?, compar. 65. n. 2 ; 
66. n. 2. 

aKpos, position with art. 125. n. 5. 

dXadco c. gen. 132. 4. 

dXyelv 131. n. 3 ; ib. no. 7 ; 133. 4. c, 
marg. See Emotion, etc. 

dXeyt^Vu/ c. gen. 132. 10. c. 

dXegeiv constr. 131. n. 2; 132. 4. 

SKriQes 150. m. 20. 

dXieur 53. n. 4. 

d'Xtr c. gen. 132. 10. a. — as predic. 
129. 13. 

dXlaKop,ai, constr. 1^2. 10. g. 

dXirdv c. ace. 131. 2. 

oXki 56. n. 8. 

dXXd, dXXd yap, and the like, 149. m. 
16. — dXXd instead of fj after com- 
par. ib. m. 7. — after a Vocat. ib. 
m. 9. 

dX\rjX<DP etc. 74. 4. 

oAAor, e'repo?, 127. 10. — c. gen. 132. 
n. 24. — oi aXXoi, rdXXa, in Horn. 
126. n. 7; see also rfiXXa. — dXXo? 
in attr. 143. 17. — d'XXor redundant 
150. m. 12. — aKXos aXXo, uK\o0ev 
aXXor, with plur 129. n. 12.— dXXo 



fj, dXX' 7, 150. m. 12, 13.— aXXo n 
fj;aX'\oTi; 139. m. 62; 149. m. 18. 

a\\(os- re <al, 150. m. 14. 

dXdco as Imperat. lOf . n. 10. 

oXr, dXer, 38. p. 52; 41. 8. 

akcpi 57. n. 3. 

dXamijt- 41. 2. 

dXco? 56. n. 6. d. 

apa 146. 3. — with particip. 145. n. 5. 
— dp,a . . . K.al, 150. m. 27. 

dp.aprdv€iv c. gen. 132. 4. 

dpeXei, 150. m. 20. 

d/ieXeli' c. gen. 132. 10. e. — with eVi 
c. dat. ib. n. 15. — dp-eXetadai Pass. 
134. 5. 

dp.Tjxavov oo-ov 129. n. 18; comp. 150. 
m. 8, and 151. I. 5. 

dp.iXXdo'dai c. dat. 133. 2. a. 

d/xdr, ap.6?, 73. n. 7, 2. 

d/x7re^co 18. n. 3. 

dp.TrXaKio-K.tiv c. gen. 132. 4. 

dpivveiv, constr. 131. n. 2; 132. 4. — 
dp,vvecrdai Mid. 135. 2, 5. 

d/Ac/n not elided in compos. 120. n. 8. 
— dp.(pi, dp.cpis, 115. n. 4; 146. n. 2. 
— Signif. 147. p. 415. — in compos. 
147. n. 6. — ol dpiCpl v. Trepi Tiva 150. 
m. 25. 

dp.(pL€vi>vpai c. dupl. ace. 131. 5 — 
Mid. with object 135. 4. 

'Afx(pi6ee, 35. n. 2. 

ap,<fi(£>, dp-Cporepos, 78. 4. — dp-Cporepov* 
-pa, 150. m. 15. — position of ap.(pa) 
and dp.(por. with art. 127. 9. — d/zcjbco 
with plur. 129. n. 7. 

ap.(£>sye7ras, &p.r)y£firr], etc. 116. n. 5. 

-av 3 plur. Perf. instead of -aai, 103. 
m. 27. 

•dv for -ai/ Inf. 105. 4. 

av, idv/fjv, 117. 2. — Synt. 139. m. 
14, 24. 

av, epic Ke, KeV, 117. n. 1. — Sfyraf. sig- 
nif. and usage 139. m. 10-20, 68. 
70. — omitted, 139. m. 13, 30 b, 51 • 
om. with Subjunct. (Horn.) 139. m. 
25, 33, 38. — dv appended to parti 
cles 139. m. 14, 24, 37.— with his- 
tor. tenses 139. m. 12. — with Fut. 
ib. m. 11. — with Inf. and Part. ib. 
m. 17; 144. 6. a. — after SokcIv, 
etc. with Inf. Aor. 139. m. 18. — 
position of dv, ib. m. 19. — repeated, 
ib. m. 20. 
dvd apocopated 117. n. 2. — Synt. 147. 

p. 413. — in compos. 147. n. 6. 
ava up! 117. 3. 2. — Vocat. 41. 5, 

marg. 45. n. 5. 
dvafiaivsiv, -veaOaL, 135. 8. 



GREEK INDEX. 



49^ 



dvaftdXXeaOai c, Inf. fui. 140. 1. C. — 
before an Inf. with or without to, 

140. n. 7. 
dvaym^iv with two ace. 131. n. 12. 
avayKaios elp.i 151. I. 7. C. 
avayK-q without copula 129. n. 18. 
dvayvoio-erai, sc. 6 dvayvu>o~TT]?, 129. 16. 
dvcLKOiveo 105. n. 7. 
dua/jLi/jLvrjaKetv, constr. 131. 5; comp. 

132. 10. d, sq. 
duaaaelaaKe 103. m. 11. 
dvdo-aeiv c. gen. 132. 12. — c. dat. ib. 

n. 25. 
avftpdnodov 32. 1 ) -8ecro"i 56. n. 8. 
dvdpeia, dvdpia, 119. m. 35. 
avev 146. 4. 

dvrjKoos c. acc. 130. n. 3. 
dvriKovcTTelv c. gen. 132. 10. h, marg. 
dvrJTTTov, augm. 116. n. 4. 
dvrjp (-) 7. n. 12. — dWp 45. n. 1. — 

with pers. appell. 123. n. 6. — im- 
plied 125. 7. 
avrjp, avQp&nos, 29. n. 3, marg 
dvd' hv : 147 avrL p. 412. 
avdpoo7roi implied 125. n. Q; see also 

dvrjp. 
dvla (i) 7. n. 10. 
'Avvifias 34. n. 4. 
-avos genit. quantity 41. n. 1. 
avTevnelo-eTai, 121. n. 1 ; 147. n. 8. 
avrL c. gen. 132. 10. c; 147. p. 412. 

— in compos. 147. n. 6. 
dvTidfctv, dvTLqv, dvrav, 131. 3; 132. 

5. d; 133. 4. c, marg. 
dvTinpv, avTiKpvs, 117. 1) 146. 4. 
dvTikap.fidveo-6ai c. gen. 132. 5. d, e. 
dvri^oos 60. n. 5. 

ovt'iov, dvria, avra, 147 dj/ri. p. 412. 
dvTLTrotelo'daL c. gen. 132. 10. f. 
-dv(£>, verbs in, 112. 11 ; quantity, etc. 

ib. n. 6. 
a!>aH<TTor, 114 (pepco. 
di/oorepor 69. 2, marg. — di/oorepoo 115. 6. 
a^tos- 132. 10. b. — personal constr. 

151. I. 7. c. 
d^iovv, -ovadai, constr. 132. n. 14. 
ao into eco, 27. n. 10 3 34. IV. 5; 105. 

n. 8; 114 XP" 00 ' marg. — into d 

Dor. 105. 11. 14. 
-aos, ecof, in pr. names, 27. n. 10, 

marg. 
drrayopeveiv with foil, fir), 148. n. 9. 
dnakXdaoreiv 130. n. 2. — c. gen. 132. 

4. — with 6K, ib. 11. 2. 
dW 62. n. 2,—Synt. 127. 9. 
o7raupai/ c. dupl. acc. 131. 5. 
aiteiizeiv with foil, pjy, 148. 11. 9. 
aTreLpi]K6vai c. dat. 133. 4. c. 



cmeipos c. gen. 132. 10. d. 

direfydos 18. 11. 3. 

dire^iv c. gen. 132. 4. — ane^o-dai 

with foil. p?7, 148. n. 9. 
anivTsiv with foil. /X77, 148. 11. 9. 
enrka)? ehreiv 140. n. 4. 
dno elided 117. n. 4. — arro, ib. 3. 1. — 

signif. 147. p. 412.— in attr. 151. 

I. 8. — in compos. 135. 6; 147. n. 

6, 7.— implied 132. 3. 
dnohiboa-Bai c. gen. 132. 10. c. 
d7rodt8pdo-Keiv c. acc. 131. 2. 
a7rodvrj(rK(£), see QvrjO-KOi). 
dnoKpvirTCLv c. dupl. acc. 131. 5. 
drroXaveiv c. gen. 132. 10. i. 
a7roXaVco, pers. constr. 151. I. 7. b. 
'AttoXXcoj/ (d) 7. n. 14. — acc. 55. 2. — 

vocat. 45. 2. 
dnoveeadaL (a) 7. n. 14. 
dno^evovo-at 103. m. 16, marg. 
d7ro7rep7rco Pres. 137. n. 10. 
dvropelv c. gen. 132. 10. a. — an-opel 

a6ai Pass. 134. 5. 
drroppaleiv C dupl. acc. 131. 5. 
dnopprjTov sc. oy 145. n. 10. 2. 
dTroo-repeif, constr. 131. 5; 132. 4. 
awTeadaL c. gen. 132. 5. e; ib. 10. h. 
ap, apa, 117. n. 2; 149. m. 26. — apa 

and apa 149. m. 26, and two marg. 

notes. 
apa, ap ov, apa p.r), 139. m. 62; 148. 

5 ; 149. m. 18.— ap ovv, ib. m. 26, 

marg. 
*apd (ep. dpi]), also 'apfj, 7. n. 12. 
dpao-Oat c. dat. 133. 2- 0. 
dpyos 120. n. 10. j 

dpecnceiv rivd 131. 3. 
aperr) and "Apr]?, 68. 1, marg. 
dpr)yeiv, constr. 131. n. 2. 
'Ap^ (a anceps) 7. n. 12; 58. See 

dper?7. 
dpiareveiv c. gen. 132. 12. 
apKTOs, r), 32. n. 3. 
dpKco, pers. constr. 151. I. 7. d. 
dpgdp.evos, Synt. 150. m. 31. 
apxeiv, apx^o-dai, constr. 132. 3, 12. — 

dp^cov Voc. 45. 1. — apgas eiroiei, 

144. n. 3. 
dpxr]v adv. 115. 4. — ro /car' dp^ds 

125. 8. 
-as quant. 34. II. 5; 43. n. 3; 52.— 

as ending of deriv. 119. m. 32. — 

Adj. in, 62. 3. 
-ds subst. fern. 63. 5; 119. m. 53, 60. 

— as num. subst, 71. 4. 
aa-ai, aaaar0ai> 0. gen. 132. 10. a, i, 
do-efielv C, acc. 131. 2. 
-ao-iy local ending, 116. 3. 
I 1 



498 



GREEK INDEX. 



'do-i dat. plur. 47. 1 ; 58 vlos 

-aa-Kov iterative tense 103. m. 11 sq. 

aarpevos compar. 65. n. 4. — as adv. 
123. 6. — do-pevcp ipo't, etc. 133. n. 6. 

aaaa, dacra, 77. 2, 3. 

acro-ov 115. 7; see d'y^t. 

darrjp, darpdcri, 47. n. 3. 

-arai, -aro, 3 plur. 103. m. 20; 105. 
n. 9; 107. m. 34. 

drdp after a Voc. 149. m. 9. 

are with Particip. 144. n. 14. 

dreovra, 114 ddco. 

drep prep. 146. 4. 

arepos 29. n. 5. 

aTifiageiv c. gen. 132. 10. b. 

-aroy, -drior, old superlat. 68 ult. 69. 
n. 3. 

dros, 114 ddco marg. and d'co. 

drpepa, drpepas, 26. n. 2 ; 115. n. 4. 

arret, arret, 77. 2, 3. 

av 149. m. 20. 

avepvaav 121. n. 1. 

aS0t 116. n. 10. g.— aZfos 117. n. 1.— 
au&y au, 7rdXtv avdis, 151. VI. 2. 

avpwv, f), 125. 7. 

avrdpuT)?, gen. plur. avrdpucov 49. n. 4. 

airro? 72. n. 1; 73. 2. — in compos, 
(ecu) 27. n. U.—Synt. 127. 2 sq.— 
for 6 auTor, /xoj/or, and with ordi- 
nals 127. n. 2. — avrov and avroV, 
ib. 3 sq. 7. — in genit. with pron. 
possess, ib. n. 13; as periphrase 
for possess, of 3 pers. ib. 7. 2. — in 
dat. without o~vv, 133. n. 14. — 6 
avros c. dat. 133. 2. f; with mi 
(atque) 149. m. 8. — avrb rb koXov, 
etc. 128. n. 1. — avrb be'i^ei, 150. m. 
17. — before a relat. 127. 1. d. — eV 
avros avrco 127. n. 6. — avros eavrov 
se ipse, ib. — avrb rovro 127. 1. c. 

avroas, avroos, 150. m. 17. 

dcpaipelv, -elo~6ai, constr. 131. 5, and n. 
8: 132.4; 135. n. 2.— Pass. 134.6. 

d<p€(£>vrai 108. I. 1, marg. 

dcpuvai c. gen. 132. 4. 

ciepdovo? compar. 65. n. 2. 2. 

depvrj, rj, 34. III. 1. b. 

d^eatv, ovaa, 114 d/ca^ifa, 

-a^ri, -ax°v, etc. 116. n. 5. 

uxdeaOai with Particip. 144. n. 6. — 
d^dopeua rfkQev, etc. 133. n. 6. See 
also Emotion, etc. 

a^pi, a'xpir, 26. 4. — Si/n£. 147. n. 2. 

-dco, fut. -ao-co 95. n. 3. — with altern- 
ate e (e'eo) 105. n. 8, 13; cornp. 
107. m. 36, 41. — derivat. and sig- 
nif. 104. 3; 119. m. 6. — from verbs 
in co, 112. 7. — with alternate to (o) 



in the first syll. ib. 8 — dco. d£to, aico, 
sec. forms of each other, ib. 9. — 
desideratives 119. m. 12 ; see -idto. 
-dcoi/ into ecov, in 1 Decl. 34. IV. 5. 

B. 

(3 inserted 19. n. 1 ; 110. 11. 2, and 

marg. — as characteristic 92. 8, and 

n. 1. 
fidXkeiv and compounds, signif. 130. 

n. 2. 
fiapvs dpi, pers. constr. 151. I. 7. d. 
fiacrikeveip c. gen. 132. 12. — fiacriXev- 

o~as iirolet, etc. 144. n. 3. 
fiaariXevs without art. 124. n. 7. 
(3ao~iXevrepos 69. n. 2. 
Bav num. sign. 2. n. 3 ; 6. n. 3 ; comp. 

App. B. 
(Bevriaros 16. n. 1. d. 
/3i'a, npbs fiiav, 133. n. 12; 147 irpvs 

c. ace. p. 419. 
ftidgecrOai c. dupl. ace? 131. n. 12. 
/3Ad£ 66. 4, marg. 110. 11. 2. marg. 

114 rapdo-0-co, marg. 
fihdirretv c. ace. et dat. 131. 2, and 

n. 2. — KeXevdov 132. n. 28, marg. 

fi\€7T£lV (pOVOV 131.3. 

/3X^coj/ 16. n. 1. b. 

fionQelv c. dat. 131. n. 2. 

fiopeas, (3oppds, 34. n. 1. 

povXopai without foil. Inf. 151. IV. 
8.—povXet 103. m. 18. — ifiol /3ou- 
Xopevco 133. n. 6. — ifiovX6pr)v with- 
out av, 139. m. 13. 

@ovs, declined 50. — /3a>y, @£>v, ib. ll. 2. 
—at (36e? 32. n. 3.— /3da 44. n. 2. 

(3pdcro~<dv 67. n. 3. 

(Spidoo, signif. 113. 2. 

fipiOeiv c. gen. et dat. 132. 10. a, and 
n. 14. 

r. 

y nasal 3.2; 4. n. 2 ; 98. n. 7, marg 
— as characteristic 92.8, and n. 2 : 
Doric 95. n. 2. 

yap 149. m. 17. — place of, 125. 9; 
147. n . 3.— after Voc. 149. m. 9.— 
after relative clauses 143. 11 ; 151. 
IV. 10. — as namely, omitted 151. 
IX. 3. — elliptical turns with yap, 
143. 8, marg. ib. 11 ; 151. IV. 10. 
— dXXd yap 149. m. 16. 

yaarrjp 47. 2, and n. 3. 

yy, characteristic 92. n. 3. — before p 
in Perf. Pass. 98. n. 7. 

ye 149. m. 25.— place of, 125. 9 ; 147. 
n. 3. — appended to pron. 72. n. 4 
— ye pev, ye pr\v, 149. m. 29 



GREEK INDEX. 



499 



ysydicnv 111. n. 1; 114, TEN-. 

yeXav c. dat. 133. 4. c. 

-yeXcoy compound adj. 63. n. 5. 

ycfieiv c. gen. 132. 10. a. 

yewav in Pres. 137. n. 8. 

yivos, yevovs, yevei, diflf. of signif. 133. 

4. c, marg. 
yepaws compar. 65. n. 3. 
yepas 54. 1. — yepd, rd, 28. n. 10; 54. 

n. 3. 
yepcov, 6, in Horn. 126. n. 7. 
yeveiv, yeveaSai, c. gen. 132. 10. h, i. 
yevpeda 110. 8, marg. 
yeco- from yrj 120. n. 2. 
yr) 34. n. 1. — implied 123. n. 5 ; 125. 

5. — with and without art. 124. n. 7. 
yrjpas 54. 1. 
yiyvecrdac in number of pred. 129. 12. 

— c. gen. irarpos 132. 3. — yiy. and 

elvai c. gen. of poss. 132. 7, and n. 

13. — with Part, as periphrase of 

tenses 144. 9, and n. 16, 17.- — 8id 

twos 147. p. 414. — yiyvopevoov ab- 

sol. 145. n. 10. 
yiyvao-neiv c. Inf. et Part. 144. 6. 
y\d<pv 57. n. 3. 

yXrjxav 16. n. 1. b; 56. n. 6. e. 
yvkpjr] impl. 123. n. 5. 
yvcord kovk ay vara 151. VI. 2. 
yovels without art. 124. n. 7. 
yopyoav 56. n. 6. e. 
yovv 149. m. 25. 
yovvd£eo-0ai c. gen. 132. n. 11. 
ypavs decl. 50. 
ypd(pecrdai constr. 132. 10. g. — ypa- 

<pr)u ib. n. 16. 
yvpvos c. gen. 132. 4. 



8 as characterist. 92. 8. 3. ib. n. 3. — 
inserted 19. n. 1. — doubled after 
augm. 83. n. 2; 114 Seio-cu. 

8d for yrj, 16. n. 1. b. 

8dep 45. n. 1. 

8al 149. m. 28. 

8at (?) 28. n. 10. 

daivvvai ydpov 131. n. 11a. 

8aKpvx€<ov 121. n. 1. 

dapvaoo, 8dpvr)pi, 112. 16. 

-§a7rdr, (r)pe8a.7r6s, etc.) 79. n. 2. 

Sar, gen. plur. 8d8cov, 43. n. 4. d. 

ddaaa-dai c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. — c. 
gen. part. 131. n. 9. Comp. Scu'co 
§114. 

8ao-v? c. gen. et dat. 133. 4. c, marg. 

8e enclit. 14. n. 2; 116. 2. 

Se, Si/nf. 149. m. 9. — place of, 125. 
9 ; 126. 2-4, and n. 3, 4 ; 147. n. 3. 



— after a Voc. 149. m. 9. — put for 
other particles, 149. m. 9. 

Set constr. 131. n. 4; 132. 10. a, and 
n. 14. — piKpov v. noWov 8elv, Seco, 
140. n. 4; 150. m. 18; 151.1. 7. b. 
— periphrase with numerals 70. n. 
1. — 8£ov part. 145. n. 10. 2. — k'8ei 
without av, 139. m. 13. — rod 8eot^~ 
tos instead of r) del, 132. n. 20. 

8el8eypai, 8ei8eicTo, 114 delaai, and 
marg. 

8elva 73. 

oWor dpi, personal, 151. I. 7. c. 

delo-dcu constr. 132. 10. a, and n. 14. 

8£\eap, beXrjTo?, 41. n. 7. 

8epa? 57. n. 2. 

Se£mr x«po'y 132. 14. b. 

SeWora 34. III. 2. 

SeOpo, forvre, dev/Jt, 115. n. 8; 116. 
6, 8. 

o\nrraror 71. 1, marg. 

§e-)(8ai 110. 8, marg. 

8r), Synt. 149. m. 28.— place of, 125. 9. 

8rj6cv 149. m. 31. 

8r}\6s elpt 151. I. 7. c. — S/JXov on 151. 
IV. 4. 

8i;Aow, eo^Xcocre 6V, 129. 17. 

Arjprjrrjp, -rpa, 47. 2; 56. 2. 

-8rjv, -8ov, adv. 119. m. 79, 80. 

drjTTore appended 80. n. 1; 116. 9; 
149. m. 28. 

0^7rov, 8r)nov6ev, 8rj6ev, 149. m. 31. 

8r)ra 149. m. 28. 

8i-, 8icr-, 70. n. 3, and marg. 

8la (a) 60. n. 1. 

8td prep. c. gen. et ace. 147. p. 414; 
comp. 133. 4. c, and n. 12. — in 
compos. 147. n. 6. — 8ia rovro after 
Part. 144. n. 13. 

8idyeiv, 8iayiyvea6ai, SiareXew, with 
Part. 144. n. 6. 

8ia6£o-dai 135. 6, ex. 

8iaipelv, SteXeTv, c. gen. part. 131. n. 9. 

8caXeyea6ai c. dat. 133. 2. b. — recip- 
rocal 135. 7. 

-8iavepeo-dai, reciprocal 135. 7. 

8ia.7rpdTTeo-8ai, c. coo-re, 140. 4. 

8ia.Trpeiveiv, 8iatTpe7rr)s, c. gen. 132. 12. 

8iare\eiv with Part. 144. n. 6. 

StarptjSco with Part. 144. n. 6. 

8ia(p€peiv, 8id<popos, c. gen. 132.4, 12. 

8i8do-Keiv c. dupl. acc. 131. 5. — 8i8d- 
aKeo~6ai n 134. 6. — 8i8ao-Kopevos 
noXepoio 132. 10. d. 

8i86vat c. gen. 132. 5. c. — c to offer' 
137. n. 10. — in compounds, signif 
130. n. 2 ult. 

8iex €lv c - § en - 132. 4. 



500 



GREEK INDEX. 



8lkcii6s dfxi irpdrreiv etc. 151. I. 7. c. 
dUrjv, Synt. 131. 10 j 146. 4, and n. 2. 

StSovCU {i7TO TtVOS, 147 V7TO, p. 419. 

oixpovs 60. n. 5. 

foo, SioVi, 115.n.5; 139. m. 42; 149. 

m. 3. 
hniXdaios c. gen. 132. 12. 
Stcr-, see 8t-. 

dicppr/XctTelv c. ace. 131. 3 ult. 
ftlxa as pred. 129. 13. — e. gen. 146. 

4. 2. 
8ia><etv constr. 132. 10. g. 
8pd)?, gen. plur. 8p.a>cov, 43. n. 4. d. 
Soto), 8otoi, 70. 2. 
So/ceiy C. Inf. et av 139. m. 18. — So/cety 

ejuot absol. 140. n. 4. — 8okovv, 86- 

gav, absol. 145. n. 10, and marg. — 

doicS) personal 151. I. 7. b : comp. 

129. 18. 
8opv£<z Voc. 36, marg. 
8opv(popeiv rtva 131. 3. 
SouXor bovkeias 131. n. 6. 
Soupe as plur. neut. in Horn. 123. 

n.4. 
-8ovs (-Seoy) in names of kindred 36. 

n. 1, and marg. 
8papelv to o~tcl8iov 131. n. 11. a. 
8pqv c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. 
8pa.TTeo-dai c. gen. 132. 5. e. 
8pop.alos as adv. 123. 6. 
8vvacr8ai, 8vva.Tov elvai, with superlat. 

123. n. 9. — bvvarov absol. sc. ov 

145. n. 10. 2. 
8vo with Plnr. 129. n. 7. 
8vcr- augm. in compos. 86. 3. 
8vcrcpopelv c. dat. 133. 4. c. 
8vo-xepatv€iv, see Emotion, etc. 
8S> 57. n. 3. 
bus, f], 57. n. 2. 



e for a before liquids 27. n. 9. — Ion. 
in verbs in aco, 105. n. 9, 10. — in- 
serted 28. n. 3 ; 74. n. 1 ; 76. n. 2. 
— as union- vowel 87. 5. — for ei 27. 
n. 3. — changed into et, 25. 4; 27. n. 
1.— for r] in Subjunct. 103. m. 39. 

e instead of iavrov 127. n. 4 ; see Re- 
flexives. 

ea for -rjv 107. m. 40. — for -eia 62. 
n. 1. 

-ecu, -eo, 2 pers. Pass. 103. m. 17; 
comp. 105. n. 7. 

idv, fjv, av, 139. m. 14, 24. — after 
o-Kcmeiv, etc. ib. m. 66. — with Opt. 
ib. m. 68, comp. m. 27. 

tap, rjpos, 41. n. 7; 43. n. 4. c. 

tapivos as adv. 123. 6. 



-earo 3 Plur. Pass. 103. m. 21; 105, 
n. 9. 

iavrov as subj. in ace. c. Inf. et Part. 
(se) 141. n. 4; 144. n. 8. See 
avros and Reflexives. 

eao retains a, 95. n. 7. 

idcov gen. plur. 58 evs. 

iyyvs c. gen. et dat. 133. 4. c, marg. 
146. 4, and n. 3. — iyyvs, iyyvBev, 
iyyvrepov, as predic. 129. 13. 

eymXetv constr. 132. n. 16; 133. 2. u 

eyKparrjs c. gen. 132. 12. 

iyw8a, ey<5/xcu, 29. n. 9. 

-eetv Inf. see Resolution. 

eepp,evos, 114 etpco. 

eeWaro 108. II. 1 ; ib. III. 

efyv from elfii 108. IV. 4, marg. 

erjos and e^or, 58 eur and marg. 

er)? for r/r 75. n. 1. 

ideXetv, periphrase, 150. m. 36. 

idikovrrjs as adv. 123. 6. 

et diphth. 5. 1, and n. 1. — resolved 
into rfi 27. n. 8. — contr. in dissyll. 
verbs 105. n. 2; see in e. 

et- augm. syllab. 83. n. 3. — temporal 
84. 2, and n. 1. 

-et, 2 pers. Pass. 103. m. 18; 113. n. 
7, marg. 

et conjunct. 13. 3. — with Indie. Subj. 
Opt. 139. m. 23, 25, 26, 67 sq. — as 
particle of wishing 139. m. 7. — with 
Indie. Fut. ib. m. 23. — with Opt. in 
repetition, ib. m. 39. — after verbs 
of fear, etc. ib. m. 50. — in indirect 
questions, whether, ib. m. 63-65. — 
after Savpdfa etc. ib. m. 60. — in 
double quest, et . . . fj, ib. m. 65. — 
et av ib. m. 27.— et p,r) 148. 2. b.— 
et Se prj 151. IV. 7. ib. V. 2.— et Se', 
et 8* Zye, 151. IV. 7.— et ^ 8td 150. 
m. 26. — et yap, et mi, 139. m. 7 : 



47. — secondary form for -77, 56. n. 2. 

— Fern, from --qs, 63. n. 1. 
-eia, -etas, etc. Opt. 103. m. 14. 
etaro 108. IV. 2. — etaro ib. II. 2, 

and III. 
etSo> signif. 113. n. 10. 
elev 108. IV. 1, and marg. 
eirjv from efpt go, 108. V. 3. 
eWe 11. n. 2.— Synt. 139. n. 8. 
e'Uetv c. gen. 132. 4. 
e'iKocrt, -crtv, 26. 3. 
eifii go, see lei/at. 
-etv instead of -rjv, 108. I. 3. — 3 pers. 

Sing. Plupf. and Impf. 103. m. 12 

105. n. 3. 



GREEK INDEX. 



501 



thai 108. IV.— c. gen. 132. 5. c; ib. 

7, and n. 13. — elvai did twos 147 

did, p. 414. — dfufii et irepl riva, ib. 

p.415sq_.— omitted 129.20; 143.9; 

149. n. 8; see also a>v and Copula. 

— pleonast. in Inf. 150. m. 38. — 

elvai with Particip. 144. n. 16. — 

ecrri and io~Ti 108. IV. 3. — ecrrtv oi 

etc. ib. and 150. m. 21. — ecrrt, 

phrases with, 150. m. 21-23. — ovk 

can with Inf. and av 139. m. 18. 
elveica, see eueKa. 

-eioi/ in subst. deriv. 119. m. 33. 
-eios in adj. deriv. 119. m. 69. 
cine instead of Plur. 129. n. 13. — 

elrrelv dnXcos absol. 140. n. 4. — as 

crvvTOfJuos 1 (avveXouTi) elirelv, cos €7ros 

elrrelv, absol. 140. n. 4. 
ewrep ellipt. 151. IV. 2. 
e'ipyeiv c. gen. 132. 4. — with prj and 

Inf. 149. n. 9. 
elprifievov absol. 145. n. 10. 
elpvio, etpcoraco, Ion. 84 n. 1. 
els, is, prep. 13. 3; 117. 2. — Synt. 

147. p. 413. — put for iv 151. I. 8. 

— compounds with eir, constr. 133. 

2. b ; ib. no. 3. — eo-co is, 151. VI. 2. 
acrtfa in Horn, for els or et, 108. V. 1. 
elcrKofxi^eip, constr. 133. 3. 
elaoKe, els ore ice, 139. m. 40. 
tiro. 149. m. 19.— after Part. 144. n. 13. 
«re...eire 139. m. 63. 
e'lns 149. m. 5. — for it ocrns 143. 19. 
-e/o) instead of a> Subjunct. 103. m. 38. 

— in Indie. 105. n. 1. 
eiada, augm. 84. n. 1 ; 97. n. 2. 
etc prep. 4. 5 ; see e£. — e« unchanged 

before all consonants, 20. 4 ; 22. 2 j 

comp. 86. 1. — signif. 147. p. 413. 

— adv. 147. n. 5. 
e<ds c. gen. 132. 4. 
eKarepos, eKacrros, 78. 3. — place of 

with art. 127. 9. — ettao-ros with 

Plur. 129. n. 12. 
indvew c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. 
eVSOjuej/ Opt. 114 dvm, marg. 
eVcei, eKelOev, eKelae, 116. 6. — iiceWev 

in attr. 151. I. 8. 
eKeivrj, eKelvoas, 116. n. 7. 
iicelvos, place of with art. 127. 9. — 

6'S' iicelvos, tovt* ii<elvo, 127. 1. C 

See also ovtos. 
exe^etpia 18. n. 3. 
enirayXos, 114 XeXirjp.ai, marg. 
eK7roba>v and ip.no8cov 115. n. 5 : comp. 

147 €«e, p.413. 
tKCpevyeiv c. gen. et ace. 131. 2, and 

n. 2. — with /^ and Inf. 148 n. 9. 



e/coov emu 150. m. 38. — eKovra ovk 

ukovto. 151. VI. 2. 
eXarrov. p.elov, indec. 129. n. 8. — with 

7 omitted 132. n. 21. 
iXavvew, signif. 130. n. 2. 
eXacpos 32. n. 3. 
eXeyxees 69. n. 1. 
eXeuTTo 110. 8, marg. 
iXevdepos, -povv, constr. 1 32. 4, and n. 2 
eXdcov, la>v, etc. 150. m. 34. 
eXp.ivs 25. n. 2; 41. n. 4. 
elos, Telos, 116. n. 10. f. 
iXiri£ew, constr. 139. m. 18; 140. I.e. 
iXnop-eva rjXdev, etc. 133. n. 6. 
ep-avrov and p.ov 127. 7. 1. 
ip.oi dokelv 140. n. 4. 
epos 72. 4; 127. n. 12. — ret ep,d 128. 

1, and n. 2. — to ip.6v instead of eyu 

128. n. 2. 
ep.ov instead of p,ov 127. n. 12. 
epLjreipos c. gen. 132. 10. d. 
ep.7roda>v 115. n. 5. 
eV prep, unchanged before p, cr, £, 25. 

1. — signif. 147. p. 413. — adverbial 

147. n. 5.— for els 147. p. 413. — in 

compounds, 86. 1, 2; Synt. 147. n. 

6, 8; comp. 133. 3. — iv rots with 

foil, supeiiat. 150. m. 24. 
ivavTios c. gen. 132. n. 26. — c. dat. 

133. 2. f; ib. 4. c, marg. 
ivapi£eiv c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. 
Merjs 53. 1. 
ivdoTciTos 69. 2, marg. — eVSoraraj 

115. 6. 

ivdvoo Tivd ti 131. 5; -op.al ti 135. 4. 

eW^ee Hdot. 112. n. 5. 

evena, eveicev. Ion. eiveica, etc. 117. 2. 
—Synt. 132. 8; 146. n. 2. — omit- 
ted ? 140. n. 10. — evem ye 146. n. 2. 

ew, eveo-Ti, 117. 3. 2 ; 150. m. 23 ; see 
also as evi. — ivrjv 139. m. 13. 

ev8a, evOev, 116. 6.—ivBdde, 14. n. 3 ; 

116. 7, marg. 

evoxos, constr. 132. n. 16. 

iTavOa, ivTavOol, 116. 3, marg. and 8. 

ivTvyxdva c. dat. 132. n. 7. 

e'| prep. 13. 3. — i£ and «, 26. 6.— ac- 
cent in anastrophe 13. 4. — to be 
supplied ? 132. 3. — with Pass. 134. 
3; 147 e/fc— signif. 147. p. 413.— 
adverbially 147. n. 5. — in com- 
pounds 20. 4; 22.2; 86.1; 120.4; 
147. n. 9.— e£ ov of time 139. m. 
37. — ex tovtov 144. n. 13. 

igaiqbvrjs 115. n. 5. 

i\avio~Tdvai c. gen. 132. 4. 

e^apvos c. ace. 130. n. 3. — et-apvov elvai 
with foil, firj and Inf. 148. n. 9. 



502 



GREEK INDEX. 



egetrrt 133. 2. c; 150. m. 23.— with 

ace. and Inf. 142. n. 2. — e|oV 145. 

n. 10. — igrjv 139. m. 13. 
igerdgeiv c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. 
e^o^a with superlat. 123. n. 9. 
-eo, see -eat. 
eoiKa, eoXna, etc. 84. n. 6. — eoijca, oi/ca, 

109. III. 5, marg. 
eo'f, d, oV, pron. poss. 72. n. 7. — for 1 

and 2 pers. 127. n. 5. 
%-naivov e^etp vno twos, 147 v7ro, p. 419. 
errata crew c. gen. 132. 10. f. 
eVai'o-ror, personal, 151. I. 7. c. 
eVaico, augm. 84. n. 2. — Synt. 132. 

10. h. 
€7TavpL<7Koixai c. gen. 132. 10. i. 
e7ra<j)T] 18. n. 3. 
eVei, eireidr], signif. 149. m. 5. — constr. 

139. m. 37, 42.— with Aor. 137. 

n. 1. — ineir) 7. n. 16; 117. n. 1. — 

eVetoai/ 139. m. 37; with Opt. 139. 

m. 68. 
eneiyeadai obov 132. n. 28, marg. 
erreiTa, Ion. eneirev, 117. 2. — after 

Part. 144. n. 13 ; comp. 149. m. 19. 
eVe|ieVai c. gen. et dat. 132. n. 16. 
inepXeo-dai c. dat. 133. 2. b. — c. ace. 

ib. n. 1. 
eVecrtfai, constr. 133. 1, and marg. 
eVe^eii/ c. gen. 132. 4. — with prj and 
^ Inf. 148. n. 9. 

enr/vecra, Aor. for Pres. 137. n. 9. 
hrl prep, not elided in compos. 108. 

Ill- 120. n. 8.— signif. 147. p. 416 3 

133. 4. c, and n. 12. — c. dat. of 

Part. 145. n. 5. — c. gen. of Part. 

Pres. ibid. — compounds with eVrt, 

constr. 133. 2. b, c, and 3. — e<£.' <p, 

i(j) are, c. Inf. 150. m. 9. — %-ni for 

eneo-Tt 117. 3. 
€Tn^a[v€iv, constr. 133. 4. c, marg. 
emfiovXeveiv c. dat. 133. 2. b. — eVi- 

fiovXevecrOai Pass. 134. 5. 
eTTiderjs c. gen. 132, 10. a. 
embeLKwadai, personal, 151. I. 7. a. 
enidotjo?, personal, 151. I. 7. c. 
emecracrdaL, irneipevos, 108. III. 
eTnBvfieiv c. gen. 132. 10. f. 
eniXavdaveaGai C. gen. 132. 10. d. 
eVi/xe'Aeo-^at c. gen. 132. 10. e. — with 

onus 139. m. 45. 
iiziopKelv c. acc. 131. 2. 
eTwrXfjacreiv c. dat. 133. 2. d. 
eiri(Tirqv KoprjS 132. n. 10. 
imoTdTeiv c. gen. et dat. 132. 12, and 

n. 25. 
tKKTTTjfjLcov c acc. 130. n. 3. — c. gen. 

132. 10. d. and 13. 



€7ri(TTpaT€V€(r3ai c. dat. et acc. 133. 2. 

h, and n. 1. 
eVio-^e'pcD 115. n. 5. 
inirAXeiv c. dat. 133. 2. C. 
imriOeo-eai c. dat. 133. 2. b. 
i7n.Tip.av c. dat. 133. 2. d. 
eVirpeVeii/ c. dat. 133. 2. C. 
€7riTpo7reveiv two. 131. 3. 
irnx^peiv c. dat. 133. 2. d. 
in'orpvveLv c. acc. 133. 2. c 
e7ro)^aro, 114 e^co, marg. 
epfii/, epacrdai, and (pikelv, constr. 132. 

10. f, and marg. 
ipyd£eo-0ai c. dupl. acc. 131. 5. 
epyoi/, compounds with, 120. n. 1 , 

121. n. 4. 
epcio Imperat. 103. m. 19. 
eprjpos c. gen. 132. 10. a. 
eprjTveiv c. gen. 132. 4. 
ip'i&iv c. dat. 133. 2. a. 
c Epp.eay, 'Epprjs, 34. n. 1. 
ippivos, 114 etpco. 
ippabarai 103. m. 24. 
ippapevosy compar. 65. n. 2. 
ipvopai 95. n. 5, marg. 
epvaappares 1 tuTroi 64. 11. 3. 7. 
epxarai, 114 eipyco. 
epxecrOai c. Part. Fut. 144. n. 17. 
ipwrav c. dupl. acc. 131. 5. 
eV prep, see eis*. 
-e? neut. of 3 Decl. 49. 1, 3. — instead 

of -eir 2 pers. Sing, of verbs 103, 

m. 35. 
eo- inserted 65. n. 2. 2; 120. n. 4. 
io-QUiv, constr. 132. 10. i. 
-eo~i(v), -ecrcri(v), 46. n. 2. 
eWvo 103. m. 17 ; 114 o~eva>. 
earacrav and ecrracrai/, earr/re, eare'are, 

ea-reWi, 107. m. 26, 27. 
eare 150. m. 10. — constr.139.rn. 37, 40. 
ear*, see clvau 
taxo-Tos 69. 2. — place with art. 125. 

n. 5. 
ea-co is 151. VI. 2. 
ere polo? 79. n. 2. 
erepoy 78. 2. — in crasis 29. n. 5. — 

Synt. 127. 10. — before a genit. 134. 

n. 24. — in attr. 143. 17. — Sdrepa 

150. m. 15. 
irrjo-iai, oi, 34. III. 1. b. 
en 149. m. 22. — with comparat. 123. 

n. 8. 
eroipos, without copula 129. n. 18. 
-ev and -cu, Voc. 11. 3; 45. 2, 5. 
ev for eo and eou, 28. n. 5 ; 95. n. 16 ; 

102. 3, marg. 103. m. 19, 28 : 105. 

n. 13. — augm. 84. 5. — instead of 

in Fut. 95. n. 9. 



GREEK INDEX. 



503 



ev, compounds with, 28. n. 3, marg. 
86. 3. — ev iroifiv v. \eyeiv c. ace. 
131. 2. — tv old' on 151. IV. 4.— 
ev aKoveiv vtto twos 147 vtto, p. 419. 

evdaifxovlCeiv c. gen. 132. 10. e. 

evdios, compar. 65. n. 2. 

fvepyereiv c. ace. 131. 2. 

€v6v, evtivs, 115. n. 4- 117. 1; 146.4. 

ei/p/xeXtco 34. n. 5. 

eimeidrjs c. gen. 132. 10. h, marg. 

ev7rvovs, evxpovs, 60. n. 5. 

cvnopelv c. gen. 132. 10. a. 

evplo-Kop,ai, personal, 151. I. 7. a. 
us subst. decl. 5 
119. m. 31, 52. 

-evo-a Dor. Part. 105. n. 13. 

€vre, constr. 139. m. 37. 

€v(pvr)s 53. 1. 

€vxea6ai and compounds, c. dat. 133. 
2. c. 

c&xpovs 60. n. 5. 

-evco, verbs in, 104. 3; 119. m. 2, 4. 

ecpeo-Tio? as adv. 123. 6. 

e(pieo~dai c. gen. 132. 10. f. 

e(f> <u, e<p' are, c. Inf. 150. m. 9. 

e'xeiv 18. n. 4. — and compounds, sig- 
nif. 130. n. 2. — with Part, as peri- 
phrase for preterite 144. n. 18. — 
impers. 150. m. 39. — periphrases 
with, ib. — as, na>s, KaXcoy e^ei c. 
gen. 132. n. 28.— did twos, 147 did. 
— dp,(pi v. nepi riva, 147 d/x<pi. — 
eTraivov fxeiv vivo twos, 147 vno. — 
€%ovto$ [iyavT&v) ovt<£>s 145. n. 9. — 
€x&v, with, 150. m. 33. — "Krjpels 
i'xcov, etc. 150. m. 40. — e^eo-t^ai c. 
gen. 132. 5. e. 

eco for ao, see ao. 

-eco, verbs in, 104. 3; 119. m. 2, 4.— 
Fut. -eVco 95. n. 4. — dissyl. not 
contr. 105. n. 2. — for -co, and vice 
versa 112. 6. a, b. — with alternate 
o (co) in the stem-syll. 112. 8. — Ion. 
secondary forms in Pres. and Impf. 
112. n. 5.— derivat. 119. m. 4. 

-eco, ending of Fut. 95. 8, and n. 11 ; 
101. 2. — of Subjunct. instead of a>, 
103. m. 38; 107. m. 40, 41. 

eWa 108. I. 1, marg. 

eaKeiv, ico\TT€iv, etc. 84. n. 9 : 109. 5, 
marg. 

ea>p.ev, ecop.ev, 114 aco. 

-ecpv gen. Dual, 52. n. 6. 

ecof 116. 4 ult. — also el'to? ib. n. 10. f. 
— ecos and eW civ, constr. 139. m. 
37, 40, 68. 

-ed>s Part. Perf. 107. m. 23 ; 110. n. 
6. c. 



Z. 

tf, 3. 2 ; 24. 1. — characterist. in Pres. 

92. 8. 3. 
-£e, local ending, 22. n. 2; 116. n. 2. 
foXovv c. ace. 131. 2. 
-£co, verbs in, characterist. 92. n. 3-5. 

— flexion 95. 3, 6, and n. 2. — fre- 

quentatives 119. m. 14. 
£c6r 64. n. 2. 

H. 

r\ pronunc. 3. 2. — rj diphth. 5. 2, and 

n. 2. 
»7 for a 27. n. 7. — in crasis 29. n. 7. — 

in 1 Decl. 34. IV. 1.— in verbs 95. 

n. 7. — as mixed sound in verbs in 

aco and /u, 105. n. 5, 15, 16 ; 106. 5. 
rj for a, 34. IV. 1 ; 70. p. 90; see also 

a. — in compos. 121. 8. 
rj for e 27. n. 8. 

-?7, subst. in, derivat. 119. m. 24. 
rj or 149. m. 7. — rj npos, r) Kara, ib. — 

rj after a positive, ib. — omitted 

after a comparat. 132. n. 21, 22 ; 

and in rj (bare 139. m. 56. — rj ov 

149. m. 7. — rj . ..rj m double ques- 
tions 139. m. 63. — rj fiev...rj 8e 

149. m. 7.— See aXXd 
f) for tyrj, said he, f) 8' 6s, 109. I. 4; 

comp. 126. n. 2. 
t% 149. m. 7 ult.— t) pirjv 149. m. 29. 
?/ with superlat. 123. n. 9. 
r)yelcrdai, r)yep.ov€veiv, c. gen. 132. 12, 

and n. 13. — c. dat. ib. n. 25. 
r)yepe6oi/Tai, rjepeOovrai, 112. 12. 
r)8e, 184, 149. m. 7. 
fjdop.ai, see Emotion, verbs of. — with 

Part. 144. n. 6. — rjdofjLevcp rj\6ev 

etc. 133. n. 6. 
rjdos 57. 2. 

r)e for rj 28. n. 3; 117. n. 1. 
r)i\ios 6. n. 2; 28. n. 3. 
rjepeOovrai 112. 12. 
f)6os, compounds with, 49. n. 4; 115. 

n. 1. 
rj'i for ei 27. n. 8. 
ij'ia, fjci, only Impf. 108. V. 9, and 

marg. 
rjKiara 115. 7. 
j^Kco 137. n. 8. 

rjXiKos in attr. 143. 16, in examp. 
rjXios without art. 124. n. 7. 
r)p.*pa impl. 123. n. 5; 125. 7; 129 

17. 
rjp.€Tepov, iv, 132. n. 30. 
-rjfxi, -rjcri, Dor. flexion, 106. n. 9. 
rjpno-vs, rjpLiaea, 62. n. 1. — r)p.icrr}, etc. 

52. n. 5. — place with art. 125. n ft. 



504 



GREEK INDEX. 



rjp,os, rrjfxos, etc. 116. n. 4. — Synt. 139. 

m. 37. 
-■qv Dual instead of -ov 87. n. 7. 
r)v apa 137. n. 9. — rjv 6° eyco, for e^y, 

109. I. 4. 
rjv, Tjvi, r)vi8e, 115. n. 7. 
-770$- gen. of 3 Decl. 42. n. 1 ; 52. n. 3 ; 

53. n. 5. 
^pe/xeVrepo? 69. 2. 
-rjs in heterocl. nouns 56. 4. — in adj. 

and pr. names of 3 Decl. 49. 1 sq. 

53. 1, 3; 56. n. 4, marg. 63. 4. — 

Ace. r}v and 77, 56. n. 4. — derivat. 

119. m. 32. 
fja6r)v instead of Pres. 137. n. 9. 
-770-1 3 pers. Sing. 106. n. 9. — local 

ending 116. 3. 
rjcrKciv 3 pers. Sing. 105. n. 3. 
r\(T(Tov 115. 7. — fjo~a4i eivai twos 132. 

12. 
rjavxos 65. n. 2. — as adv. 123. 6. 
rjroi 11. n. 3. 3; 149. m. 27. — in era- 
sis 29. n. 8; 149. m. 27. — 7 rapa 

149. m. 27. 
rjTTaadcu c. gen. 132. 12. 

tJttoh v. KpeirTti) eivai twos, 132. 12. 
r)v diphth. 5. 1, and n. 2. 

r, X h fe 116 - n - 10 - e - 

-j7Xco secondary form 112. 17. 

e. 

$, for r in crasis 29. n. 4, 5. — for o- 
before /z, 24. 1; 119. m. 20.— 3 
characterise 92. n. 2. B. 

&akao~o-a with and without art. 124. 
n. 7. 

^aXdaaws as adv. 123. 6. 

SaXetfco 112. 12. 

Sap.ee?, &ap,eiai, 64. n. 3. 6. 

Qappew Tiva 131. 3 . 

Sdao-ew c. ace. 131. n. 5. 

Sdo-acov 18. 2 ult. 67. 3. 

SaTtpov etc. 29. n. 5. — Sdrepa Synt. 

150. m. 15. 

$avp,d£ew c. gen. 132. 10. e, and n. 

15. — c. dat. 132. n. 15 ; 133. 4. c. 

— with the three cases, ib. marg. 

— with ei 139. m. 60. 
Savp.aaTov oaov 129. n. 18; 150. m. 

8; 151. I. 5. 
SavpLdTo? poetic 102. n. 1. 
Seew 7reSioto 132. n. 28, marg. 
Seivai and Svew 18. n. 2. — Selvai v. 

SecrOai vopovs 135. 6. 
Seiop.at 107. m. 44. 
SeXouTi rfkQev etc. 133. n. 6. 
Sepir indecl. 58. — without copula 

129. n. 18. 



-Sev, Se, 26. n. 2; 116. 1, 4; ib. n. 

10. d. 
$eoip,r)v instead of $eip.r)v 107. m. 46. 
Seos without art. 124. n. 7. — omitted 

129. 17. — Voc. 35. n. 2.— ro> Sea 

123. 4. 
Sepana, -es, 75. n. 8. 
Qepajrevew c. ace. 131. 2. 
SeW Part. 144. 11. 3; 150. m. 34 
Srjp 149. m. 30. 
-& Imperat. 103. m. 37; 106.4; 107. 

m. 5; 110. n. 2; ib. 9. — as adv. 

ending 116. 1. — goes into -rt 18. 3 5 

and n. 2; 107. m. 5. 
Styydveiv c. gen. et dat. 132. 5. e, 

and n. 9. 
&vr)o-KG>, aTToOvrjo-KG, with wo, 134. 2; 

147. p. 419. 
SoifiaTiov 17. n. 2; 29. n. 4. 
Spdo-o-a> 17. n. 2, marg. 
Qprfi£, Opag, etc. 41. n. 7. 
SvydTTjp 47. 2 sq. — implied 125. 5. 
Qvew, see Sewai. — Suei, sc. 6 SvTrjp, 

129. 16.— Sueti; c. ace. 131. n. 11 a. 

— eVi e^oSw etc. 124. n. 7. 
Superior as adv. 123. 6. 
-Sco, verbs in, poetic 112. 12. 
Samevew, Sodtttcw, c. ace. 131. 2. 
&&?, gen. Plur. Saxai/ 43. n. 2. d, 
Saw/Act 27. n. 11. 

I. 

1 and v long in penult of verbs in a>, 

7. n. 8.— 1 elided 30..n. 3. 
1 demonstr. 26. 3; 80. 2sq. 116.8. — 

shortens preceding long vowel 7. 

n. 16. 
1 subscript, 5. 2 sq. — in contraction 

28. 3. 2. b; ib. 4. — in crasis 29. 

n. 2. — in the loc. ending -770-1, 116. 

3, marg. — in 3 sing, of the Subj. 
Se/77, Sa/xe/77, etc. 103. m. 38; 107. 
m. 43, marg. — in 7^, etc. 116. n. 8 ; 
comp. 115. n. 3. — in Pe t rf. and Aor. 
of verbs \p.vp, false, 97. 4. b, marg. 
101. n. 2, marg. — Inf. dv or dv 105. 

4, and marg. ib. n. 15, marg. 

-1 adv. ending 119. m. 81. 1 case- 
ending, short. 43. n. 3. 

-1a, -lov, -10s, forms of nouns, short 1, 
7. n. 10.— long a 119. m. 35. 

-idea, desideratives and verbs of dis- 
ease, 119. m. 12, 13., 

ide, l8ov, instead of Plur. 115. n. 7 - 
129. n. 13.— l&e (rjSe) 149. m. 7 

i'Sio?, comparat. 65. n. 2. 

ioWtjp c. gen. 132. 10. d. 

i'6>y c. gen. 132. 10. d. 



GREEK INDEX. 



505 



i'f/xai, tepai, 108. V. 1. pen. 

Ikvai with Part, as Fut. 144. n. 17. — 

rov irpoaoi 132. n. 28, marg. — em 

Srjpdu etc. 124. n. 7. — lav 150. m. 

34; 144. n. 3. 
levai, Xeo-dai, and compounds, 130. n. 

2. ult. — c. gen. 132. 4 sq. 
-i£o>, verbs in, 104. 3; 119. m. 8, 14. 

— flexion 92. 8; 95. 9. 
'lyo-ov? decl. 56. n. 1. 
16 1, 'ire, come on! 115. n. 7. 
Idv, Idvs, 115. n. 4. — Idvvrara ib. n. 6. 
imvos cocrre 140. 4. 
luereveiv, iKvelwBai, c. gen. 132. n. 11. 
-iKov neut. 63. n. 3; 66. 4, marg. — 

Synt. 128. 3. 
-tKor adj. in, c. gen. 132. 13. — derivat. 

119. m. 54, 71. 
Ikov Imperat. 103. m. 4, marg. 
-'.Km adv. 115. n. 2. 
i'Xecor 27. n. 10, marg. 
Xp,ev, ifMevai, 108. V. 3. 
Xv pron. 72. n. 6. 6. 
-iv Nom. ending 41. 4, marg. 
ti/a constr. 139. m. 45-48. — «r aV 

ubicunque, ib. m. 47. — «/a rt; 149. 

m. 2. — 6i/a c. gen. 132. n. 6. 
-ti/or quant. 41. n. 1. 
-ivco, verbs in, quant. 112. n. 6. — 

from -ia> 112. 10. 
«yi«> Subjunct. 103. m. 39. 
-lov subst. 119. m. 42, 61. See also 

in -ta. 
-io9 gentile subst. 119. m. 49. — adj. 

ib. m. 66. 
16s (l) 7. n. 10. 
inno?, f), 32. n. 3. 
Ipos (l) Ion. for lepd? 28. n. 5. 
-is fern. 63. 5; 119. m. 45, 53, 65.— 

Gen. tor and idor 56. n. 5 ; 63. n. 6. 
Xaav 109. n. 5, marg. 
lorOp.69 119. m. 20. 
Xcros and Taos 7. n. 12; 27. n. 13. — 

comparat. 65. n. 2. — c. dat. 133. 

2. f.— Xcros elv Xcrois 151. VI. 2. 
icrrrjpi., 107. m. 21 sq. — crrr\cracrBai 

rponaiov 135. 6. 
laropelv, dvicrropelv, c.dupl. ace. 131.5. 
ire, see i'0i. 
i^S 56. n. 7. 2. 
-io>, verbs in, quant. 7. n. 10. 
-t£> Fut. Att. from -iVcd, 95. 9, and 

n. 14. 
ld>v : /xoXcoi/, etc. 150. m. 34. 

K. 
k for 7T (fedre) 16. n. 1. c; 116. n. 10. 

b. — goes into ^ in mi 29. n. 7. — 



/c of Perf. 1 is dropped 97. n. 7. — 
k as characterise 92. n. 2. 

Ka Dor. for jce 117. n. 1. 

m6d, mBdrrep, 115. n. 5. 

mOiCeiv, Ka6l{;eo-0ai t 113. 2 : 130. n. 2. 
— c. ace. 131. n. 5. 

Ka6LKvelo-6ai c. gen. et ace. 132. 5. e, 
and n. 9. 

mOicrTacrOai m\cos ttoXc/xov 132. n. 28. 

mi in crasis 29. n. 7. — %wi. 149. m. 
8. — the art. to be repeated? 125 
10; after iro\vs, okiyos, etc. 149. 
m. 8. — after op,oia>s etc. ib. — omit- 
ted, see Particles. — mi fxaXd, ml 
ndvv, 149. m. 8. — ml 6s, ml rov, 
126. 5, and n. 2. — mi %pds 147. n. 
5. — ml el, mv el, 149. m. 4. — ml 
de, ib. m. 10. — Kai ravra 150. m. 
16. — ml fxr)v 149. m. 29. — ml &s 
116. 5; 149. m. 1. 

ml and m'urep, although, 149. m. 30. 
— with Particip. 144. n. 15. — mi- 
ni 149. m. 27 ; 144. n. 15. 

mipds without copula, 129. n. 18 

miTot, see in Kai, extr. 

micos mxlav 131. n. 6. 

mmvpyelv c. ace. 131. 2. 

mmvpyds twos 132. 13. 

mK&s Xeyew V. Troielv rwa 131. 2. 

mXeii/, KaXeladai, constr. 131. 6, and 
n. 11; 143. 4; 144. n. 10.— mXei- 
o-0ai in number of predic. 129. 12. 
— e'rri twos, 147 eVi, p. 416. — 6 m- 
Xovp-evos, so called, 144. n. 10. 

m\ld 7. n. 10. 

KaWio-Teveiv c. gen. 132. 12. 

m\ds, quant, of a, 7. n. 12. — iv mXaj 
c. gen. 147 iv, p. 413. 

mp.r)\os, tj, 32. n. 3. 

kov 29. n. 7.— mz/ ei with Indie. 149. 
m. 4. 

mveov, mvovv, 36. n. 2. 

mrd elided 117. n. 2. — implied ? 131. 
7. — signif. 147. p. 414. — in com- 
pos. 147. n. 6. — j) mrd, see 37. 

mrayeXav c. gen. 132. 10. e. 

mTayiyva>o~Keiv, mTadim^ecrdai, etc. 
constr. 132. 10. g; 135. 8. — Pas- 
sive 134. 5, and n. 2 a, 

mraeio-aTo 108. V. 10. 

KaToXKaTTeaOai c. dat. 133. 2. b. 

KaravepLeiv C dupl. ace. 131.5; comp, 
ib. n. 9. 

mTcm\r)TTecr6a.i rwa 136. 2. 

Karairpoi^eadai, 114. p. 243. 

mrapvelo-Bai, with /x?; and Inf. 148. 
n. 9. 

mraaxio-6aL Pass. 113. n. 9. 



506 



GREEK INDEX. 



KaTandevai c. gen. 132. 10. c. 
Karacppovelv c. gen. 132. 10. e, and n. 

15. elcrdai Pass. 134. 5. 

KciTeaya rrj? KecpaXTJS 1 132. 5. C. 
Karrjyopelv 132. 10. g. — Pass. 134. 2 a. 
KarrjKoos c. gen. 132. 10. h, marg. 
Karat Kara 151. VI. 2. 
ice, Kev, 14. 2. 5; 26. 3; 117. n. 1. 

See civ. 
Keladai 109. II. — c. ace. 131. n. 5. 
KeKop.p.evo? (ppevcov 132. 4 ult. 
KeKopvdfxevo9 92. n. 2 ult. 98. n. 5. 
KeK.pa.vTcu 101. n. 6. 
KeXaivos; p.eXa? y 16. n. 2. 
KeXeveiv constr. 133. 2. c. — without 

verb 151. IV. 8. 
Kevos c. gen. 132. 10. a. 
Kepay 54. 1. 
-/cepcoy, see -yeXcor. 
KevOeiv c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. 
Kex^pidaraL 130. n. 6; 103. m. 24. 
KTjdeadai c. gen. 132. 10. e. 
ktjvos 74. n. 1. 

Krjp, Kijpos; 41. n. 7 ; 43. n. 4. 
Krjpv^y K?jpv^, 41. n. 2. 
Krjpvcraei, sc. 6 Kt]pv£, 129. 16. 
-/a, -jar, 25. n. 2. 
KLvdvvevoi, personal, 151. I. 7. b. 
/cXaSi 56. n. 8. 
-AcXe^y, -kX?;?, 53. 3. — also -kXo? 56. 

n. 2. 
KX€o/3t, 28. n. 10. 
AcXeoy, KAelos", KAea, 53. n. 3, 5. 
Kk.rjpovop.eLv constr. 132. n. 7. 
koiv&vo?, -pew 1 , c. gen. 132. 5. d. 
KoAa^eti/ o-e/xv' eirj] 131. n. 7. 
KoXaKeveiv c. ace. 131. 2. 
Kop.Leai Hdot. 95. n. 14. 
/covt'a (t) 7. n. 10. 

Ko7r7ra, num. sign, 2. n. 3; App. B. 
Kopewvo-dcu c. gen. 132. 10. a, i. 
Kparelv c. gen. et dat. 132. 12, and n. 

25- 133. 4. c, marg. — tg>v ootw 

132. n. 10. 
Kparv?, positive, 69. n. 1. 
Kpeas 54. 1. 
KpeiTTti) elvai tivos 132. 12. — Kpeiaacav 

elvai personal 151. I. 7. d. 
Kpl 57. n. 3. 

KplveiVy constr. 132. 10. g. 
KpoKa 56. n. 8. 

KpilTTTaCTKOV 103. HI. 11. 

KpVTTTeiv, d7rOKpV7TT€LV, C. dlipl. aCC. 

131. 5. 
Kpvcpa 146. 4. 2. 
KVKeu>v ace. 55. n. 
Kvvrepos 69. n. 2. 
jcuoeu/ 1 32. 5. d.— with Part. 144. n. 6. 



Kvav, gender 32. n. 3. 
KcciKveiv c. gen. 132. 4. 
Inf. 148. n. 9. 



<vith p.rj and 



X, dropped, 744, p. 247, and marg. — 

doubled after augm. 83. n. 2. 
Xay^dveiv c. gen. 132. 5. d. 
Xaycos- 37. n. 1, 2. 
\d6pa 146. 4. 2. 
AaXoy, comparat. 65. n. 2. 
Xap,j3dveiv, -ecrOai, and compounds, c. 

gen. 132. 5. d, e, and n. 10; also 

10. c— Xa/3a>i>, wifA, 150. m. 33. 
XavBdvew c. ace. 131. 2. — with Part. 

144. n. 6. — Xav6dvecr6ai c. gen. 132. 

10. d. 
Xds, Xdos, 43. n. 4; 44. n. 1. 
Xarpeveiv constr. 131. 2, and n. 2. 
Xey<0 c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. — Xeyop.ai 

in personal constr. 151. I. 7. — to 

Ae-yo^ez/oj/, 132. n. 14. 
Xeiireiv, e7TtXei7reH>, c. ace. 131. 2. 
Xeovrea, -ttj, 34. n. 1. 
Aecrxy?, Gen. Aeax eoo > 34. IV. 5. 
X^yeiz/, 130. n. 2; 132. 4. — with Part. 

144. 6. a.— with pq and Inf. 148 

n. 9. 
Xmapelv with Part. 144. n. 6. 
Xt'y, adj. 64. n. 3. 5. 
Xicraeadai c. gen. 132. n. 11. 
Xoyov p.ei£a>v, etc. 132. n. 20. 
Xoidopelv c. dat. 133. 2. d. 
X01770V, rov, 76 Xonrov, 150. m. 17; 

125. n. 8. 
XolcrOos, Xoicrdios; 69. n. 3. 
Xovcrcu 7rorajLtoio 132. n. 28, marg. 
AvBicrri, 17, 125. 7. 

Xveti/ and compounds, c. gen. 132. 4 
Xvfiaivecrdai constr. 131. 2, and n. 2. 
Xvo-iTeXelv constr. 131. n. 2. 
X(£>(3cicrdai constr. 131. 2, and n. 2. 

M. 

p. before /3, inserted, 19. n. 1. — drop- 
ped in redupl. 114 7rt/x7rX^i. — 
doubled after augm. 83. n. 2. 

fid Synt. 149. m. 23. 

-p,a subst. see -p.o?. 

p.aQevp.cu 96. n. 16. 

p.aKap 64. n. 3. — comparat. 66. n. 3. 

p.aKctpi£eiv c. gen. 132. 10. c. 

p,aKpdv adv. 115.4. — comparat. 115.6. 

p.aKp6s, comparat. 67. n. 5. 

p.dXa, p.dXXov, p,dXiara, 67. n. 7; 115, 
7. — p.dXio-Ta p.ev, p-aXXov 8e, 150 
m. 19. — p.dXXov, p-dXiara, with 
compar. and superl. pleonast. 123. 



GREEK INDEX. 



507 



n. 8, 9. — paXio-ra with numerals 

150. m. 19. — eSTa/iaXio-TO. 125. n.8. 
fxaXrj, vtto pdXrjs, 57. 2. 
fiakKLTJv 105. n. 5, marg. 
paWov, see pdXa. 
-fiav for -fiTjv 103. m. 31. — pdv, see 

pr)v. 
pavddvoo, constr. 132. 10. h; 144. 6. 

a. — in Pres. instead of Perf. 137. 

n. 8. — 7-t /xa&oi/ 150. m. 41. — Dor. 

paOevpai 95. n. 16. 
pdo-Ti 56. 11. ? 
pd^eadai c. dat. 133. 2. a. — pd^o-dai 

pdyrfv 131. 4. 
peyas 64. 1. — ro Se p-eyio-rov 151. 

IV. 10. 
fieioi/ indeel. 129. n. 8. 
peioveKrelv c. gen. 132. 12. 
peKa? 16. n. 2. 
/neXet jlach c. gen. 133. 10. e, and n. 

15. — with O7rcor 139. m. 45. — peXov 

145. n. 10. 2. 
piXkeiv, Synt. 137. n. 11 ; 139. m. 13; 

140. 1. c; 150. m. 35. 
p-ipvrjpai 83. n. 1. — Opt. 98. n. 9. — 

with Part, and Inf. 144. 6. — with 

ore 139. m. 59. 
pepcpeadai and compounds, constr. 

133. 2. d. 
pev, pev.. . 8e, constructions, 126. 2 sq. 

149. m. 11-14. — flip for pr)v, see 

pr)v. — pev, pev dr), place of, 125. 

9. 126. n. 3; 147. n. 3. 
-p-ev, -p-evai, Inf. 103. m. 33 ; 107. m. 

34 sq. 
fi€uoivf)7](Ti and -vr)o-eie 105. n. 10 ult. 
pevroi in crasis, 29. n. 8. — Synt. 149. 

m. 13, 27.—fxevTav 29. n. 8. 
pepo? with verbs of partaking 132. 

n. 8. 
-pes for -pev 103. m. 32. 
-peaBa, -peo~6ov, 103. m. 32. 
peaovv<nos as adv. 123. 6. 
pecros, place of with art. 125. n. 5. — 

comparat. 65. n. 2. — peaaros 68. n. 

— [xeara.Tt.os 69. n. 3. 
pearos c. gen. 132. 10. a. 
perd, signif. 147. p. 417. — c. ace. of 

Part. 145. n. 5. — as adv. 147. n. 5. 

— in composit. ib. n. 6. — in ana- 
strophe, pera, 117. 3, and n. 3. 

— in Tmesis 147. n. 7 ult. — pera 

ravra with Part. 144. n. 13. 
perabtdovai, peraire^v, peraXapfidveiv, 

constr. 132. 5. d, and n. 7, 8. 
perapekov 145. n. 10. 2. 
pera^v 146. 4. 1; 150. m. 27.— with 

Part. 145. n. 5. 



perelvai, pere^eiv, pero%os, constr. 132. 

5. d, and n. 7, 8. 
pere&pos as adv. 123. 6. 
pero^os, see perelvai. 

pexph p*XP ls > 26. 4; 115. n. 4. — 
Synt. 146. n. 2 ult. 

lit], constr. 148. 1, 2 sq. — with Subj. 
Aor. for Imperat. 139. m. 4. — with 
Part, and Inf. 148. 2. f, g.— with 
Subj. and Opt. 139. m. 45 j 148. 3, 
4. — for o7rcos lit] and after fear 139. 
m. 50; 148. n. 5. — whether not? 
139. m. 63. — independent in claus- 
es of fear 148. n. 5. — negatives 
parts of clauses 148. 2. h. — before 
subst. and other single words 148. 
n. 3; 151. IV. 6.— with Inf. after 
negative verbs 148. n. 9 ; also after 
fj, 149. m. 7. — instead of p&v in 
questions 139. m. 62; 148.5; 149. 
m. 18.— lit] ov 139. m. 50; 148. n. 

6. — prj pr)v 150. m. 29 ult. — pf) 
ellipt. 151. IV. 6. — pr) on, pr) ott&s, 
150. m. 3 ; on fir) ib. m. 4. — to fir) 

c. Inf. 140. n. 9, 10 ; 148. 2. g.— tov 
fir) c. Inf. 140. n. 10. 

-fit] subst. see -pos. 

firjbafiol Ion. 70. 1. 

prjde, prjbeis, prjdenamoTe, prjKen, etc, 

see ovde, etc. 
fir)v(fidv) 117.11.1. — Synt. 149. m. 29. 
firjviaios as adv. 123. 6. 
firjTe, pr)ns, see ovre, ovtls. 
fiTfrrfp 47. 2, and n, 2. — without art. 

124. n. 7. 
prjn, pr)n ye, 150. m. 6. 
firfTp&s 37. n. 1 ; 56. n. 6. 
-pi Dor. instead of -co, 106. n. 9. — 

Subjunct. in epic writers 103. m. 

37. — Verbs in pi, 106-109; see the 

list of such verbs, 112. 15. 
pia 34. II. 2. 

piyvvcrOcu c. dat. 133. 2. a. 
pipelcrdai c. ace. 131. 2. 
pcp,vr)o-<eiv, -eaOai, and compounds, 

constr. 131. 5, and n. 8; 132. 10. 

d, and n. 14 a. 

piv, viv, 16. n. 1. d; 72. n. 6. 12. 
MiVcoy 37. n. 1 ; 56. 11. 6. 
pv instead of pp, 114 r)pv&. 
p.vda, pvd, 34. n. 1. 
pvrfpoveveiv^ pvr)pa>v, c. gen. 132. 10. d. 
poyis, pokis, 16. n. 2. 
pokav, 150. m. 34. 
popeprjv eyet^ c. ace. 131. n. 7. 
-pos, -apos, -pa, -pi), subst. 119. m. 19 
juou and epavrov 127. 7. — /mou, crov, in 
stead of poi, voi, 133. n. 10. 



508 



GREEK INDEX. 



uovo-tlV) povbcoicev, crasis, 29. n. 9. 
pv-^aros 69. n. 2. 

pfov, ficov ovv, [Aw fit), 139. m. 62 ; 
149. m. 18. 

N. 
v ecpeXcpvo-TiKov 26. 2, and n. 2 ; 80. 

n. 3; 117. 1. — in Impf. of contr. 

verbs 105. n. 3. 
v in pronunc. changed, 25. n. 1, 4. — 

before other consonants, 25. 1 sq. 

— before o- and £, 25. 3. — inserted, 

114 rjjjiva) — ins. before the ending 

of verbs in co, 112. 10; in a©, ib. 

16. — in Perf. Pass, of verbs Xpvp, 

101. n. 7. — v before p, ib. n. 8. 

— v with a priv. 120. 5, and n. 

10. 
•v instead of -aav in 3 Plur. 103. m. 

26; 107. m. 39; 110. n. 1. 
vol pa Aia 149. m. 23. 
vai X t 11. n. 2; 117. 2 ult. 
vavaiv without avv 133. n. 13. 
-vda>, -vrj/xi, from dco, 112. 16. 
vearos, i/e/aror, 68 ult. 
-vim, verbs in, 112. 10. 
vrj- insep. 120. n. 12. 
vr), particle of swearing 149. m. 23. 
vrjrr] 68 ult. 
iiKqv c. ace. 'OXv/z7ria, etc. 131. n. 

11 a. — c. dupl. ace. 131. n. 8. 
vicpa 56. n. 8. 
vojjLi£ecrdai constr. 144. 7. 
-vos subst. derivat. 119. m. 50. — sec- 
ondary form in pr. names from voo?, 

60. 5. a, marg. 
voacpi, voacpiv, 26. 3. — c. gen. 132. 4; 

146. 4. 2. 
vo<r<j)i£eiv c. gen. 132. 4. 
vovderetv c. ace. 133. 2. c. — c. dupl. 

ace. 131. n. 12. 
vovs, compounds with, 60. 5. 
vtl 3 pers. Plur. 87. n. 3; 103. m. 

28; 107. m. 38. 
pv, vvv, enclit. 14. 2. 5; 26. 3. — Synt. 

149. m. 30. 
vvtcTiairepov 115. n. 6. 

-wpi, -vvvpi, verbs in, quant, of the 
v, 106. 12, and n. 4.— from -co, 106. 
12; 112. 15. d, e. 

vvv, vvv, 14. 2. 5, marg. — to vvv eivcu 

150. m. 38.— vvv br) 149. m. 20.— 
to. vvv 125. n. 8. 

-pa, verbs in, 112. 10, 11. — quant, ib. 
n. 6. 



£ and yjr, origin and pronunc. 22.- 



£ instead of cr in Fut. and Aor. 96. 

n. 2. 
-^and-'v/r, endings of Nom. 41. 1, 2sq. 

comp. 38. n. £ and -yjr adj. 63. 

4. 1 adv. 119. m. 84. 

£vv, see (tvv. 

^wtcrrcop c. ace. 130. n. 3. 

O. 

for u, 5. n. 3. — changed into ov, 25. 
4; 27. n. 1.— into to, 27. n. 4, 10. 
— o for to in Subj. 103. m. 39 ; see 
co. — o alternate in Perf. 97. 4. c; 
101. 6.— inserted in Perf. 97. n. 2. 
— remains in composit. 120. 2, and 
n. 1. — o and a before a vowel, 
see a. 

6 ellipt. 143. 11. — adv. wherefore, 
128. n. 5; comp. 126. n. 7. 

6 art. 75. — rbv Kai top 126. n. 5. — 6 
fiev . . . 6 be 126. 2, 4, and n. 3, 4.— 
6 ixev...6 Se ou 149. m. 14. — oi 
/xeV . . . oi be with foil. Nom. in- 
stead of Gen. 132. n. 4. — ol d/xqbi, 
oi Trepi, 150. m. 25. — tcl rore 125. 
n. 6 ult. — See also to, tcl, and Ar- 
ticle. 

obe and ovtos 127. 1. — obe as adv, ib. 
— 76 dno Tovbe 125. n. 8. — See also 

OVTOS. 

ob y eKelvos 127. 1. C 
obos implied 123. n. 5; 131. 10. 
ofav c. gen. 132. 10. h. 
or) contr. into co, 114 /3odco. 
obovvem, crasis, 29. n. 10; 139. m. 
58; 149. m. 3; see ovveica. 

01 for o and ov 27. n. 2, 4. — alternate 
of ei in Perf. 2, 110. 9 ; into t, ib. 

-oi and -at, short, 11. 7; exceptions, 

. ib. n. 3. ol local ending 116. 3. 

-ol and -ev Vocat. 11. 3; 45. 2, 5. 

ol instead of {civtco 127. n. 4. 

oi&a 109. III.— signif. 113. n. 10.-- 

oibd ere, otl kt\. 151. I. 6. — ev olb* 

otl 151. IV. 4. — ev elbvs c. gen. 

132. 10. d. 
oieL 103. m. 18. — o'ietrBai constr. 139. 

m. 18. 
-oirjv Opt. 103. m. 13. 
-ollv Dual 35. n. 4. d; 43. n. 2. 
oim p. 200, marg. 
oUabe 116. n. 2. 
oiKetoy c. gen. 132. 7. 
ot/a'a, see oi/cor. 

otKot and oi'koi 11. n. 3; 116. 3. 
oIkos and ohia omitted 125. 5; 132 

n. 30. 
olKTeipeiv c. gen. 132. 10. e. 



GREEK INDEX. 



509 



o'ip.01. 11 n. 3. 

olvo^oevei, sc. 6 olvoxoos 129. 16. 

-oio Thessalian Genit. 35. n. 4. 

oUOevotos 151. VI. 2. 

-olos, e. g. rravrolos, 79^ n. 2. 

ofos and o7roToy 127. 6. — oioy with art. 

e. g. rols oiois rjp.lv, 125. n. 9 ; 143. 

16. — for on roiovros 139. m. 35 a. 

— in exclam. ib. ult. — with Inf. for 

ware 139. m. 57. — oiov and oia 

with Part. 144. n. 14. — in attr. 

oi'ca o~oi etc. 143. 16. — olov after 

comparat. instead of fj, 149. m. 7. 

— See also oaos. 
olos re, oloare, Syni. 150. m. 10. 
oi'y, ols, 50. n. 6. 

-oi? for -ow, iEol. Inf. 105. n. 18. 
-olaa and evaa, Part. fern. 105. n. 13. 
-oiaa for -ovcra, -oicri for -ovai, 103. 

m. 28, 29. 
olae Imperat. 97. n. 9. 
OU70' 6 bpaaov 139. m. 36. 
oXxopai, Synt. 137. n. 8; 144. n. 6. 
o/<coy with Opt. in repetitions 139. m. 

39. 
dXiyov with comparat. 133. 4. d. 
oAtyooroy p. 92. marg. 
ohiyaipeiv c. gen. 132. 10. e. 
oXonad^j of 1 Decl. 33. 5; 34. n. 1.— 

of 2 Decl. 36. 1.— of 3 Decl. 48. n. 

2; 62. n. 3. 
oXoy, place with art. 125. n. 5. 
'OXvfnria viKav, etc. 131. n. 11 a. 
dfxaprelv, op-Ckelv, c. dat. 133. 2. a. 
o\x.vv\ii c. ace. 131. 2. 
o/xoio? c. gen. 132. n. 26. — c.dat. 133. 

2. f ; comp. ib. 4. c, marg. — with 

icat, like ac, 149. m. 8 ult. — op.oios 

elfxi with Part, in nom. and dat. 

144. n. 9. 
6p.ov prep. 146. n. 1. 
ofioos with Particip. 144. n. 15. 
ov Part, absol. omitted 145. n. 10. 2; 

see a>v. 
ovap 57. 2. 
ovivavai c. ace. 131. 2. — ovivaaQai c. 

gen. 132. 10. i. 
6Vo/>ia with verbs of naming 131. n. 

11. 
6vop.aC6p.evos, so called, 144. n. 10. 
oov 75. n. 1. 

07T7]Setz/ constr. 133. 1, and marg. 
omaOev 146. 4. 2. 
oVioraroy 70. n. 2. 

07rXTrat in dat. without crw, 133. n. 13. 
onXorepos 70. n. 2. 
07roSa7rdf, 79. n. 1. 
ottou^, 67roo-oy, O7rco5, etc. 127. 6. 



67rooTor 79. n. 1. 

onoTe 149. m. 6. — onorerov %tos 132. 
5. b. — Snore and onorav, 139. m. 
24, 37, 39. 68. 

ottou 149. m. 6; 139. m. 31. See ttov. 

OTTrrjcrai Kpeav 132. 5. C. 

o7rcoy ifAa?, in orJer that, 139. m. 45- 
49; 149. m. 2. — with Subj. or Fut. 
instead of Imperat. ib. m. 46. — 
O7rcoy av, ib. m. 47, 48. — as relat. 
139. m. 31. — in indir. quest, ib. m. 
63. — after didoim, etc. ib. m. 50. 

Spav with oVcoy foil. 139. n. 45. — opav 
edv, ib. m. 66. 

opeyeo-dai c. gen. 132. 10. f. 

oprjai 105. n. 16, marg. 106. n. 9, 
marg. 

opvidodrjpa, rov, 34. IV. 4. 

-oy for -ovy 35. n. 4. b ; in Nom. Sing. 
60. 5. b, marg. — subst. masc. and 
neut. 49. 1 ; 56. 6; 1 19. m. 28, 32, 39. 

-oy pure in genit. 42. 1 ; 48. 1. 

-o'y neut. Part, as eVroy, 107. m. 23. 
marg. 

oy pron. poss. 3 pers. 72. 4. — instead 
of 1 and 2 pers. 127. n. 5. 

6'y, oarn?, pron. relat. 75; 126; 143; 
see also 6, Article, Relative. — oVm 
instead of oy 127. 6, and n. 10.— 
oo-rty, Sy au, after a noun in Plur. 
143. 5. — for ei rty 143. 19. — Sorts 
av, 6s av, with Opt. 139. m. 68.— 
oaris, oo-nsovv, etc. 127. n. 11 ; 
139. m. 32. — oo-rty for oansovv 127. 
n. 11 ult. — oy fiovkei quivis, in- 
flected, 143. n. 7. — 6y \iev . . . oy Be, 
126. 2, and n. 3, 4. — o de iravrw 
yeXoiorarov, etc. 143. 11. 

-oo-av for -ov, Aor. etc. 103. m. 25. 

ocroy and o7roo-oy 127. 6. — 6Voy (and 
otoy) in exclam. 139. m. 35 a, ult. 
— for on TocrovTos-, ib. init. — with 
siiperlat. 123. n. 9. — for &crre c. 
Inf. 139. m. 57. — in parenthetic 
clauses 140. n. 4. — oVoy with art. 
125. n. 9. — oaov y' ep,e eldevai 140. 
n. 4. — attraction with 143. 16, ex. 
— ocrov ov 150. m. 8. — oaov instead 
of rj, 149. m. 7. — irkelaO'' oaa, etc. 
150.n.8; 151. I. 5; 129. n. 18.— 
roo-ovrco . . . ocro) 150. m. 8. — ellip- 
tical turns with oaov, oaa, ib.— 
octch r}p,epai, ib. — oaov re 149. m. 8 

6Wep 127. n. 9. 

oaae as plur. 123. n. 4. 

oare, etc. in Horn. 149. 8. 

oo-riy, oarisovv, see 6s. 

oaepp iiveaOat c. gen. 132. 10. h. 



510 



GREEK INDEX. 



otclv 139. m. 14, 24. — with Opt. ib. 
m. 68. 

ore constr. 139. m. 37. — guandoqui- 
dem 149. m. 6. — that, after pepvrj- 
\iai etc. 139. m. 59. 

ore 116. n. 9. 

on, onr), 117. 2. — Synt. 139. m. 42, 
58; 149. m. 3. — after verbs of 
fearing, etc. 139. m. 50. — after 
relative clauses 143. 11, ex. — 
strengthens the superlat. 149. m. 
3; comp. 123. n. 9. — stands twice 
or interchanges with wr 139. m. 
61. — redundant before an Inf. or a 
direct quotation 139. m. 61; 141. 
n. 2. — 8rj\6v on, ev old* on, 151. 
IV. 4.— on pr) 150. m. 3. 

oris, oreiov, Sreotcn, etc. 77. n. 4. 

ov diphth. 5. 1, and n. 2, 3. 

ov, ovk, olfo 4. 5; 13. 3; 26. 5. — ov 
and pr), Synt. 148. — ov before subst. 
and other single words 148. n. 2, 
3. — in conditional and other de- 
pendent clauses 148. 2. b, marg. 
ib. n. 2. — in a direct quest. 148. 5. 
— redundant after rj, 149. m. 7. — ov 
liev dXkd, ov pevroi dXXd, ov yap 
dXkd, 149. m. 16. — ov p,r), pr) ov, 
139. m. 6, 7; ib. m. 46, marg. 
148. n. 6. — oi> pr)v 149. m. 29. — 
ov Trdvv, ov (prj/jLi, 148. n. 2. — ov 
mpi 150. m. 7.— ov be 149. m. 15 
ult. — ovbeh oo-tls ov 148. n. 8. — 
See also in ovx- 

o$, see e. — as local adv. 116. 4; 132. 
14. b. 

ovdapcos, -pfj, etc. 116. n. 6. — ovbapoi, 
prjdapot, Ion. 70. 1. 

ovbe and prjbe, 149. m. 15. — ovbe eh, 
prjbe ev, 70. 1. — ovb cos, pr) b cos, 
116. 5; 149. m. 1. pen. 

ovbeis, ovdels, prjbeis, 70. 1 ; 78. 1. — 
ovdels oarts ov 148. n. 8. — ovdev 
olov 150. m. 11. — ovdev aXX' rj, ib. 
m. 12. — ovdev, prjdev, nearly indecl. 
129. n. 8.— ovdev c. gen. 132. n. 5. 

ovdeircoirore^ prjdeTvccTrore^ 149. m. 21. 

ovk, see ov. 

ovKerc, firjKeTi, Synt. 149. m. 22. 

ovkow, ovkovv, 139. Hi. 62 ; 149. m. 18. 

ovv 149. m. 18. — appended 80. 1; 
116. 9. 

-ovv ace. sing. 44. 1 ; 49. n. 7. 

ovveica 29. n. 10. — Synt. 149. m. 3; 
139. m. 42, 58. 

ovirore, u.j]TTOTe) ov7ro), jLtTj7rco, 116. n. 6. 
—Synt. 149. m. 21. 

ovpavos without art. 124. n. 7. 



ovpeaiv erpecpe 133. n. 15. 

ovprjv 105. n. 5, marg.; sec § 114 
ovpeco. 

-ovs, words in, 44. 1 ; 50. 1 . 

-ovr, ovvtos, 41. n. 5; 62. n. 3. 

-ovo-ara in names of places, from 
oeo-cra, 27. n. 17. 

ot/re, /x^re, Synt. 149. m. 15.— ovre 
... re, ib. 

ovti?, prjris, 78. 1. — ovti, prjTi, 150. 
m. 6. 

ovtos, 76. — heus ! ib. n. 3. — Synt. diff. 
of ovtos and ode 127. 1, 2. — as adv. 
ib. 1. — Kai ovtos, Kai ravra, 15. m. 
16. — place with art. 127. 9. — omis- 
sion of, see Omission. — tovtov, rov- 
8e, pleonast. before Inf. and before 
rj, 132. n. 22; and so ravra 127. 1. 
b, ex. — ovros after preced. Part. 
144. n. 13, marg. — without art. 127. 
n. 15. — See also rovro, and Demon- 
stratives. 

ovrcos- 26. 4. — Synt. before relat. 
clauses 139. m. 35 b. — before Zoo-re, 
ib. m. 5; 140. 4. — for rj after com- 
parat. 149. m, 7. — after a Particip. 
144. n. 13. — in clauses of wishing 
139. m. 7 ; 149. m. 1 ult.— diff. of 
ovras and o>§e 127. 1. b. 

oi>x on, ov% O7rcor, oi>x oaov, ovx oiov, 
150. m. 1, 2. — ovx tfuo-ra 148. n. 2. 

ov X i 117. 2. 

ocpe\ov, Synt. 139. m. 8, 13 ; 150. 
m. 20. 

ocpeXos 57. 2. 

d(p\icrKaveiv c. ace. yfKcora, etc. 132. 
n. 17. 

oeppa 116. 4 ult.— Synt. 139. m. 37, 
40, 45. 

b\a with superlat. 123. n. 9. 

o^rei 2 pers. Sing. 103. m. 18. 

byios, comparat. 65. n. 2. — as adv. 
123. 6. 

tyoepdyos, comparat. 65. n. 2. 3. 

oco as resolution into the double 
sound, in verbs in ao> and o'co, 105. 
n. 10, 11. 

-dec, verbs in, 104. 3; 105. n. 11; 
119. m. 2, 7. — not contr. in 1 pers. 
105. n. 1. — from verbs in w, 112. 7. 



n. 



TraibiKa, rd, 32. n. 1 

irals, genit. plur. naidoiv, 43. n. 4. d.— 

without art. 124. n. 7. — implied 

125. 5. 
iraXato?, comparat. 65. n, 3. 



GREEK INDEX. 



511 



naXiinrXayxOevTes 121. n. 1. 

ndXiv "before conson. 25. n. 3. 

7rap,(paivr)o-i 106. n. 9. 

rrav-, strengthening of adj. 60. n. 4. 

7ravrjiJ.epi.os as adv. 123. 6. 

JJdvOov Voc. p. 50. marg. 

irdvv, 6, 125. 7. 

napd elided 117. n. 2. — signif. 147. 

p. 417. _ w ith Pass. 134. 3; 147. 

p. 417. — as adv. 147. n. 5. — in 

compos, ib. n. 6. — ol irapd, to. irapd, 

c. gen. 147. p. 417. — ndpa for ndp- 

eipt 117. 3. — napai 117. n. 1. — 

to irapaTrav 125. n. 8. 
irapaweiv c. dat. 133. 2. C. 
napaKaKeiv 07700? 139. m. 45. 
770^0077X770-10? c. dat. 133. 2. f. 
7rapa.crKzvd£so-6ai 07700? 139. m. 45. 
Tvcxpacrxov absol. 145. n. 10. 2. 
Txaparvxdv absol. 145. n. 10. 2. 
rrapaxprjpa 115. n. 5. — eV rot) irapa- 

X?W a 125. n. 8. 
rrapeyyvau c. dat. 133. 2. C. 
rrapeo-Ti, Synt. 150. m. 23. 
Trapexpv, irapacrxdv, absol. 145. n. 10. 2. 
Trapoitepo? 69. n. 2. 
napo^vveiv c. ace. 133. 2. c. 
Trdpos, constr. 139. m. 41. 
nds 43. n. 4- 62. 4; 78. 4. — and com- 
pounds 60. n. 4; 62. n. 2. — Synt. 

127. 9. — 7rai>ra every one 128. n. 3. 

— ttclstls 127. 4. marg. 129. n. 13. 

: — Tias in attr. 143. 17. — to irav as 

adv. 128. n. 5. 
7ra(rcre 6' dXo? #etoio 132. 5. C. 
7rdo-crooi/, Tra^toTor, 67. n. 3. 
7rdo-x elv with wo 134. 2. — irdcrx^v ev 

c. gen. 132. n. 28, marg. 
7707-770 47. 1. — without art. 124. n. 7. 

— Tvdrep Voc. 45. n. 1. 
ndroo/cXo? 56. n. 2. 
7rdrpco? 37. n. 1 ; 56. n. 6. 
naveiv, jraveadai, 130. n. 2, ex. 132. 

4, and n. 2. — 7tavea6cu to cease, 

with Part. 144. 6. a.— with foil. 

£177 an( l Inf- 148. n. 9. 
ndxio-To? 67. n. 3. 
irehd JEo\. for /zero 117. n. 1. 
7re£bi in Dat. without o~vv, 133. n. 13. 
■rretOeiv, c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. — with 

(ucrre 140. 4. — neideordai with dat. 

c. Inf. 143. n. 4. — neiaTeov 134. n. 5. 
netpateu? 53. 2. 
neipacrdai and compounls, c. gen. 

132. 10. d. 
n€io-T€op 134. n. 5. 
nivqacra 64. n. 3. 3. 
TreVocr^e 110. n. 5. 



TreTTTap-ai, 776777-7700?, 7reVrco/ca, 83. n. 

1. c. 
7rep 149. m. 30; 144. n. 15. — ap 

pended, 75. 3 ; 116. 4; 127. n. 9. 
7T€pa, nepav, 117. 1} 146, 4. 2. — com 

parat. 69. 2; 115. n. 6. 
nepaiovcrdai c. ace. 135. 4. 
7re/3i, signif. 147. p. 415. — omitted 

132. n. 29; see Prepositions. — ol 

77fpt, ol dpcpi, 150. m. 25. — ov nepi, 

ib. m. 7. — rrepl 770XX0O p. 416. — rrept 

in anastrophe 117. 3; as adv. 147. 

n. 5. — in composit. 147. n. 6. 
7T€piyiyvea8ai, 77epieii/at, c. gen. 132. 

12. 
Ttepiopav with Inf. and Part. 144. 6. 
TrepiTTos c. gen. 132. 12. 
rrepvcriv 26. 3. 

7777 /*e'z/. . . ivr) 8e, 149. m. 14. 
TTipLTrkdvai c. gen. 132. 10. a. 
mo-Teveiv c. dat. et Inf. 142. n. 4. — 

Trio-Teveo-Oai Pass. 134. 5. 
7riW, TrUipa, 64. n. 3. 4. — comparat. 

68. 11. 
77X0710? as adv. 123. 6. 
-77X00-10? numeral 71. 3. — c. gen. 132. 

12. 
7rXees 68. 6, and marg. 
irkeiv &dXao~arav 131. 3, ex. 
TrXeov, 7rXeu>, indecl. 129. n. 8. — with 

77 omitted 132. n. 21. 
TrXeW 61. 2. — c. gen. 132. 10. a. 
77X171/, 77X771/ et, 146. n. 2. 
77X77/377?, rrXrjpovv, c. gen. 132. 10. a. 
7rkrio-t.aiTepos, etc. 69. 2; 115. n. 6 
77X770-101/ as predic. 129. 13. 
77X01)?, compounds with, 60. 5. 
-77X01)? numeral 71. 3. 
TTveiv c. ace. 131. 3, ex. — c. gen. 132. 

10. h. 
77080770'? 79. n. 1. 
TTodovvTi i)\6ev, etc. 133. n. 6. 
770T yrjs, 7701 <ppeva>v, 132. 5. b, and 

n. 6. 
Troielv Tivd ti 131. 5; rii/i ib. n. 8. — 

with coo-re 140. 4. — Troieicrdai Xei'ai/, 

Swvpa, arjrovbds, c. ace. 131. n. 7. 

— rrepi 770XX01) p. 416. 

TTOirjTOV, TO TOV, 131. 11. 14. 

77010? with art. 124. n. 3. — 77010s tip 

127. n. 7. 
77oXepeii/ c. dat. 133. 2. a. — c. ace. 

TToKep-ov 131. 4. 
770X4? 50. 1; 51. n. 3. — without art. 

124. n. 7. — compounds with, 63. 

n. 6. 
7roXXaKi?, Synt. 150. m. 28. 
Tr6X\a7Tkdo-io? c. gen. 132. 12. 



512 



GREEK INDEX. 



ttoWos 64.11.1. — 7roXXocrrdy7l.l,marg. 

noXvapvc 64. n. 3. 7. 

irokvs 64. 1, and n. 1. — 7roXu, 7roXXft>, 

with comparat. 123. n. 8; 133. 4. d. 

— ttoXv c. gen. 132. n. 5. — ra noWd 

adv. 128. n. 5. — 7ro\\ov del, heiv, 

etc. 140. n. 4; 150. m. 18; 151. I. 

7. b. — nepiiroXkov TroielcrOai, p. 416. 
*t6ttoi, a>, 117. n. 5. 
Troppia 115. 6. 
TJ-ocraTrXacrios' 79. n. 1. 
noais 50. n. 5; 51. n. 3. 
ttoo-ov tl 127. n. 7. 
7roo-Tcnos, 7roo-ror, 79. n. 1. 
73-ore and nov, 149. m. 31. 
rrorepos interrog. and indef. 78. 2, and 

n. 1. — norepov . . .rj, 139. m. 63. 
jtot'l Dor. for irpos, 117. n. 1. — ttottov 

for ttotL tov, ib. n. 2. 
TToVwa (a) 60. n. 1 ; 64. n. 3. 
nov adv. of place 116. 4; 132. 14. b. 

— c. gen. 132. 5. b, and n. 6. 
nov, dr)7rov, etc. 149. m. 31. 
7tov\vs 64. n. 1. 

nods, compounds with, 63. n. 4. 
irpaypaTa implied 125. 5. 
Tvpaos 64. 2. 

7rpdrretv ottcos 139. m. 45. 
TrpaTTecrOai c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. 
7rpeVet c. dat. also with ace. c. Inf. 

133. 2. e; 142. n. 2. — irpeirov c. 

gen. 132. n. 26. — 7rpeVco personal, 

151.1. 7. d. 
npecrfia for 7rpe'cr/3eipa, 64. n. 3. 3, 5. 
7rpeo~(3eveLv, Trpearftevecrdai, 135. 8, ex. 
7rpr)<rai Trvpoe, 132. n. 28, marg. 
Trpiao-dai c. gen. 132. 10. c. 
7rptV, 7rpif 9, TrpXv civ, 139. m. 41, 68; 

149. m. 20.— to ivplv 125. n. 8. 
irpo, crasis 86. n. 1 ; 120. n. 7. — sig- 

nif. 147. p. 413. — in composit. 147. 

n. 6. — compounds with, c. gen. 132. 

12. — rrpo repeated before a genit. 

132. n. 25. 
7r polita adv. 115. 4. 
irpoKakeladai c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. 
npoKetp-evov Part, absol. 145. n. 9. 
Trpos, signif. p. 147. p. 418. — with 

Pass. 134. 3; also 147. p. 418.— 

as adV. 147. n. 5. — compounds 

with, ib. n. 8; 133. 2. b, c; ib. 3. 

— npos ere Secbv 151. lit. 6. — npori 

for irpos 117. n. 1. 
TrpoarfidXkeiv c. dat. et ace. 133. 2. b, 

and n. 1. 
TrpocrSe^o/xeVtt) r)\6ev, etc. 133. 11. 6. 
irpoaeXSelv c. dat. 133. 2. b. 
7rp^ar)<ei c. gen. 132. 10. a. — c. dat. 



also with ace. t. Inf. 133. 2. e, 

142. n. 2. — 7rpoo-rJKov, augm. 116. 

n. 4. — 7rpoo-rjKov Part, absol. 145. 

n. 10. 2. — npoarjKOi personal 151. 1. 

7. d. — See also Set. 
7r pocrrjpialveL 129. 17. 
TvpoaKvveiv, constr. 131. 3, ex. 
7rpoo-p.io"yeiv intrans. 130. n. 2, ex. 
Trpoanoieladai tl 135. 6. 
TvpocTTacro-eiv c. dat. 133. 2. c. — 7rpoer- 

Taa-o-earOaL Pass. 134. 5. — 7rpocrra- 

x6ev Part, absol. 145. n. 10. 2. 
7rpdcrco, 115. 6. — rou 7rpdcro> sc. teVcu, 

132. n. 28, marg. 
7rpoTL for Trpd? 117. n. 1. 
npoTepo?, TTpSiTos, 69. 2; 71. 1. 
TrpoTieiv, 7rpoTip.av, c. gen. 132. 10. b; 

ib. 12. 
TrpoTov, or 7rp6 tov, 150. 17. 
TrpovkLyoV) irpovpyov, 29. n. 9. — npovp- 

yov adv. 115. n. 5. — npovpyiaiTepos, 

-pov, 69. 2; 115. n. 6. 
TTpocpepeiu obov 132. n. 28, marg.; — 

7rpocpepr](n 3 pers. 106. n. 9, and 

marg. 
7rp6(ppoiv, 7rp6(ppao-o~a, 64. n. 3. 4. 
Trpco'ios, comparat. 65. n. 2. 
irpS>Tos 69. 2; 71. 1. — to Trp&Tov 125. 

n. 8. 
7rr, characteristic 92. 8, and n. 1. 
ttt(£>)(6s, comparat. 65. n. 2. 3. 
^veXo? p. 247, marg. 
nvdev Imperat. 103. m. 4, marg. 
UvOia viKqv 131. n. 11a. 
irufxciTos 69. n. 2. 
7rvv6dvofiai 132. 10. h; 137. n. 7. 
7rrpdy and irvpos (nvp) 7. n. 8 j 41. n. 3. 
7J-o>, 7r<07rore, 149. m. 21. 
TraXelv c. gen. 132. 10. c. 
7ro)paXa 150. m. 19. 
7Jwore 149. m. 21. 

P. 

p takes after it a, see a.- — is readily 
doubled 7. n. 15.2; 21.2; 120. 6. 

p, pp, breathing, 6. 3. — pp and per 16, 
n. 3. 

pd elided 30. 2. 4. 

paStoy 68. 8.— no copula 129. n. 18. 

-paivco, verbs in, 101. 4; comp. n. 2. 

pdcro-aTe 103. m. 24. 

pea, peia, 68. 8. 

pen/ c. ace. 131. 3, ex. 

pepL>7rcopeVa 83. n. 4. 

p^rct kouk apprjTa 151. VI. 2. 

piyelv c. ace. 131. n. 3. 

pLTTTaaKov 103. m. 11. 

poOr 36. n. 1 ; 50. n. 7. 



GREEK INDEX. 



5V6 



2. 

a prefixed, prosthesis, 19. n. 4. — a for 
strength in Pres. a<a> 112. n. 8. — 
in compound words 120. 3, and n. 
6. — in the derivat. of subst. 119. 
m. 19, 20. — doubled 27. n. 17; in 
Fut. and Aor. 1 Act. 95. n. 5. — 
dropped in endings of Pass. a6ai 
etc. 19. 2; 98. 2 so.. 101. 7; 110. 
n. 3 ; also in verbal adj. as Savjxa- 
tos 102. n. 1. — See also -aai, -cro. 

a euphonic, in Perf. Aor. 1 Pass, and 
verbal adj. 98. 2, and n. 6 ; 100. 3, 
and n. 2 ; 112. 20. — See also Pros- 
thesis, Epenthesis. 

r final, appended 26. 4. — with change 
of signif. 117. 1. — as ending of 
Norn, in 3 Decl. 40. 1 ; 41. 1, 5, 6. 
— of the Imperat. instead of Si, 
106. n. 1; 110. n. 2. — written in 
the middle of words 2. n. 1. 

-aai, -ao, 2 pers. Pass. 103. m. 16, 17 ; 
105. n. 7 ; 106. n. 2. — in verbs in 
fit, p. 184. marg. § 107. m. 37. 

<rci\TTi(ei, sc. 6 o-aA7r. 129. 16. — aaX- 
tti^ovtos genit. absol. 145. n. 9. 

2a{xm numeral sign 2. n. 3. App. B. 

-<rav 3 plur. Alex, instead of -v, 103. 
m. 25. 

ados, see aa>s. 

crdforf, 16. n. l.g. 

•ere adverbial ending 116. 1. 

veavTov and aov instead of pron. poss. 

127. 7. 1. 
aeico, verbs in, 119. m. 11. 

a-eXrjVTi without art. 124. n. 7. 

arjpa ndevai c. ace. 131. n. 7. 

arjpaivei, sc. 6 aaKw. 129. 16. — arj- 
jj.av6evTtay genit. absol. 145. n. 
10. 1. 

<jT)ii€Lov de, 151. IV. 10. 

ai)p.€pov, rrjpepov, 117. 2. 

-a6a, antique ending, 103. m. 36. 

~o~i, -aiv, on names of cities 26. 3; 

116. 3. — as 3 pers. Sing. 103. m. 

37; 106. n. 7, 9; 107. m. 45. 
-aia, see -ais. 
alya as predic. 129. 13. 
aiyp-ara 57. 3. marg. 
-arts, -aia, abstr. subst. 119. m. 22,35. 
-ctkov, -(TKufxrjv, see Iterative. 
o-Konelv with idv, 139. m. 66. 
(tkotcuos as adv. 123. 6. 
-Oreo), verbs in, 112. 14. 
-crfxos, -/nor, subst. 119. m. 19. 
-cro, see -aai. 
aov and veavTov for pron. poss. 127. 



7. 1. — aov, /xov, instead of croi, fioi, 

133. n. 10. 
aocpos ao<piav 131. n. 6. 
a7ravi£eiv c. gen. 132. 10. a. 
o-ndvios as adv. 123. 6. 
oTreto 103. m. 19; 114 ena. 
o-7T€or, o-7T€u, anecrai, o-rr^aai, 53. n 

2,5. 
crnevbeiv rt, 131, 3, ex. 
anrjeaai, see o"7reor. 
ao-, tt, 16. n. 3 ; 128. 8, and n. 2. 
-o-o-a, subst. fera. 119. m. 48. 
-cro-co, -ttcd, verbs in, characteristic, 

92. n. 2-6. — their flexion 95. 3; 

104. n. 2. 
crrayer 56. n. 8. 
aTadfxos, o-Ta6p.d, 56. 6. 
aTeap, o~ti]t6s, 41. n. 7. 
(TTeXXtaOai 136. n. 2. 
o-repyeiv c. ace. 132. 10. f. marg. 
o-repiaKeiv c. gen. 132. 4. 
ctttjtos 1 gen. see arcap. 
OTt^er 56. n. 8. 

ordAoy in dat. without avv, 133. n. lb. 
o-Toxa£ecrdai C. gen. 132. 10. f. 
arpaTrjyTjcra? erroiei 144. n. 3. 
arpaTid in dat. without avv, 133. n. 13. 
avyyiyvataKtiv, constr. 144. n. 9. 
av\av c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. 
avpfiaivti with wore foil. 140.. 4.— 

with ace. c. Inf. 142. n. 2. — avp- 

/3aiVco personal 151. I. 7. b. 
avp,(pep€iv with &are foil. 140. 4. — 

avficpepov c. gen. 132. n. 26. 
avv, usage 133. n. 13, 14; 147. p. 

413.— omitted 133. n. 14.— as adv. 

147. n. 5. — in anastrophe, etc. ib. 

n. 10. — changes of the v, 25; 86. 

1. — compounds with, 133. 2. b; ib. 

3; 147. n. 8. — avv nanus noielv 

147. n. 8. 
avvaiptaOai tivi noXtfiov 135. 6, ex 
avve\6vTi 140. n. 4. 
-avvrj subst. 119. m. 38. 
avvrjdrjs, genit. Plur. 49. n. 4. 
avvuvai constr. 132. 10. h. 
avvoida constr. 144. n. 9. 
~2vpaKovaai, 'Evpanoaios, 27. 11, 17. 
avaKordCei 129. 17. 
avax^adac Pass. 113. n. 9. 
avxyos as adv. 123. 6. 
O-0-, enclitic forms, 14. 2. 2; 72. n. 

2. 3. 
acpdXkeadai c. gen. 132. 4. 
acpeh, a(pd?, usage, 127. 3, and n. 4; 

141. n. 4; 142. n. 3, ex. 
acperepos 127. n. 3, 5. — periphrase 

127. 7. 2.— their own 127. n. 13. 



K 



514 



GREEK INDEX. 



refers to pers. 
Synt. 150. 
rdv, anom. Voe. 



(rxoXalos, comparat. 65. n. 3. 
aa>Ceiv e. gen. 132. 4; c. e/c, ib. n. 2. 
o-co/xa impl. 135. 2, ex. 
aco?, o~do?, 64. 3, and n. 2. 
crwrep Voc. 45. n. 2, 5. 



r, falls away, 41. 3, 4. — character- 
istic 92. 10, and n. 1; 96. 6. 
ra, see to. — to. pev . . . ra Se, 128. n. 5. 

— to. T€ aX'ka . . . Kai, 150. m. 14. 
raye therefore 126. n. 6: comp. 128. 

n. 5. 
rdde ady. 128. n. 5.- 

129. n. 10. 
raAXa, crasis 29. n. 3 

m. 14. 
tciv crasis 29. n. 

p. 76. 
t apa, Tapa, r apa, 29. n. 8. — Synt. 

149. m. 27. 
rapcpee?, Tapcpetai, 64. n. 3. 6. 
TavTo tovto, the very same way, 131. 

n. 14. 
ra^vs, comparat. 18. 2; 67. 3. 
racos, raco, Taav, 37. n. 1 ) 56. n. 6. d. 
re Synt. 149. ra. 8. — place of, 125. 9; 

147. n. 2. — re . . . ovt€, etc. 149. m. 

14. 
redpnnrov 17. n. 2. 
reiV, rii/, 72. n. 6. 6. 
-Teipa, subst. fern. 119. m. 44. 
T€KprjpLov de 151. IV. 10. 
tzkvov, Tetco?, 32.,n. 1. — (pi'Ae tIkvov, ib. 
re/a/ow in Pres. 137. n. 8. 

T6K0?, See T€KUOV. 

TeXevToiov, to, 125. n. 8. 

T€\eVTaU VTTO TWO?, p. 419. TeXtVTCOV 

150.' m. 32. 
re'o, rei), row, for two?, 77. n. 3. 
reoy, a, 6v, 72. 11. 7. 
-Tepo?, adj. ending, 69. n. 4. 
repnew, TepneaOai, see Emotion, verbs 

of. 
TtTpocpa 97. n. 1. — TtTpacpa, ib. marg. 
■n) peV . . .777 8e, 149. m. 14. 
rrjXiKocrbe, tt)\ik.ovto? 7 14. n. 3 ; 79. 5. 

— for the fern. 79. n. 4. 
rrjpfpov, see arjpepov. 

TTJpO?, TrjpOVTO?, 116 4 ult. 

7-771/0? 74. n. 1; Dor. rrjvei 116. n. 10. c. 
-ttjp, -tt)?, -Tcop, subst. 119. in. 29; 

comp. m. 44. 
-TijpLov, -Tpov, subst. 119. ra. 33. 
tt}? masc. see -T-qp. ttjs subst. fem. 

119. ra. 37. 
■tl instead of -ai, 3 pers. Sing. 107. 

ra. 38 ; see -3i. 



tl enclit. Synt. 150. ra. 6. — inserted 
in composition 116. 9. — vivo ri in 
Tmesis, somewhat, 147. n. 7. — r« 
c. gen. 132. n. 5. 

tl, 150. m. 6.—ti p.r\v, 149. m. 29.— 
tl yap, tl t)e, TL ovv dr], TL prj ; 150. 
m. 6. — ri ov with Aor. 137. n. 6. — 
tl xpapai avTW 131. 8. — ti 7radd>v, 
■ri pa6d>v, 150. m. 41. — tl o - ' ov pe\- 
Xei 150. m. 35 

tit;; 77. n. 2. 

Tibivai c. gen. 132. n. 13. — Setixu v. 
§io~8ai vopov? 135. 6. — diadeadai, ib. 

t'lktciv, to be a father, etc. 137. n. 8. 

tlv, see reti\ 

nVre 116. n. 10. g. 

ris enclit. Synt. 124. 2; 127. 4 sq. 
129. 19 sq.— after adj. 127. n. 7.— 
with Imperat. 129. n. 13. — with 
Part. 144. n. 1. — Ion. put between 
art. and subst. 125. n. 1. — omitted 
129. 11. 17.— in attr. 143. 17. 

tl?, tl, accent 14. 2.— quantity 41 
n. 3.— Synt. 127. 5; 139. m. 63 sq 
—to tl; 124. n. 3.— tl c. gen. 132 
n. 5. 

TiTvo-KeaOai c. gen. 132. 10. f. 

tUlv, Ticrao~6ai Ttvd tl, 135. n. 2. 

to, ra, Synt. 125. 5, and n. 6 ; 128. 1, 
2 sq. see also Article. — as adv. 1 25. 
n. 8; 128. n. 5. — with a genit. or 
adverbial expression, 125. 5, and 
n. 6. — to, Tto, therefore, 126. 11. 6. 
— to prj, to prj ov, tov prj, 140. n. 
9, 10: 148. 2. g, h; ib. n. 9.— to 
de' 150. m. 5. — to with Inf. instead 
of tov, after e'lpyeiv, etc. 140. n. 9, 
10. — to ndv, to. TroXkd, adv. 128. n. 
5. — tcl Kai Ta, 126. n. 5. — to 7rpa>- 
tov, to. vvv, adv. 125. n. 8. 

rot, in crasis 29. n. 8. — to'l, toww, 
etc. 149. m. 27. — place of, 125, 9. 

to"lo for tov 75. n. 1 j 77. n. 3. 

TOLoade, Toaoade, 14. n. 2, 3 ) 79. 4, 
5; 127. 1. b. 

tolovtos, Toaoi/To?, flexion 79. 4, 5. — 
with genit. foil. 132. n. 6.— with 
art. 124. n. 2. — tolovto?, olos, c. 
Inf. 139. m. 57. — toiovto? and toi- 
ouSe 127. 1. b. — TOLavT^ cirTa 127. 
n. 7. 

roicrfiecrcrt 76. n. 2. 

To^eveiv c. gen. 132. 10. f. 

too-o?, oao?, usage 79. 4 sq. 

Toaoade, see roidcroV. 

rocrouror, see tolovto? and ocroy. — 
ToaovTo?, oao?, c. Inf. 139. m. 57. 

rore . . . ore, 116. n. 9 



GREEK INDEX. 



515 



Tovvavr'iov, on the contrary ; 131. n. 14. 
tovto c. gen. 132. n. 6. — tovto, ravra, 

therefore, 128. n. 5; comp. 126. n. 

6. — tovt* eKelvo 127. 1. C. — tovto 

jxiv . . . tovto de, 128. n. 5. 
-Tpa, -rpov, subst. 119. m. 33. 
TpaTTTjTeou 134. li. 5. 
rpavpa, rpcovpa, 36. 11. 11. 
rpexeiv 114; see dpapelv. 
Tpirjprjs, genit. Plur. 49. 3, and n. 4. 
rpi-, Tpicr-, 70. n. 3, and rnarg. 
-TpL?, -rpia, subst. 119. m. 44. 
rpiTaio? as adv. 123. 6. 
rpi^o? genit. of #pi|, 18. 2. 
-rpoi> subst. 119. m. 33. 
Tpcos, genit. Plur. Tpoocav, 43. n. 4. d. 
Tpcovpa, see Tpavpa. 
tt, -rrco, see crcr, -o"o"co, etc. 
ru'y^di'oj, ivTvyxavu), c. gen. dat. ace. 

132. d, and n. 7; ib. 10. h.— with 

Part. 144. n. 6. 
tvvvos, tvvvovtos, 79. n. 1. 
TV7rreada[Tival35.5. — c. ace. ofthing, 

t\, -nXrjyas, 134. 11. 2. 
Tvcpoos, Tv<pcav, 56. n. 6. d. 
tv^ov absol. 145. n. 10. 2. 
tg>, therefore, 126. n. 6. 
-rcop subst. 119. m. 29. 
toqvto, crasis, 29. n. 6. 



v initial aspirated 6. 4. — v and t long 

in penult of verbs in co, 7. n. 8. — 

v instead of ev in Perf. Pass. 98. 

n. 4. 
v{3pi£eiv constr. 131. 2, and n. 2. 
vj3pio-Tr)?, comparat. 66. n. 1. 
vyirjs 53.. 1. 

veiy 129. 17. — vovtos absol. 145. n. 9. 
-v£a>, verbs in, flexion, 95. 6. 
vi diphth. 5. 1, and n. 2. — vi dat. 

Sing. 50. n. 1. 
vlos impl. 125. 5. 
-upt, verbs in, Subj. and Opt. 107. 

m. 33 ; see -vvpi. 
wo? genit. in, quantity, 41. n. 1. 
-wco, verbs in, 104. 3; 119. m. 9. — 

come from verbs in -va>, 112. 10. — 

their quantity, 112. n. 6. 
viral 117. n. 1. 
una/covco, vnrjicoo?, constr. 132. 10. h, 

marg. 
virap 57. 2. 

iirdpxetv with Part. 144. n. 6. 
xnaTos 69. 2. 
inepvrjpvKe, 114 rjpvio. 
vnep prep, signif. 147. p. 415. — in 

cemposit. 147. n. 6. 



vTrepjSdXKnv c. gen. 132. 12. — c. ace 

ib. n. 25. 
virepopav constr. 132. 10. c, and n. 15 
vTrepTrovTio? as adv. 123. 6. 
vneprepos; vrrepTaTo?, viraros, 69. 2 
vtttjkoos, constr. 132. 10. h, rnarg.— 

to v7rr)Koov, the subjects, 128. 3. 
virio-xv^o-6ai c. Inf. Fut. 140. 1. c. 
vtro elided, u/3/3dA\eii/, 117. n. 2. — sig 

nif. 147. p. 419. — as adv. 147. n. 5 

— in composit. ib. n. 6. — with Pass. 

134. 2: 147. p. 419.— vttoti 147. n. 

7 ult. — vno for vrreaTi 117. 3, 2. 
Imoftciv Tivd ti 131. 5. — vTrodeladai ti 

Mid. 135. 4. 

V7T0\l£0V€S 68. 5. 

v7ropip.vrjcrK.eiv Tivd ti 131. n. 8. 

t>7rdcr7j-oi'§or as adv. 123. 6. 

vTTOo'Trjvai ti 131. 3, ex. 

imoTideo-dai c. dat. 133. 2. c. 

-vpd? (v) adj. 7. n. 7. 

-ur, Nom. in, long 42. n. 2. — Adj. 62, 

1, and n. 1 ; 63. 2. 
vcrplvi 56. 11. 8. 
vo-Tepelv c. gen. 132. 12. 

ucrrepoy, uo-raroy, vcrrdrtor, 69. 2, and 

n. 3. 
v^ois Infill. 105. n. 18. 
-wo), verbs in, quantity, 7. n. 10. — 

Fut. varo, 95. n. 3. — some from 

verbs in -co, 112. 7. 

<p, characteristic 92. 8, and n. 1 

<pae6to 112. 12. 

cpaiveadat constr. 144. 6. — personal 

151. I. 7. a. 
cpavepo? elpi 151. I. 7," ib. c. 
(pdo-iceiv 109. I. 2, and marg. 
cpeideadai c. gen. 132. 10. e. 
cpepe instead of Plur. 115. n. 7 : 129. 

n. 13. — before 1 pers. Subjunct. 

139. m. 3. 
(peprepos, cpepraTos, cpepiaro?, 69. n. 2. 
(pepcov 150. m. 33, 42; 144. n. 3. 
cpevyetv and compounds, constr. 131. 

2, and n. 2.- 
tivos p. 419. 

cprjpi 109. I. — ecprjv without av, 139. 

m. 13. 
(pddveiv c. ace. et Part. 131. 2; 144. 

n. 6; 150. m. 37. — phrases with, 

150. m. 37. 
<pSovelv const 
-<pi, -cpiv, 26. 3 ; 56. n. 
cpikelv, see in epav. 
$ihr)? 56. n. 1. 
(pt'Aor, comparat. 65. n. 4 ; 67 n. 6 



516 



GREEK INDEX. 



cpotvig, (j)olvi£, 41. n. 2. 

cppeap, cppTjTo?, 41. n. 7. 

(pptWco, characteristic 92. n. 8. 

typoLpiov 17. n. 2, marg. 

(ppovTi^w constr. 132. 10. e, and n. 

15. — with ott&s 139. m. 45. 
(ppovricTTT)? c. acc. 130. n. 3. 
cppoCSor 17. 2; 64. 4.—Sij?it. 129. n. 

18: 150. m. 30. 
(jyvXciacreaBal riva 135. 5. — with O7rcoy 

139. m. 45. — with pi) before Infin. 

148. n. 9. 
(pvgtp.0? c. acc. 130. n. 3. 
0wr, ^)wr, genit. Plur. epeorcov, cpcob&v, 

43. n. 4. d. 

X. 

X before p, 23. 2. — as characteristic 

92. 8. and n. 2. 
xaipeiv with Part. 131. n. 3; 144. n. 65 

ib. 6. b. See also Emotion, verbs of. 
^aXeTTo'y without copula 129. n. 18. 

— Xa\. dpi personal 151. I. 7. d. 
^uAf7ra>i (pipeiv c. dat. 133. 4. c. — 

with el, 139. m. 60. 
^a/xot and x&i/jaAor, 19. n. 3. 
Xapt£eo-dai c. gen. 132. 5. c. 
x dpiv, Synt. 131. 10: 146. n. 2. 
X*/p implied 123. n. 5. — t«» x eL P e 1 ^3. 

4. — x ei P°? ayeip Tivd 132. 11. 10. — 

6"e£i«r x el P°' y etc - J 32. 14. b. 
^eXtSoT 56. n. 7. 1. 
vfpeuoi/, X«P»?i'; X^P 7 ?"' X^PV es * T ° X e P aa > 

68. 2. 



Xrjpova$ai c. gen. 132. 10. a. 

xOapaXos 19. n. 3. 

X&Tos as adv. 123. 6. 

Xopeveiv c. acc. 131. 3 ult. 

Xpewv indecl. 57. n. 1 ; 114 XP^, an d 

marg. — without copula 129. n. 18. 

—Part, absol. 145. n. 10. 2. 
Xpf], 114 XP" 00 - — constr. 131. n. 4; 

132. 10. a.— x pr)v 139. m. 13. 
XPfl&w constr. 132. 10. a, and n. 14. 
Xprjpara impl. 125. 5, and n. 6. 
Xprjardai tivi 133. 4. a, and marg. — 

z\pr](j6r)v Pass. 136. n. 3. 
Xprjo-Trjs 34. III. 1. b. 
Xcopa implied 123. n. 5; 125. 5. 
Xvpelv, x&pifciu, an( i compounds, c. 

gen. 132. 4. 
X^op/r as predic. 129. 13. — c. gen. 

132. 4; 146. 4. 2. 



\\r, £, origin. 22 ; see |. 



-^, adj. ending, 63. 4. 
•ty-aveiv c. gen. 132. 5. e ; ib. 10. h. 
^■evdeaBai c. gen. 132. 4. 
ijkuSqr, comparat. 66. n. 2. 
yjfT)(pi£eo-6ai, with worf, 140. 4. 
yf/T)(povs Seadai, c. acc. 131.il 7. 
i/nXor c. gen. 132. 10. a. 

a. 

co, as if short in Att. decl. and Ion. 

genit. 11. 8, and n. 4. — compared 

with 3 Decl. 56. n. 7. marg. 
co for o and ov, 27. n. 4. — for o, ib. 
• n. 13 ; 121. 8. — epic for o in Part 

Perf. 103. m. 30. — co alternate in 

Perf. 2, 97. n. 2; inserted, ib. — 

alternate in verbs in -dco and -e'eo, 

112. 8. 
co contracted out of orj, 114/3oaco. — 

in compounds 120. n. 2; 121. 8. 
co, diphth. 5. 2, and n. 2. 
-co, acc. of Att. 2 Decl. 37. 2.— neut 

of adj. in -cor, 61. 1. — adv. ending 

for -cor, 115. 6. 
-co, -cor, subst. fern. 49. 1, 3. co 

genit. 56. n. 6. 
-co, Fut. Att. for -atrco, -e'trco, 95. 8. 
co and co interj. 1 17. n. 5. — Synt. 129 a. 

n. 1 ; 132. n. 31. — doubled 129 a. 

n. 1. 
coSe, local adv. 149. m. 1 ult. — Me 

and ourcor 127. l.b; 149. m. 1 ult. 
-a>r)v instead of -oinv 107. m. 3 ; 11C. 

V 1. 4. 
coXXot, copioror, crasis, 29. n. 6. 
-coi/ subst. decl. 55: 56. n. 6. cot 

and -cofta subst. ampliat. 119. m. 

43. 
coi/, 6V, Part, omitted 144. n. 6, 7; 

145. n. 10. 2. 
coi/ Ion. for ovi/, causes Tmesis, 147. 

cora, crasis 45. n. 5. 

cora|, covep, wvdp&ire, crasis, 29. n, 10 ; 

comp. 45. n. 5. 
wveopai c. gen. 132. 10. c. 
-coi/ia, see -d>v. 

hvTivcav, accent 14. n. 2; 77. 3. 
-coo, for -oio 2 Decl. 37. n. 3. 

CO TTOTTOl 117. 11 . 5 . 

-cop subst. 56. n. 6. 

copa without copula 129. n. 18. 

-wr Part. Perf. neut. 110. 10 ult 

comp. 107. m. 23. marg. 
-cor, -cor, adv. 11. 3; 115. 3; 116 

n. 7. 
-cor subst. 49. 1, 3; 56. n. 6. — Adj 

61 ; 63. 4. 



GREEK INDEX. 



517 



wr, wf, particle, 13. 3, 4 ; 116. 4, 5; 
149. m. 1. — Synt. as relat. 139. m. 
31 sq. — as particle of time 137. n. 
1; 139. m. 37 sq. — in repetitions 
with the Opt. ib. m. 39. — final, 
that, ib. m. 45 sq. cos av ib. m. 47, 
comp. m. 37. — with Inf. for coo-re 
139. m. 53; 140. 4.— for on ovtcos 
139. m. 35' a.— that, like oti, 139. 
m. 58; the two interchanged, ib. 
m. 61. — in parenthetic clause?, as 

COS CTTOS e'ineiV, COS (flOLj 140. ii. 4 : 

133. n. 7. — cor v. 7T<uy e^a, c. gen. 
132. n. 28. — before a prep, denot- 
ing whither, 149. ra. 1. — as if. 
about, with els, etc. p. 414; 149. 
in. 1. — in clauses of wishing 139. 
m. 7. — with a superlat. 123. n. 9; 
149. ra. 1. — according as, Lat. ut, 
1 49. m. 1 . — instead of a relat. pron. 
ib. — instead of 77 after comparat. or 
after ovk «XXo, ib. m. 7. — put after 
a word, inrepepveos cos, 151. I. 5. — • 
redundant before the Inf. etc. 141. 
n. 2; see also in oti. — cos and 
&a-7Tfp with Part. 144. n. 14. — with 



case absol. 145. n. 7. — as evi 150. 

ra. 23. — See generally $ 150. m. 1 : 

also under on, ottcos, coo-re. 
cos prep. 146. n. 1 ; p. 413. marg. 
cocrai'rcoy c. dat. 133. 2. f. — with mi, 

Lat. ac, 149. m. 8 ult. 
cotnrep, see nep and cos. — cbenrep av el. 

cownep el, 149. m. 1 ; id. ellipt. 151. 

IV. 3. 
ware, constr. 139. m. 52 sq. 140. 4; 

142. 4.— before a Part. 149. m. 2. 

— omitted 140. n. 3. — rj coare aftcr 

comparat. and posit. 139. m. 56. — 

after verbs of fear, etc. ib. m. 50. 
-eoo-co, Fut. shortened and contr. 95. 

11. 13. 
cou diphth. 5. 1, and n. 2; 27. n. 11 ; 

29. n. 6; 74. n. 4. 
covtos, tcovto, crasis, 29. 11. 6 ; 27. n. 11. 
ui<pe'Ke'lv c. ace. et dat. 131. 2. and n. 

2. — c. dupl. ace. ib. n. 12. 
cocpe\ov 115. n. 7.— Synt. 150. ra. 20; 

139. m. 8, 13. 
-coco, formation in, 105. n. 10. — Sub. 

junct. 107. m. 42, 44. 



TEE END- 



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